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BED 1ST SEMESTER PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

UNIT 3

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF

SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY

EASTERN SYSTEMS OF PHILOSOPHY

(1) SANKHYA PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION

Sankhya philosophy has been propounded by the great seer Kapil. Perhaps this happens to be

the oldest of the major systems of Indian philosophy as its references are found in Shruti. Skriti,

Ramayan, Mahabharata and other ancient literatures. These references are eloquent

testimonies of its oldness as well as its propagation and expansion. In our ancient literature

Kapil has been referred to in various ways an incarnation of Lord Vishnu, son to Kardam and

Devahuti, spiritual son of Brahma and an incarnation of Agni (Fire). At some places he has been

referred to as a descendant of the seer Gautam. It is also said that it is after his name that

Kapilvastu town has been established. It is difficult to say if there has been only one Kapil or

many. However, at least this much is certain that Kapil, the great seer amongst all seers, has

been the first propounder of Sankhya philosophy.

The Meaning of Sankhya Philosophy:

Scholars have interpreted the word Sumkhya in two ways-number, ie., Sankha and Gyam or

knowledge. Some scholars are of the view that Sankhya is related with the number of elements

(Tatva), because this philosophy has enumerated 25 elements. The second meaning of

Sankhya “is the knowledge of the divine. This divine knowledge pertains to the knowledge about

the body and soul, and matter and spirit. Originally Sankha philosophy is not theistic. It is

realistic in epistemology, but dualistic in metaphysics. It assumes two moving ultimates-the spirit

(Purush) and matter (Prakriti). According to Sankha philosophy both spirit and matter are eternal

and uncaused. Prakriti has three attributes of Sarva, Rajas, and Tamas (the three Gunas). This

philosophy believes that the union of spirit and matter is necessary for the evolution of the

world. In due course the term Sankhwa" was accepted as an equivalent of knowledge (Gyan).

Therefore it was regarded as a path towards knowledge. Hence, Sankhya became popular as

Gyan Marg. i.e. path to knowledge.

According to Sankhya, there are three basic elements (Tatva) Vyakta, Avyakta and Gya Gya'is



"Chetan 'or Purush or spirit. The Avyakta is matter or Prakriti. Vyakta is the consequence of the

KaryaKaran 'Parampara' (Tradition) or the consequence of the activity (Karya) and cause

(Karam). Vyakta is of 23 types. Thus there are 25 elements according to Sankhya which may be

mentioned as below:

1. Prakriti ( Matter) or Avyakta -1

2. Vikriti: - 16

hand, leg, speech (Vani), anus and genital, eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin, mind (man) and

prithvi (earth), water energy, air and sky or atmosphere or space. 16

3. Prakriti- Vikriti -7

Ahamkar (self-consciousness or ego), Mahat (Buddhor intellect). Shabda (sound), Sparsha

(touch), Rup (form), Ras (taste) and Gandha (smell).

4. Neither Prakriti Purushi Soul -1

nor Vikriti -25

Basic Postulates:

According to the Sankhya philosophy deliverance (Nivritti) from the miseries of this world is

possible only after a true knowledge of the secrets of these 25 elements. In fact, a knowledge of

these secrets is salvation (Moksha), Sankhya does not accept the necessity of God in the

existence of the process of creation (Srishthi-Prakriya). Sankhya asserts that the existence of

God cannot be proved. Hence Sankhya is regarded as atheistic (Nirishwarvadi).

The Purush (i.e., the spirit) is inactive (Nishkriya) without attributes, i.e., absolute and detached

(Nirlipa). But the other two elements - Vyakta Prakriti or matter and Avyakta are associated with

attributes. In order to understand the interrelationship between these elements, it is necessary

to understand the consequence (Pariram) and the relationship between action or activity (i.e.

Karya) and cause (Karan). Each matter has some attributes (Dharma). The attribute of each

matter is changeable. This change ability is known as Paririum i.e., the consequence or result.

