Methods of data collection

• An ideal data collection procedure should be clear, unbiased, reliable and valid. • It must produce evidence to answer research question or test

hypothesis. • Measurement of variables of interest is done through data collection

method.

Primary Vs Secondary data collection method Primary Data Collection Method • It involves data collected directly from the subjects by the researcher

or trained data collector. • Data collected are specifically for the purpose of research • e.g. Surveys, Interview, Observations Bio-Physiologic Measurement.

Primary Data Collection Method Advantages • Tailored according to research needs • The researcher can determine exactly what data will be collected and can identify the

specific tools that will be used. • Defined and consistent protocol • Completeness of data is ensured. Disadvantages • Time consuming • Rely on patient recall and communication abilities • Bias may occur due to various factors. • Need to check reliability of raters.

Secondary Data Collection Method• It involves of use of the data that were collected for various purposes other

than current research. • Eg., diaries, nurses notes, care plans, Patient medication record, statistical

abstracts, census reports neither published or unpublished data

Advantages • It is easier and quicker. • Absence of researcher’s biases. • Economical and time saving• Examine the trends over time • Participant’s co-operation may not be necessary & it eliminates the biases

related to participant awareness.

Disadvantages • Accuracy, completeness and reliability depend upon original

individual collecting the data. • It may not be ideally suitable for answering current research question. • Missed data and inaccuracy are common.

Data collection methods Interview - Unstructured

• 1. Self reports - Semi structured - Structured questionnaire

SAQ • 2. Bio-physiologic measurements. • 3. Observational method. • 4. Psychometric measurements. • 5. Other - projective technique, Q - sorts, vignette.

Tools for data collection1. Self report: Questionnaire, attitude scale, semantic differential scale, visual analog scale. 2. Observation : Rating scale, check list, anecdotal record, Process recording video tapes etc., 3. Bio physiological : In-vitro & In-vivo

Self - Reports• It is a method in which information is gathered by questioning people. • By questioning, good deal of information can be gathered. • Self Reports

- Self administered questionnaire (SAQ) (or) paper and pencil test - Interview methods.

Interview• 1. An interview involves verbal communication between the researcher

and the subject during which information is provided to the researcher. Interview is a conversation carried art with the definite purpose of

obtaining certain information by means of spoken word. • 2. It is defined as collecting data which individual presentation of oral -

verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral - verbal response. • 3. Most common method in qualitative and descriptive studies. • 4. Interview refers an oral questionnaire. • 5. Investigator collect data directly from the participants by having face to

face contact, to obtain factual data about opinion, attitude, belief, etc.,

Types of Interview• 1. Unstructured interview (non directive or non standardized) • 2. Semi structured interview (or) focused interview • 3. Completely structured interview

Unstructured Interview• It is characterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning. It will not

follow a system of predetermined questions and standardization techniques of recording information. • Interviewer freely asks the questions according to his own wish when

required or omit the certain questions. • Subjects are encouraged to talk freely and only very few questions asked

to direct the trend of the interview. • Researcher is having greater freedom to record or omit the responses. • It is conversational in nature and conducted in naturalistic setting. • It may be also called as ‘Grand Tour’ technique.

Advantages• 1. Information obtained in such a casual manner enhances reliability

and credibility of date. • 2. Explorative and qualitative studies • 3. Less prone to interviewer biases. • 4. “Probs” questions can be assuring additional information to clarify.

Disadvantages• 1. Interviewer requires great deal of knowledge and skill in order to

analyse the data. • 2. Information cannot be compared. • 3. Analysis will be difficult. • 4. Data interpretation based on researcher’s perception and

subjective feelings. • 5. Time wasting.

Semi - Structural Interview (Focused interview)• 1. In order to ensure the given topics is covered in interview,

researcher uses a list of arrays or topics or questions, it is also to guide the interview (conversation) in right direction. • 2. A set of questions or topics otherwise called as ‘topic guide’ • 3. Participants are assured to talk freely about the topic mention in

topic guide. • 4. Researcher will ask questions to different ways to different

participants. • 5. It includes both closed ended questions and open ended questions.

Advantages • 1. It avoids unnecessary waste of time, in purpose less discussion. • 2. The needed data can be collected as topic guide helps to present omissions

and commissions. • 3. Most widely used methods. Disadvantages • 1. Interviewer should have a skill in ‘probs’ when additional information

required. • 2. Data cannot be compared. • 3. Analysis will be difficult.

