unit4 - importance of public policy study - modern context

7/29/2019 Unit4 - Importance of Public Policy Study - Modern Context

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UNIT 4 IMPORT,ANCE OF PUBLICPOLICY STUDY :MODERNCONTEXTStructure

ObjectivesIntroductionState's Role in Public Policy ProcessThe Public Policy Experknce in IndiaNeed for Systematic Puljlic PolicyLet Us Sum UpKey WordsReferences and Further ReadingsAnswers to Check Your Progress Exercises

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4.0 OBJECTIVESAfter reading this Unit, you should he able to:

highlight the nature of State's role in public policy process.8 throw light on the public policy experience in India; and8 discuss the importance of public policy study and its present status.4.1 INTRODUCTIONThe study of public policy is very important for the relation between the publicpolicy and its cdntext is very intimate and organic.This mutual influence accounts for varied experiences in the realm-of public policyin different countries. This is also the reason, why all the countries do not have thesame public policies. Assuming that they have the same policies, the priorities wouldnot be the same. Thus, the nature of policy varies from country to country dependingupon the requirement of its economy, social and cultural values, availability ofresources, constitutional ideals, international pressure as well as, pressures frompolitical parties, interest groups, trade unions, cultural and religious associations,etc., for example in India, our emphasis has been on the question of growth andmodernisation, removal of poverty, development of agriculture, social justice, etc.Our public policies have been formulated keeping in view, all these issues. Thewestern or developed countries have been concentrating on environmental hazards,innovations in science and technology, etc.Thus the priorities in each country affect the nature of its public policies. Thechanging nature of public policies calls foi extensive study of these policies. Thequestions relating to how these policies are formulated? Are these made keepingthe priorities in view? Are these able to make optimal utilisation of availableresources? All these questions have to be properly examined. As the nature ofpublic policy largely depends on the role of the State, this Unit will try to highlighthow the public policies are generated and handled by the State. The Unit will discussthe State's role in public poli~ y rocess and throw light on the urgent need for asystematic public policy study. In order to stress upon the importance of publicpolicy study, a discussion on public policy experience in India regarding its policiesto bring about structural, economic and technological changes will also be made.


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4.2 STATE'S ROLE IN PUBLIC POLICY PROCESST o unde rstand the nature of public policy study, it is essential to understan d thechan ging role of the Sta te in public policy process. A s it is the na ture of State's rolethat affects the nature 6f public policy and its s ~ u d y ,he discipline of political sciencehas always been concerned with the study of State and power. The study of thesetwo doma ins, though extremely importan t began t o face challenges from people an dthe society at large in post World Wa r 11 period. D ou bts began to be raised abo utthe utility a nd c apability of th e discipline of political science. Th e Sta te and pow erstructures cam e to be attacked . Q uestions on the use of a discipline if it cannot helpthe State in overcoming o r facing the challenges gained ground. T his led to anoth erquestion as to wh y should vve study a subject whose prac tical utility is marginal. Itis during this period of crisis that the focus shifted to the study of public policy.Scholars like Harold La ss~u ell nd David Easton argue d fo r a shift in focus. The irviews will be discussed in d etail in the next U nit, they main tained that th e disciplineof political science should devote its attention to the study of public policy.Thus the study of public policy became important during the post Second WorldW ar period. T he Second World War, not only created major socio-economic~crisesin the coun tries that participated in the war, but created o ther innum erable problemsin the coun tries that had a ttaine d independence o r were in the process of attainingindependence from the colonia l rule. C o l o n i a l i ~ ~ad left these societies deprivationridden. At the time of independence, Indian economy was caught up in a viciouscircle of poverty, low income: levels, limited size of market, stagnant agriculturearid unde rdevelo ped industry. Th e crisis thrust heavy responsibility on the shou ldersof the State. T he focus was o n State intervention in economic developme nt. Theproblems of crisis-ridden economy had to be solved through conducive publicpolicies. AS we know that the nature of these policies has b een c hanging from co untryto co untry and s o the role of the State in public policy process has also been c hanging.During the colonial rule, the role of the State was confined to m aintenance of lawand o rder an d collection of revenue in the ruled cou ntries , while the ruler countrieswitnessed an increased role of the State. In these coun tries the State was conc ernedwith developmknt policies, besides its routine law and order role. A large part ofindustrialisation to ok place with the help and participation of the S tate over there.Th e State had tc protect the indust ry f rom external compet it ion on the on e hand.and internal market on the other. For instance, when in the early part of thenineteen th c entu ry the British textile industry ran in to crisis, the B ritish Sta te had toprotect the local markets from textiles coming from outside. As a result the entryof the Indian textiles into the British market was prohibited.In th e course of rapid de velop men t, particularly, in the wake of industrial revolution,the role of th e S tate in public policy process underwent a change. T he m arket, a ton e stage, did not welcome the State intervention. The market forces becameccinsiderably free which was indicated by the tide of liberalism and privatisation.T he logical culmination of this process can be see n in th e A merican model ofdevelopment. The western societies came to regard State as rigid and incapable ofreleasing productive forces. Thus, the study of the State was restricted to a greatextent while the role of the market got enlarged. In the capitalist economies theState, thus , does not involve itself much with the tasks of bringing about rapideconom ic grbw th, industrialisation and m odernisa tion, and this is left for the ma rket.It is concerned more with correcting the perversions and distortions created bymarket. Th e capitalist society does not have ad equa te m echanism t o cope withdifferent s ~ c i ~ - e c o n ~ m i croblems and crises that m arket creates. Th e State had tota ke u p this task. It is this historical necessity that ga ve rise to the c once pt of welfareState. The role of the welfare State is basically to take care of those vulnerablesections of the society who are adversely affected by a particular process ofdeve lopm ent. Th us , the: State enters the welfare dom ain. In the process, itformulates and enforces public policies.In capitalist economies, the policies mainly concern with the protection of weakersections of the society, encouragement of innovation in the field of science andtechnology, p revention ,of crime, drug addiction, smuggling, precautionary and