This Parirum or changeability is a continual process both in the Vyakta and Aryakta elements

(Tarva). Each matter in the world is made of Satva, Raj and Tam attributes, Attribute means

factor (Ghatak) or rope (Rassi), Just as three pieces of thread are entwined to make a piece of

rope; similarly, the intermingling of these three attributes (Satva, Raj and Tam) in various

proportions produces various things (Padarth). Sarva stands for light (Prakash, or knowledge

(Gyan). Raj stands for action or activity (Kriyashilata). Tam refers to inhibition (Avarodha),

heaviness (Bharipan) and covering, etc. The position (sthiti) of these attributes. results into

some activity or consequence (Pariram). The Pariram (the activity or consequences may be of

three types: (1) Change in the attribute (Dharma-Pariram), change in the form (Lakshan-

pariram) and change in the position (Awastha-pariram).

When the Prakriti (Avyakta) is in a balanced position, then there is no change (Pariram or

consequence) in the Prakriti . When its balance is disturbed some activity springs forward.

There is a karan-karya (cause and action or activity) relationship between the Vyakta Prakriti

and Avyakta Prakriti. But what is the meaning of Karya Karan relationship (Samandh)?

According to Nyaya philosophy Karya (action) is different from Karan (cause), and there is

absence of Karya (activity) in Karan (cause). Nyaya philosophy believes that Karan (cause) is



dependent on the will of God (Ishwarekshu). But Sakhya does not agree with this view point.

According to it (Sankhya) Karya (action) is not different from Karan (cause). In fact, it (Karya) is

inherent in Karan (cause). The origin of Karya from Karan means coming out of the 'Vartamam

karya '(present action) out of the hidden or latent 'karan' (cause). This principle is known as

Sakaryavad.

The Sankhya philosophy makes a subtle analysis of matter and spirit, i.e., Prakriti and Purush.

The basic or fundamental matter or (Prakriti) is unperceivable (Apratyaksha). But its existence

may be proved

The Purush (the spirit) is unperceivable, It cannot be perceivable even through intellect. It (the

spirit) is beyond the three attributes and it is detached. It cannot be proved even through

inference. The only proof of its existence is Vedas. The spirit (the Purush) is inactive (Nishkriya)

and all-pervading (Sarvavyapak). Purush or spirit is one, But according to many commentators

the Sankhya philosophy believes in the plurality of spirit (that is, many should). According to

Sankha there are three positions of Purush (spirit or soul), the bound (the Baddha), the free (the

Mukta) and the Chetan (or known). It is the Baddha (the bound) Purush which tries to be free.

The Sankhya philosophy discusses about the relationship between the Prakriti and Purush

(matter and spirit) and between bondage (Bandhan) and salvation (Kaivalya). The Prakriti or the

matter is eternal (Nitya). When the reflection of the Purush (spirit) falls on Prakriti (matter), the

intellect (Buddhi) is generated. As a result, the Prakriti begins to regard itself as Chetan, i.e.

spirit Similarly, the reflection of Buddhi (intellect) falls on Purush, then the detached Purush

begins to regard itself as attached. This supposed and projected relationship between Purush

and Prakriti (spirit and matter) is regarded as Bandhan (Bondage). In order to remove this

bondage and to recognise its separate existence from the Prakriti is Kaivalya or Mukti or

salvation of the Purush. It is after procuring this position that the Purush begins to regard

himself as Nirlipta or detached, Even after obtaining Kaivalya (salvation), due to impressions

(Samskars) of the previous births the body is not destroyed immediately. Then the Sadhak

(devotee) is in the position of Jeevan-mukta (free from the present life). When the Bhoga

(cherished things or sufferings pertaining to the previous births) is fulfilled the physical body

declines and the devotee obtains the accomplishment of Video Kaivalya (perfect salvation),

According to Sankhya philosophy the ultimate valour (Param Purushartha) of one's life is to

obtain deliverance from the Dukhatrapathree fold miseries, that is. Adhibhautik (Physical) or

material. Davik (miseries brought out through the influence of evil spirits) and Adhyatmik

(spiritual). The realisation of the ultimate truth is the only means for achieving this position.