Focused Group Interview• In a focused group interview, a group of four or more people is assembled for a

discussion. • The interviewer (moderator) guides the discussion according to a written set of

questions or topics to be covered. Advantages • 1. It is efficient. Researches obtain the view forms of many individual in a short time. • 2. It helps for richer and deeper opinion of expression. Disadvantages • 1. Some of the people will be having discomfort in expressing their views. • 2. Group culture inhibits individual opinion

Structured Interview• It involves asking the same questions, in the same order, and in same

manner of all respondents in a study. • Interviewer uses structured interview schedule. • It commonly have fixed type, and closed ended questions. • It also known as standardized interview. • Interviewers are not permitted to change even specific wording also. • It increases the reliability and credibility of data.

Merits • 1. Data from one interview to the next one are easily comparable. • 2. Recording, coding and analysis of data is easy. • 3. Avoids irrelevant purposeless conversation. Demerits • 1. In-depth information may not be possible. • 2. Exploration of data is limited. • 3. It may not cover all the possible responses or respondent views.

Steps Of Interview - (Structured) Preparatory Phase• 1. Preparation of structured questionnaire (interview schedule)

(Interview schedule - data obtained in interview are usually recorded on an instrument referred Interview schedule) • 2. Training of the interviewer regarding attitude towards participant,

skills in probing, administering items according to order, non verbal communication, body language etc • 3. Decide the Setting for interview -Natural and Comfortable

Environment • 4. Preparation of Interviewer guide. • 5. Preparing additional instruments.

Initial Phase • Establish rapport and assure them data will be kept confidential • Indicate how long interview will be taken • Obtain informed consent and explain their rights and privileges.

Interview phase• 1. Ask only one question at a time. Use show card for many responses for closed

questions. • 2. Repeat question if necessary. • 3. Avoid unnecessary description of question. • 4. Listen carefully to the subjects answer. • 5. Allow the subject sufficient time to answer questions. • 6. Do not show any signs / expressions of surprise, shock or approve. • 7. Maintain neutral attitude. • 8. Use probes when necessary • 9. Do not summarize or paraphrase interview.

Recording Phase • 1. Record responses as they take place. • 2. Coding sheet is must preferred for structured questionnaire. • 3. If any questions not answered, again repeat the question to the

respondent. • 4. Verify the schedule for completeness.

Closing / Termination Phase • After interview has concluded, participants should be asked if they

have any questions. • Explanations can be given at this time

Advantages• 1. Responses can be obtained from a wide range of subjects. • 2. Response rate is high in face to face interview. • 3. Clarify - subjects can be given clarification regarding ambiguous and

confusing questions. • 4. It enhances reliable quality data, hence it allows probing in semi

structured interview and in- depth response can be obtained. • 5. It will minimize missing information and response related bias such as

yea - Sayers, I don’t know. • 6. Questions can be asked according to the order specifically mentioned

or planned, i.e., order of questions protected.

• 7. It provides highest control over the samples. Hence, subjects are interviewed face to face. In other method, subject may pass the questionnaire to other individual to answer. • 8. It helps to collect supplementary data if required. • 9. Greater flexibility in keep the subjects at ease • 10. Data are not influenced by others and it minimizing the risk of

contamination among respondents. • 11. It is a good method for illiterate, poor expression and bad

handwriting subjects.

Disadvantages• 1. Training programme is needed for interviewers. • 2. It is time consuming and expensive. • 3. It will not ensure anonymity, in case of sensitive issues, data

obtained may be biased, and hence subjects may provide socially acceptable answer. (Social desirability response) • 4. High degree of interviewer’s biases. • 5. Rosenthal effect - Interviewer may influence subjects. (greater

expectation- greater performance)

QUESTIONNAIRE• A questionnaire is a structured instrument consists of series of

questions prepared by researcher that a respondent is asked to complete. • SAQ also known as ‘survey’ .The instrument is called a questionnaire

(SAQ) when respondents complete the instrument themselves, usually in a paper and pencil format. • Questionnaire - measure knowledge, attitude etc. • Questionnaire are commonly used data collection tool

Methods of Questionnaire Administration:• 1. Direct Administration-It is completely different from interview, in

which interviewer will read the items & responses, respondent merely to answer orally.

But in-direct method, researcher will distribute the questionnaire and respondent answer items by writing or checking against correct response. • 2. Post or e-mail including all electronic means.