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remedial measures to curb environmental pollution etc . In this process of correctionof distortions, there is one crucial area in market economies where State performsa very important role. This is in the realm of competition where the State formulatesthe policies. Capitalism is a competit ive system. Theoretically it assumes perfectcompetition. But perfect competition is almost an utopian concept. The competitionalways tends to be unequal and unjust. rr. such a situation, there is a need for certainground rules without which competition on rational and reasonable plane may notbe possible. The State, thus, assumes the role of an umpire. As a part of thisobligation the State not only frames certain policies but sees to it that the competingforces do not violate them. This leads to certain restrictions on economic activity andcontrol over industry and market. 'This gives rise to considerable public policyactivity even in the'market centered societies.The situation in the countries that attained freedom from colonial rule is verydifferent. These countries inherited a poverty stricken stagnant economy as a partof their colonial legacy. The planners of these countries had the gigantic tasks ofachieving rapid development in all the major areas of economy in a limited durationwith meager technical, natural, personnel and financial resources. The State, thusassumed the role of the development agent, the presence of the State was>felt nall the spheres of growth whether it was agriculture, industry or science andtechnology. The State had t o step even in social and cultural spheres. For instancein India, one of the important constituents of our economic policy, since the FirstFive Year Plan has been the promotion of the rapid growth of the public sector.And as you have read in Unit 3 of this Block, this gmwth has also been advocatedas a means of securing fulfilment of some of the specific objectives of planning inIndia. Though our new economic policy lays stress on privatisation and liberalisationof transactions related to policy process, until now, we have witnessed the growingpresence of the public sector in all the major economic areas.The growth of the public sector in India since 1950-51, leaves one with the generalimpression that, judged on the basis of several criteria, the re has been a considerableenlargement of the size of the public sector. However, the growth has been morerapid in terms of government revenpe, government expenditure and employment inpublic sector, than in terms of share in the generation of national product o r of theshare of the factor income accruing to the government. The present emphasis onprivate sector is due to the fact that the actual costs of the projects in the p.ublicsector Have by far exceeded the original estimates, the projects have taken a longertime thln required to complete, and have often made use of inappropriatetechnology. Public sector undertakings have failed to make profits and have notbeen able to make optimal utilisation of scarce capital resources. Still the move toprivatise does in no way indicate a demise of public sector and the role of the Statein policy process. It is just that the areas that earlier used t o be solely reserved forpublic sector would cease to be only its monopoly. Private sector will be able toinvest in all the areas of economy. Public sector will no longer be the dominant meansof bringing about economic growth, rapid industr idisation, modernisation and socialjustice in the country.