After the above brief analysis of the basic postulates of the Sankhya philosophy now we shall

discuss onwards its implications for education.

Educational Implication of Sankhya Philosophy:



The Meaning of True Education: According to the principles of Sankhya philosophy an action

(Karya) is already inherent in a cause, so it is a truism to remark that the development of man is

already inherent in him (man). Hence the work of education is to bring out the development of

man to the fullest extent Sankhya accepts the Prakriti (i.e., the matter) and Purush(i.e. the spirit)

as the fundamental elements, but it has very clearly pointed out the basic differences between

the two. According to Sankhya philosophy true education is that which acquaints one with the

differences between Prakriti and Purush (matter and spirit)

The Fundamental Purpose of Education:

To Sankhya philosophy man's body is made of senses (Gyanendriya) and organs of action

(Karmendria). The inner self (Antahkaran; of man is a harmonious assemblage of 'mum" (mind)

'Ahankar' (ego or the self-consciousness) and Buddha (intellect). The Purush for the soul) is the

enlightener of these three elements. Sankhwa wants that education should develop all these

three basic elements. According to Sankhva "Mukti' (or deliverance or liberation of the soul) is

the ultimate purpose of one's life. This mukti may be obtained through releasing the difference

between the Prakriti and Purish (Matter and Spirit). Therefore, the development of man should

be so guided that he may distinguish between matter and spirit, and may obtain freedom froin

the miseries of life. According to Sankhva philosophy this is the end Senidiw or basic purpose of

education. For the realisation of this end the practice of yoga is necessary. For the practice of

Yogu ſogu- sam/luwa moral conduct is the first requisite. In the modem language the above

purpose of education may be further analysed in the following manner:

To get freedom from the three-fold miseries (Dukhatraya), i.e.,

1. the miseries pertaining to soul, mind and body: in other words, the miseries pertaining to the

spiritual realm (Adhyatmik),

2. the miseries relating to external world, i.e. Adhibhautik, and

3. the miseries due to divine disorder, i.e., Daivi Prakop

The Auxiliary Aims in Order to Achieve the Fundamental Aims or Education:

1. The Physical Development: That is, full development of the senses and organs of action.

2. The Mental Development: Full development of the mind in such a way as to make the ideas

coming from it indicative of positive actions.

3.The Emotional Development: To develop such a selfconsciousness in which the Satva

(righteousness) predominates.

4.The Intellectual Dewelopment: The development of intellect (Dehlhi), to make it intellect) free

of the slavery of senses and to involve it in the experience of the spirit (Purush).

5. The Moral Development:

For this development it is necessary that the individual does not indulge in speaking les, in

violence, in stealing, in accumulating superfluous wealth and in sexual matters; in other words,

the individual has to be instructed to follow the austerity of Satya. Ahimsa, Astepa. Aparigrah

and Brahmacharya (i.e., truth, non-violence, not stealing, not collecting unnecessary wealth,

and continence).

The Concept of the Curriculum According to Sankhya Philosophy: The curriculum is a means for



achieving the aims of education. Sankhya philosophy admits the importance of both physical

and spiritual aspects of life. So it wants that both these aspects should be duly developed.

Therefore, the curriculum should provide scope for the development of knowledge and activities

pertaining to material and spiritual realms of life according to the various stages of development

of an individual.

According to Sankhya during infancy senses and organs of actions (Gyanendriyas and

Karmendriyas) grow very rapidly. So the necessary environment should be provided to children

for their full development. They should be allowed to play under an open environment which has

adequate light and fresh air. They should be allowed to come under direct contact with nature

as far as possible in order to promote the development of their various senses and organs of

actions. In the modem age, out of her many other methods Maria Montessori of Italy, too has

advocated this procedure for development of young children.