This method is called as Mailed questionnaire

Structure - Open ended Vs Closed ended Open ended • It requires written responses from the subjects and allow respondent to

answer in their own words. • Easy to construct • Difficult to analyze. • Commonly used in qualitative research. • Time consuming • They provide insightful and natural response • Flexible and applicable to wide range of participants.

Closed ended • It requiring only selecting the response from given alternatives (pre-designated,

developed by researcher)• Difficult to construct • Easy to analyse and compare • Commonly used in quantitive studies. • Time- saving • Fixed and artificial • Relevant data • More objective

Types of questions• 1. Open ended • 2. Closed ended • 3. Demographic • 4. Contingency questions/ skip questions - Items that is relevant for

some respondents and not for others. E.g., what about hospital experience? (who never hospitalized can not answer). e.g., Yes / No, if yes - poor good very good

• 5. Filler questions - are items in which the researcher has no direct interest but are included on a questionnaire to reduce the emphasis on the specific purpose of other questions to make the subjects to answer more honestly. • If their focus only on the purpose of the study, they may hesitate to

answer or provide more approved answer

Specific Types Of Closed Type Questions (Selection type items)1. Multiple Choice Questions • It is a type of question offer two or more responses alternatives. • It commonly contains 3 to 7 alternatives.• A multiple choice item consists of two parts: • first is stem, which can be a question or incomplete statement, the

second part consists of several options (distractors and correct response) from which to select a correct answer. (Distractors also known as decays or foils)

Forms and Types of MCQ1. The correct answer form • Three or more responses are given but only one of them is correct.

2. The best answer form • There one or more responses are correct but one of them is the best answer.

The sub- jects are requested to select best one.

3. The multiple response form • Here two or more responses are correct and the subject is request to identify

the all correct responses.

4. The negative form • The stem has a negative approach. In response one may be correct response.

Principles and Rules of Constructing MCQ1. The response items should be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive.

Mutually exclusive means the responses should be different from one another (overlap should not be there).

Collective exhaustive - it should cover all possible answers or options. 2. There should be underlying rationale for ordering alternatives. 3. Questions (stem) should be worded clearly. 4. It should be according to the researcher’s understanding ability. 5. Try to state the questions affirmative rather than negative, especially avoid double negatives. State the stem positive rather than negative manner, if it is written in negative manner, under- line or bold the negative words.

6. Avoid long sentences or phrases or technical terms 7. Avoid double-barreled questions that contain two distinct ideas or concepts. Eg., The mentally ill are incapable to look after themselves and they should be kept in prison. 8. Questions on complex or specialized issues can be worded in such a way that a respondent will be comfortable and provide natural responses. E.g., Have you heard about various contraceptive practices?9. Avoid leading questions that suggest a particular kind of answer. E.g., Do you agree that nurses are very important for health care?

11. Avoid using ‘all the above’, ‘none of the above’ as an opinion. Participants may guess the answer with partial knowledge. 12. Do not keep the items that every one will answer or agree or every one will not answer. 13. All items and responses should be arranged in logical sequence(alphabetic or numerical order), general to specific, and least sensitive to more sensitive, 14. Researcher must ensure answer to one question will not influence other question. 15. Include enough information in the stem to answer question.

16. Keep all options grammatically consistent with the stem to avoid clues to the correct option. 17. Keep all the options the same length or have two short responses and two long responses. 18. Make all options reasonable and homogenous. 19. It is need not necessary that all items should have same number of options. 20. Use “Best answer form MCQ” when majority of the experts agree.

2.Cafeteria Question

• It is a special type of MCQ that asks the respondents to select best response that most closely corresponds to their view. Usually it will be having all positive statements.

3.Dichotonomus Questions • It requires respondents to make choice between two response

alternatives such as yes / no, male / female.

4.Rank order questions: • It requires respondents to rank the items along the continuum from

most important to least important by assigning rank to the items.

Advantages of Questionnaire• 1. Questionnaires are applicable to wider and large number of

samples. • 2. Anonymity will be maintained. • 3. No field staff required to supervise the data collection procedure. • 4. It is free from interviewer related biases. • 5. Best method for collecting information regarding sensitive and

controversial issues • 6. The participants will response the items naturally and exhibits

candour(honest) behaviour.