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Importance of Public PolicyStudy :Modem Content

After the collapse of communism, the role of Sta te in the major areas of publicpolicy making is slowly declining. The erstwhile USSR is now witnessing a new waveof privatisation in its Independent Common Wealth of States. The cry ofprivatisation can be heard in all the East European countries. Gradually, in manyparts of the world there is a movement toward privatisation and market economy.Students of public policy have to closely watch the emerging trends and see whetherthe market can undertake the activities that were performed by the States earlier.It has to be seen whether the market can perform the State functions with a senseof social responsibility and tackle problems of growth, poverty, discrimination andlop sided development process. It still remains a serious question. Even though weare witnessing the phenomenon of the State divesting itself of regulatory authority,we must not forget that the State has a major role of correcting the distortionscreated by the forces of competition and privatisation. In no way can the role ofthe State be undermined. All these trends have to be kept in view while studyingpublic policy. Policies have to be formulated keeping in mind the time and resourcesavailable, the short-term and long-term impact, the safety measures andconstitutional provisions, etc.


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Introduction to Public Policy 4.3 THE PUBLIC POLICY EX PERIENCE IN INDIAThe nature of State's policy process and its importance, will become inore clear, ifwe take up the Indian experience in the field of policy formulation andimplementation. This case study is appropriate because we have accumulated veryrich experience in making and carrying out several public policies. SinceIndependence, our Five Year Plans have been emphasising on planned economicdevelopment. Planning is the base of all public policies. Theoretically, in a planneddevelopment, all the policies should enumerate from planning itself. A discussionon some of the crucial aspects of the public policy in a planned context wouldhighlight public policy experience in India.The public policy experience of India can broadly be classified as follows:i) Structural interventionii) Technology intervention, andiii) Anti-poverty intervention.We will now discuss them briefly.Structural InterventionAt the time of Independence people were promised a fair and just society. Thissentiment got a place in the Directive Principles of the State Policy enumerated inour Constitution. As these goals cannot be realised through the existingsocio-economic structure, the need to change the structure itself gained ground. Thechanges in the structure, it is argued, can be achieved through public policyintervention. The policies that are related to changes in land, property and otherforms of wealth can be categorised as structural policies. One of the importantstructural interventions during the post-independence period has been the policy ofland reforms. The policy essentially took shape during the freedom movement, butwas given effect to after Independence, as part of planned socio-economicdevelopment. Land reforms included measures, such as abolition of intermediarytenures, tenancy rights, fixation of ceiling on land holdings, distribution of surplusland, consolidation of land holdings, development of institutional credit andmarketing, improvement of agricultural taxation, supply of modern inputs etc.These measures were enacted through various legislations in order t ohel p the smalland marginal farmers, tenant cultivators and landless libourers.If we examine the experience of land reforms policy, we can note that implementingthe policies which touch the structure is fraught with innumerable problems. Anypolicy that aims at bringing out changes in the structure such as the land reformspolicy needs a comprehensive legislation, systematic implementation and monitoring,bureaucratic commitment and people's participation. The extensive research on landreform does indicate that there was absence of many of these conditions. Therewere very few attempts for mass mobilisation in support of land reforms policy. Inthe absence of political will, the legislation also suffered from several loopholes.The judiciary did not take up the cases on an urgent basis. There are several casesthat have been pending for decades in the courts. The bureaucracy did not evinceinterest in the implementation of land reforms. In fact, they almost became ahindering block in its execution and monitoring. ~u rea ucr ac~ 'wasnly interested inits own personal benefits and perpetuation of status quo. Over and above, thepeople who were to benefit from these measures did not participate in carrying outthe legislation regarding the reforms. Such an experience highlights the importanceof the public policy study. It clearly indicates that mere formulation of public policye.g., land ref om policy cannot solve anything. Problems arise at the implementationand evaluation level and these aspects have also to be looked into and seriouslystudied.Technological InterventionThe second dimension of public policy intervention can be seen in the form oftechnological intervention. The example of technological intervention in developing -countries like India has been in the form of Green Revolution or modernisation ofindustry. The need of technological intervention comes up when structuralintervention policies fail to produce desirable results Green Revolution policy