Sankhva is also aware of the chief propensities of an individual's development during childhood

when mind, self-consciousness and intellect begin to develop quite rapidly. Accordingly, suitable

provision should be made in the course of studies for the due growth of these aspects of one's

life. For this, language, literature, social studies, mathematics and physics, etc., should be

suitably included in the curriculum in terms of the demands of child development.

Sankhya philosophy is of the view that during adolescence the concept of self" starts assuming

a permanent form and the individual is able to take independent judgment. Therefore, for

adolescents difficult subjects involving reasoning should be particularly taught along with other

subjects. Sankhya philosophy stands for individual merits of all persons. It recognises the

independent status of each soul. Therefore, each person should be given education as his

development warrants. This means that all types of subjects should be included in the

curriculum and each should be taught according to his interests and aptitudes. Sankhya

believes that an individual is ever-growing.

Therefore, there is a need for his continual education till he is able to distinguish between matter

and spirit (Prakriti and Purush).

The Method of Teaching:

According to Sunkina there are two principal means for acquiring knowledge. These are

external and internal. Under the external means senses and organs of actions may be included.

Under the internal ones come mind (Maras). self-consciousness (Aham or Ahamkar), intellect

(Mahat) and soul (Purush). According to Sankhya the co-operation between matter (i.e. jad,

senses, mind, self-consciousness and Buddhi and soul (Arma) is necessary.

To Sankhya there are three means of acquiring knowledge:

(1) through the senses (Praryaksha).

(2) inference (anuman)

(3) the statement of some authority or Vedas.

1. The Pratyaksha Vidhi : In this Vidhi or method, the leamer obtains the knowledge of a

certain object or activity through his own senses. According to Somkira the knowledge thus



obtained reaches even the soul omur) through mind, self-consciousness (4hamkar) and intellect

(Buddhi. A knowledge may be a knowledge and usable in life only when thereis a perfect co-

ordination between wensen, mind (Memas self consciousness (Ahamkar), intellect Hekel) and

soul (Arma). For acquisirion of knowledge the cooperation between the matter Jod) and spirit

(Cherum) or Purush) is necessary

Thus according to Sankirva philosophy in the Pratyaksha Vidhi both the external and internal

means of knowledge co-operate. Only then the knowledge becomes stable or permanent.

Needless to remark that the Prarvakshi Vidhi is the first requisite for learning any thing,

2.The Anuman Vidhi: The term Amuman (or inference) means the knowledge based on some

previous knowledge (or experience). Thus in the Anuman Vidhi we try to infer about some

unknown subject on the basis of some known subject. According to Sankhya there are two

types of Amuman (1) Veer and (2) Aveer The Anuman which is based on eternal method is

known as and that which is based on eternal negation Shushwa Mahadhi is called. According to

Sankiner Amman (inference) is made on the basis of some concrete proof or termwy / then

alone it is beneficial, and when a concrete por fin may be harmful.

Sankhya philosophy has hit here at a truism. The meaning of language is obtained through

some inference. The inductive and deductive or analytic and synthetic method of teaching is

only an experimentation on the Anuman Vidhi (Inference method). A researcher proceeds on his

investigation on the basis of Anuman (inference).

3. Shabda Vidhi : As we have already said above, the meaning of Shabda is the statement

(Vachan) or a trustworthy person (e.g. the Vedavani-statements in the Vedas. A trustworthy

person is he who has the real knowledge of basic elements and of soul (spirit). Thus the

Shabda Vidhi is that method in which we repose confidence in the statements of distinguished

persons and acquire knowledge through the great books written by them. According to Sankhya

philosophy at places where it is not possible to acquire knowledge on the basis of Pratyaksha,

the perceivable and Anuman (inference), the testimony of Shabda (Apta-Vachan---the

statements of authorities) should be relied on. But the learner should always weigh the

knowledge thus acquired on the balance of his perceivable knowledge (Pratyaksha Gyan).