Disadvantages of Questionnaire: • 1. This method is not applicable to all individuals especially illiterates, visually

challenged, etc., • 2. It has poor sample control. It may be filled by some person other than the

respondent. • 3. Response rate is low, Follow up reminder required to achieve higher response rate. • 4. Respondent may not follow the order of questions. • 5. High chances for missing information. • 6. Probing and clarification of items are not possible. • 7. Risk of contamination among the respondents is quiet high when mailed

questionnaire is adopted. • 8. Response related biases are quiet high.

ATTITUDE SCALES• Attitude denotes the inner feeling or belief of a person towards a

particular phenomenon.

Methods of assessing attitude• 1. Direct Method: It is the best way to assess the attitude of the

individual. • It involves assessing the behaviour in natural setting and real life

situation. • This method is commonly applied in qualitative research.

2. Indirect Method: It is the method commonly adopted in research to assess attitude. • It involves asking the individual directly how he feels about a subject

through the use of questionnaire or interview. • In this method, he is also asked to indicate his agreement or

disagreement with a series of statements about a controversial subject.

Types of attitude scales• A scale is an instrument which measures subjective variables. Each of

these important scale types provides the means to gather subjective data objectively.• 1. Thurstone scale.• 2. Likert scale.• 3. Guttman’s scale.• 4. Semantic Differential Scale and Multi Dimensional Scales.

Likert Scales• The most widely used scaling technique is the Likert scale, named

after the psychologist Rensis Likert. • A Likert scale consists of several declarative items that express a

viewpoint on a topic. • Respondents are asked to indicate the degree to which they agree or

disagree with the opinion expressed by the statement. • Good Likert scales usually include 10 or more statements

OBSERVATION

Observation involves the systematic selection, observation, and

recording of behaviours, events, and settings relevant to a problem

under investigation.

Phenomenon Amenable To Observation• Characteristics and conditions of the individuals such as physical

appearance, physiological symptoms, sleep wake cycle etc., • Activities of the individual such as health status, physical and

emotional functioning, eating habits etc., • Skill attainment and performance which manifested behaviourally,

such as inserting urinary catheter, job performance, etc., • Verbal Communication and Non-Verbal Communication• Environmental Characteristics • Events and Conditions occur in the setting.

Types of Observation• Based on the time frame and controls- • Structured and Unstructured Observation

• Based on observer role - • Participant and Non-Participant Observation

Structured Observation

• It aims to provide measurable and quantifiable data that are valid and reliable.

Unstructured Observation• It involves describing events or behaviour as they occur with no

preconceived ideas of what will be seen

Participant Observation• 1. Observer becomes more or less a member of group which is under

observation. • 2. The observer plays a dual role that is as observer and also as

participant. • 3. He may assume the role of an attentive listener or a full fledged

participant. • 4. It is flexible, reliable and discloses the hidden, minute and delicate

facts.

Advantages of Participant Observation

• 1. The investigator does not rely totally on intuition to understand the perspective of his subjects. He sees the world at least for sometime, in the same way as other members of the group see it. • 2. It has a built-in validity test

Disadvantages of Participant Observation • 1. It is time consuming. • 2. Sometimes the observer’s presence modifies the behaviour of the

subjects to be observed.

Non-Participant Observation• 1. The observer takes a position so that his presence does not disturb

the activities of the group. • 2. It is very helpful in recording and studying the behaviour of the

members of the group in detail. • 3. Non-participant observation is used in the case of abnormal

individuals, infants and children. • 4. Observer merely observes the phenomenon or views the situation

with out interacting with the participants.

OBSERVER RELATED ERRORS• Error of standards - different raters would be more likely to rate the

same items differently, thereby reducing reliability of ratings between raters. • Halo error -It refers to the tendency of the observer to be influenced

by one characteristic in judging other. This may be done subconsciously and may be in a negative or

positive direction. Therefore, halo error can affect scores negatively or positively.

• Logic error - results when a rater rates one characteristic of a performer

when another characteristic is supposed to be the focus of the rating. This

occurs when the rater is not fully aware of the independence of two

performance characteristics.

• Central tendency error - Raters will often avoid rating performers on the

extreme anchors of rating scales and tend to group ratings more in the

middle of the scale.

• Error of Leniency - Rater assign high scoring to each and every

respondent irrespective of their performance.

• Reactive measurement effect- Presence of the observer lead to

behaviour distortion among the participant called as reactive

measurement effect. (Hawthorne effect)

Tools Used in Structured Observation• 1. Rating Scale • 2. Check list

CHECK LIST

• A check list is a simple instrument consisting prepared list of expected

items of performance or attributes, which are checked by a

researcher for their presence or absence.