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Importance of Public PolicyStudy :Modem Contexthelped the agricultural sector to raise the overall production. It led to an increasein cereal production with the help of adequate water supplies, high fertilizerapplicatioas, efficient weed and pest controls etc.Despite the phenomenal increase in agricultural yield, the overall results of GreenRevolution were also not really positive, it led to greater regional disparities andwidening of incomes across the classes. As a consequence there have beenconsiderable revival of tensions. Though the Green Revolution linked the agrarianeconomy to the global economic system as a large part of the technology came fromthe west, its negative impact cannot be overlooked. It increased the gap betweenrich and the poor. Thus it is essential that the State formulates the policies whichlead to greater balanced development. The serious imbalances which sometimeslead to tensions and turmoil have to be corrected. It has to be examined as to whatmeasures are reqired t o make these types of policies successful. These trends alsoindicate the crucial place of public policy study in the governance and transformation

Anti-Poverty InterventionThough all our Five Year Plans ever since independence, have stressed on the needfor removal of poverty and inequalities, it was the Fourth Five Year Plan whichexplicitly focused on poverty removal. From this period, the era of anti-povertyprogrammes began and a whole lot of such programmes were launched one afterthe other. The failure of structural and technological interventions led thegovernment to think in terms of commencing the programmes which would directlyattack the poverty problem. Various programmes like National Rural EmploymentProgramme, Integrated Rural Development Programme, Development of Womenand Children in Rural Areas, Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programmeare in existence. All these programmes aim at generation of additional income andassets, provision of employment, loan and subsidy to assist the-families living belowthe poverty lihe.In the absence of a n adequate and integrated approach the anti-poverty programmeshave not been able to make a significant dent on the question of poverty. Thecoverage of beneficiaries has not been adequate. Beneficiaries have also sufferedproblems regarding getting the loans. Usually, no preliminary survey is conductedt o determine the infrastructural facilities available in the district needed for theprogrammes. Beneficiaries are not aware of the ongoing programmes. The followup process to monitor the implementation of programmes is very weak.Corruption is prevalent at various levels of programme implementation, cost andtime over-runs mar the success of the programmes. Policy making, implementationand evaluation are the major tasks which affect the working of a system. Asystematic analysis of policy process, is very essential to remove the loopholes inimplementation of the programmes, whether, they relate to structural changes,technological or social changes. The Indian experience in terms of its policiesregarding structural changes, technological advancement, social and economicreforms has been far from satisfactory.Our public policy experience indicates that a lot needs to be done to overhaul theentire policy cycle. Each stage in policy process has to be clearly looked into, eachlacuna has to be identified and removed, efforrs have to be made to reactivatemonitoring agencies, increase people's participation, curb corrupt practices,strengthen the political will and augment the required resources.It has to be remembered that policy that disturb,^ the existing order can not onlysolve a problem but create many other kinds of problems. For instance, thereservation policy. Unlike many other policies, it is a policy which has its roots inthe Indian Constitution itself. The framers of the Constitution thought thatreservations could provide some avenues for the members of the disadvantagedsections to enter the public service and positions of political power while the politicalreservations and reservations i.? :k2 ~iv i l ervice for the scheduled castes andscheduled tribes, by and large, have been accepted, the reservations for the otherbackward castes (OBCs) have become controversial. The Mandal Commissionrecommendations triggered off a great controveisy giving rise t o social turmoil. 45


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to h b l c Policy There were serious debates on the issue and the matter was repeatedly taken to thejudiciary.Thus, certain public policies can cause social tensions. The flaws can be at theformulation level, implementation level, evaluation level or even at the monitoringlevel. As we read in the Unit 2 of this Block, one has to be very careful regardingwhat aspects/issues should reach the policy agenda. The political, social andeconomic changes at the time of carrying out the policies have also to be carefullystudied. This, calls for a systematic public policy study. It is very important that allthe problems discussed in this section are taken up for extensive research work. Thenext section would throw some light on the present status of public policy study andthe various ways through which it can be developed.Checw Your Progress 1Note : ) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.1) The role of the state in public policy process varies from country to country.Discuss.

2) Throw light on the structural and technological intervention policies of thegovernment of India. Why were these not successful?