The Shabda Vidhi is a very universal method of acquiring knowledge. Even today we employ

this method for learning many things. The oral, question-answer description and interpretation

or exposition method of modern teaching may be easily grouped under the Shabda Vidhi. The

text-book material also is a form of Shabda Vidhi. Supervised-study-method is a very clear

example of Shabda Vidhi. Press, Radio, Cinema and television are only other examples of

Shabda Vidhi learning in the modern age.

Discipline (Anushashan):

Sankhya philosophy accepts the concept of discipline as advocated by the Yoga philosophy.

Yama and Niyam are the first two principles of discipline according to Yoga philosophy. The

term Yam means control (Sanyam) of thought, speech and deed (Manasa, Vacha and

Karmana). For this control, the Yoga recommends observance of truth speaking, practice of



non-violence, non-stealing, non-accumulating of superfluous wealth and observance of

continence (Brahmacharya). Niyam is the second aspect of discipline according to Yoga. Yoga

recommends five Niyams (or disciplines) cleanliness (Shauch), contentment (Santosh),

penance (Tap), self-study (Swadhyaya), and dedicating everything to God and being always

rapt into his meditatie wanathan Sankhya philosophy is in perfect agreement with the www or

discipline as recommended by the Yoga philosophy Sunkhwa philosophy believes that without

Bollowing thewe three rules (disciplines) of life no one can be pure and healthy we cought,

speech and deed.

The Teacher:

According to the Sankhya philosophy the teacher should be a trustworthy and ideal person. He

should have a vivid knowledge about the distinction between the matter and spirit (Prabu and

Purush), Such a teacher alone can develop true knowledge in his students.

The Student:

The Sankhya is Anekarmvadi Darshan, that is, this philosophy believes in many souls. There is

no one soul" but many. Each one's soul has its own entity. With this philosophical outlook the

Sankhya philosophy respects the personality of each student. Hence it wants that the

personality of cach student should be fully developed. Each individual has the three attributes of

Soner. Raj and Tam. Accordingly, Sankina philosophy enjoins each student to be disciplined

and behave morally. Through such a behaviour alone will he be able to distinguish between the

basic elements of matter and spirit (Prakriti and Purush),

The School:

During the developmental days of Sundhva philosophy the Gurukuls were working as seats of

learning. In these Gurukuls individual teaching was in vogue. There was no group teaching,

except group discussion in an assembly of learned person at occasions.

An Evaluation of Sankhya Philosophy as an Educational Philosophy:

The Sankhva philosophy accepts the existence of both matter, Prakriti. Jad and spirit (Purush or

Chetan). Thus this philosophy recognises the materialistic as well as spiritual aspects of life. But

other systems of Indian philosophy have bitterly criticised its concepts of atheism

(Amishwarvad, and the existence of many souls. However, the logical analysis as presented by

Sankhva appears to be quite scientific. Hence, its philosophy is of great educational import. The

Sankhya philosophy accepts man as a composite of both matter and spirit. Therefore, it

emphasises, as already referred to above, both the aspects of human life, that is, materialistic

and spiritualistic. In this way, it emphasises an all-round development of man. This concept of

development points out the necessity of enrichment of the courses of studies in order that the

educational needs of all types of individuals may be served.

The Sankhya philosophy has presented a psychological analysis of the importances of Praman

(the perceivable), Anuman (inference) and Shabda (the word of a great trustworthy authority.

The role of mind (Man), self-consciousness (Ahamkar), intellect (Buddhi) and soul (Atma) in the

process of learning has been vividly explained by the Sankhya philosophy. The modern

psychologists should try to understand the importance of these basic concepts in learning.