Construction of Good Checklists• The list of items in the checklist may be continuous or divided into

groups of related items. • All items should be arranged in logical order. • Express each item in clear, simple language, observable and measurable

concrete concepts. Each item should assess or describe only one behavior or criteria. • Items should be discriminative in quality i.e to secure the required

information and details. • An intensive survey of the literature is made to determine the type of

checklist to be used in a particular research.

• Avoid negative statements whenever possible. • Ensure that each item has clear responses: yes or no. • Reviews the items independently. • Checklist must have the quality of completeness and

comprehensiveness. • Pilot study or trial run will help to develop most appropriate items.

Advantages of Checklist• Checklists allow inter-individual comparisons. • It provides a simple method to record observation. • It is useful in evaluating learning activities. • Helpful in evaluating procedural work. • Properly prepared, it allows the observer to contain the direct attention. • Checklists have the objectivity to evaluate characteristics. • Useful for evaluating those processes that can be subdivided into a series of

actions. • Decreases the chances of errors in observation especially error of leniency

hence, no rating or degree of performance is observed.

Disadvantages of Checklist• In many situations, summative scoring (overall score) and

interpretation of scores will be difficult. • Does not indicate quality or degree of performance, so usefulness of

checklist is limited. • It has a limited use in qualitative research studies.

RATING SCALE• Rating scales provide systematic procedures for obtaining, recording

and reporting the observer’s judgement.• Instead of merely indicating the presence or absence of a trait or

characteristic, it enables us to indicate the degree to which a trait is present.

Types of Rating ScalesGraphic Scale• In graphic rating scale, each characteristic is followed by a horizontal

line. • A set of categories identifies specific positions along the line to form

continuum and the rater indicates his rating by simply marking a tick at the appropriate point on a line that run from one extreme to the other.

Numerical Rating Scale• The rater simply marks a number that indicates the extent to which a

characteristic or trait is present. • The trait is presented as a statement and values from 1 to 5 are

assigned to each trait that is rated.

Descriptive Rating Scale• These types of rating scales do not use number but divide the

categories into series of verbal phrases to indicate the level of performance.

Advantages of Rating Scales• It will direct and focus observation toward specific aspects of behavior. • It will provide a common frame of reference for comparing all participants

on the same set of characteristics. • They can be efficient and economical in the use. • It is used to evaluate performance, skills and product outcomes. • They can be comprehensive in the amount of information recorded. • They can be help to reduce the subjectivity and unreliability that are usually

associated with observation methods. • Rating scales are useful in wide range of applications. Rating scales may also

be used with a large number of properties or variables.

Limitations• Some characteristics are more difficult to rate. • Subjectivity element is present. • Lack of opportunities to rate students. • Raters tend to be generally generous. • The measurements obtained from the rating scale are largely based on

assumptions and judgements of the raters. • Three types of errors are common • 1. Error of Leniency, • 2. Error of central tendency• 3. Error of Halo effect

Biophysiological Methods• Biophysical method involves the collection of biophysical data from

subjects by using the specialized equipment to determine physical and biological status of subjects.

Types of Biophysiological Methods• In Vivo Biophysiological Methods - Performed directly to measure

processes occurring internally within living organisms through medical or surgical instruments, e.g., TPR, BP monitoring • In Vitro Biophysiological Methods - Physiological processes are

measured and analyses done outside the organism, e.g., blood tests

Advantages of Biophysiological Methods• Biophysiological measures are relatively more accurate and error-less • Biophysiological measures are more objective in nature. • Provide valid measures for targeted variables. • Easy access to most of the instruments used for Biophysiological

measurements. The instruments used for Biophysiological measurements are easily available in hospital settings, which are used for routine patient care.

Disadvantages of Biophysiological Methods• Some of the instruments used for Biophysiological measurements are very expensive. • The use of Biophysiological method requires significant amount of training,

knowledge, and experience. • The results produced by the Biophysiological measurements instruments may be

affected by the environment and caliberation, for example, auxiliary temperature recording in a room with or without air conditioning may have different readings.

• The use of Biophysiological measurement instruments may cause fear and anxiety among participants. For example, the collection of blood sample for Biophysiological measurements may have traumatic impact on the subjects.

• The use of some of the Biophysiological methods may have harmful effect on the participants such as repeated exposure to X-ray increase the health risk for study subjects