NEED FOR SYSTEMATIC'PUBLICPOLICY STUDYThe foregoing discussion clearly indicates that the nature of public policy process isso complex that a systematic study of public policy is urgently needed. The increasein the State's role in development activities calls for an increased emphasis on thepublic policy study. Most of the developed, as well as the developing countries, havebeen undertaking research on policy formulation, implementation, monitoring andevaluation from time to time. The stress has been to assimilate public policy makingwith the changing environment, growth in science and technology and newdevelopment trends.Public policy study assumed importance because to assimilate new knowledge intopolicy making machinery quickly and carefully, the political, economic, social andcultural situation must be analysed, the changes in it that are both feasible a'ndneeded must be pointed out and steps must be taken to ensure, that when changesbecome possible or needed, they will be made. As public policy making decidesmajor guidelines or actions directed at future, mainly by governmental organs andformally aims at achieving what is in the public interest'by-best possible means, thestudy of public policy requires systematic analysls ot governmental activities.Though a lot of work has been and is being done in the area of public policy study,the present status of research suffers from various problems. Though the problemsyary from country to country, certain common loopholes can be pointed out in thepresent status of public policy study. The writings on policy study, have lacked any


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systematic empirical analysis. That is the reason that they have not been able to Importance of Publie Policyprovide a reliable Basis for descriptive generalisations. On e of the main tasks faced study :Modem Contextby behavioural sciences is to engage in an empirical study of policy making, and tointegrate the findings of such a study with insights and abstract thought to form acomprehensive, systematic and reliable theory of public policy making.A lot of work these days is being done on minor decisions and secondary policies,but most of it suffers from lack of comprehensive theoretical framework. Very littlework is being done on the macro system of public policy, and suitable researchmethods for this kind of study are also not available.The present state of public policy making study suffers from various drawbackswhich can be summed up as follows:1) Considerable empirical re'search and theorising is being done on the basiccomponents of public policy making, namely individual and small group decision-making. Some work is being done on organisational decision-making but as yetfew generalised findings have emerged. Most of the empirical work is in theform of case studies. Thus the present state of public policy study seriously lacksin established generalised conclusions.2) An increasing number of studies deal with community decisions, and with singlecase of public policy making at the national level. Most of these studies are ,monographic, and use theoretical frameworks that do not bring out the"decisi~n"aspects of policy making. Almost no work is being done on analysingand reanalysing historical material in terms of decision-making concepts, becauseboth the theories of decision-making and policy making and the study of history fmight benefit greatly from the attempt to apply decision-making orientedanalytical frameworks to the study of history.3) Some studies of specific facets of public policy making a re available includingstudies of the characteristics of some policy makers and of behaviour patternsin policy making units. With a few exceptions, most of the studies on publicpolicy making do not have a theoretical framework, and are not significantlyrelated to the current work in decision-making theory. Tentative conceptualframeworks for systematic empirical study of public policy have been developed,but again with a few exceptions, these conceptual frameworks have not beensystematically applied t o the study of actual policy making.4) Most of the material related with the study of public policy continues to appearin biographies, memoirs, journalist descriptions, etc. This material unfortunatelyis often neglected by the students of behavioural sciences.5) Almost all empirical studies of public policy making explicitly reject anorientation toward reform, since they aspire to be "Value free". Moreover mostof the available studies deal with modern countries. Only a few of them focuson policy making in the developing countries or include material directlyrelevant to public policy study.6) Few studies have been done on high level public policy making processes.

Decision-making at higher governmental bodies is surrounded by secrecy andno access to it is granted for research purposes. The most important sources ofinformation on these critical policy making activities are books written byinsiders and occasional public hearings.7) Research methods suited to studying complex phenomena including publicpolicy making, are very underdeveloped. The most complex systems are todaybeing developed mostly outside the mainstream of the behavioural sciences bythe new interdisciplines of management science, operations research and systemsanalysis. Even the integrated treatises on public policy making as decision-making process which could be based on what little data are available have yetto make a mark.The above mentioned problems are not just peculiar to one country or a fewcountries, the situation is the-same all over. The sorry state of affairs continues evenin India. Thus, we can say that public policy study has' to go a long way given thecurrent probiems. it has to be seen that more emphasis is laid on drawing


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Introduction to Public Policy generalisations, comparative analysis and theorisations. More and more resear*organisations have to be established in order to speed up the in depth study ofpublic policy process.It is very essential to determine as to how can the potential benefits of newknowledge be put to good use and how can the catastrophes that follow from theirmisuse be prevented. This calls for better policy making which in turn calls for bet terpublic policy study. What is strongly needed is a systematic learning, feed back,meta policy making about basic characteristics of policy making system, explicitdetermination of policy strategies, elaboration of operational goals, exploration ofalternatives and special units for evaluating and redesigning public policy making.All this is possible if a proper full-fledged research in public policy process islaunched and its results are incorporated in the ongoing policy process.Check Your Progress 2Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer

ii) Check your answer with that given at the end of the Unit.1) The present state of public policy study suffers from certain problems. Discussthem briefly.

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4.5 LET US SUM UPThe study of public policy process is still in its nascent stage. A lot needs to be.done regarding the development and advancement of public policy study. Thenature of the State's role which affects the nature of policy process in a countryneeds to be carefully examined. Problems of formulation, iihplementation,monitoring and evaluation of policies have to be clearly identified and efforts haveto be made to find suitable solutions to them. This Unit has tried to explain thechanging nature of the State's role in policy process and its impact on policies. Italso highlighted 'the status of public policy study and emphasised the need tosystematise it.

4.6 . KEY WORDSFactor Income : rlcome occurring to factors of ~r od uc ti onn exchange for their use.A factor of production isanp input or resource that is used for production of goodsand services.Green Revolution : description for the phenomenal ipcrease in cered output whichoccurred in some developing countries during th e -1960s and 70s. This was made


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Importance of Publk Policypossible by Borlaug's plant breeding research in Mexico which produced high study :Modern Contextyielding dwarf wheat varieties and by work at the International Rice ResearchInstitute in the Philippines which did the same for rice varieties. Success with thesenew varieties depended upon an integrated production system, with high fertilizerapplicationb, adequate water supplies and efficient weed and pest controls.(Ref.: the Cambridge Encyclopedia) IMarket Economy : t is an economy where resources are allocated for alternaitveuses by exchange in the market through supply and demand.Utopian Concept : magined perfect concept or state of things.

4.7 REFERENCESDror Yehezkel. 1968. Public Policy Making Re-examined. Chandler Pennsylenia.Dror Yehezkel 1971. Ven tures in Policy Sciences :Concepts and Applications.American Elsevier. New York.

4 3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESSEXERCISESCheck Your Progress 11) Your answer should include the following points :during the colonial rule the role of the State was confined to maintenance

of law and order and collection of revenue.in the wake of industrial revolution, the role of the State was marginalisedand the market took over.in the capitalist economies, the State does not involve itself with the tasksof bringing about rapid economic growth, industrialisation andmodernisatian.in the capitalist economies the State is mainly concerned with correcting thedistortions created by the forces of privatisation.in capitalist economies, policies mainly concern with prevention ofenvironmental hazards, upliftment of weaker sections, drug control, growthof science and technology etc.in the developing countries, the State assumed the task of an all rounddevelopment agent right from the beginning.the deprivation ridden economy of the post colonial countries entrustedheavy responsibility on the State.in the developing countries, State's presence has till date been seen in allthe major spheres of economy.the recent emphasis on privatisation and collapse of communism hasrestricted the role of the State but in no case undermined it.

2) Your answer should include the following pdints:land reform policy aimed at distribution of surplus land, cansolidation ofland holdings, improvement of agricultural taxation etc.this structural intervention policy suffe~ed rom various problems atimplementation level.people who were to benefit from the reforms did not participate in itsexecution.the bureaucracy acted as a stumbling block in its proper implementation.similarly the technological intervention policy in the form of green revolutiondid not provide positive results.it created regional imbalances. It increased the gap between rich and thepoor and divided the people on caste and class lines.it created a lot of rural tensions.an extensive study of the loopholes that marred the successfulimplementation of these programmes is required so that similar mistakesare not repeated again and again. 49


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mroduetbn to Pubk Policy Check Your Progress 21) Your answer should include the following points:lack of generalised findingsemphasis on individual and small group decision-makingno reanalysing of historical material in terms of decision-making conceptslack of theoretical frameworkmost of the material is in the form of case studiesmaterial appears mostly in the form of memoirs, biographies etc.only a few studies regarding public policy focus on developing countriesdecision-making at higher governmental bodies is surrounded by secrecyresearch metho ds need ed to study public policy making ar e underdeveloped.

unit4 - importance of public policy study - modern context

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