Sankhyas concepts of student teacher, and discipline, though quite old, may even be accepted

today as it is difficult to overlook the same if we want to strengthen our educational edifice. Who



will not accept the concept of discipline as advocated by Sankhya. Who will not accept the

Sankhya concept of an ideal student? Who will not accept the Sankhya concept of a learned

teacher? The Sankhya philosophy accepts the individual personality of man. Needless to

remark that this concept appears to be at the root of modern democracy.

Summary:

Kapil, the propounder of Sarkhya philosophy. Sankhya has 25 fundamental elements. Salvation

possible only after knowledge of the 25 elementals. Deliverance is the ultimate purpose of

education. To get freedom from the three-fold miseries of life. Curriculum scope pertaining to

material and spiritual realms. Yoga type of discipline is necessary. Teacher should be a

trustworthy and an ideal person. Individual learning in the Gurukuls. Sankhya philosophy

emphasises the development of all aspects of life.

PHILOSOPHY OF YOGA AND EDUCATION

Maharshi Patanjali has been the propounder the Yoga philosophy. So some people call it

Patanjali philosophy. The literature of Yoga philosophy is not so extensive as those of other

Indian philosophies, but it is a very scientific philosophy. All philosophies accept its importance.

We find discussion on Yoga in Vid, Upanishads, Smritis, and Puromus etc. That is why it is

considered of great significance. It is being very widely advertised these days throughout the

world. A specialty of this philosophy is that unlike other philosophies it is not only theoretical but

also practical Healthy body and powerful soul both are the subjects of its study. Unlike other

philosophies, the Yoga philosophy does not consider the body as insignificant, but it regards it

as very useful. Thiş philosophy believes that the mind can be pure only when the body is

healthy and the purity of the mind will lead to faculty of mental processes (Chitta).

The Main Principles of Yoga Philosophy:

The Form of Yoga:

Patanjali Yoga is the control of the aspiration and ambition of the mind. The purpose of Yoga is

to understand the real form of soul. But this form can be understood only when all the

aspirations and ambitions of the mind are controlled. The perfect control over the aspirations

and ambitions is the status of Yoga. Just as in oscillating water we cannot see the form of a

thing similarly when the mind is not wandering and it is controlled, the form of God may be

realised. To see the form of God is Yoga meditation (Yoga Samadhi).

The Aspects of Yoga :

There are eight aspects (parts) of Yoga They are called Ashtang Yoga. These eight parts are

1. Yama

2. Niyam

3. Asan '

4. Pranayam

5. Pratyahar

6. Dharana

7. Dhyan and

8. Samadhi



By observance of these aspects, ignorance (Avidya) is wiped off, and real knowledge (Yathartha

Gyan) is achieved. As the Sadhak (devotee or accomplisher) proceeds further, his ignorance

vanishes. After the perfect attainment of Yoga, wisdom (ek) is awakened. So the purpose of

Yoga is to achieve wisdom and to wipe off ignorance. Now we come across the Explanation of

the eight aspects of Yoga as follows:

Yama: Yama means absence. Absence of violence, untruth, stealing intercourse and seizing is

Yamu

There are five aspects of Yumur - they are

1. non-violence

2. truth

3. not stealing

4 .continence and

5. not accumulating superfluous wealth. Never having animosity against any creature is non-

violence.

2. Niyam: The Niyam (the rules) are five viz.,

(1) Shauch or purity,

(2) Santosh or contentment,

(3) Tap or penance.

(4) Swadhyaya or continuous study of Vedas.

(5) Ishwar Pranidhan or the concentration in God and offering everything to Him.

3. Asan : The stability and feeling comfort in a posture is Asan.

4. Pranayam : The control of breath while inhaling. (Perak), keeping it in the lungs for sometime

(Kumbhak), and exhaling out (Rechak) 1 are the three processes of Pranayam.

5. Pratyahar : Pratyahar is controlling the mind by keeping away the organs of senses from

external attractions. To cut the relationship of the various sense-organs from their respective

subject is Pratyahar

6. Dharana : To apply the mind to some internal subject is Dharana.

7. Dhyan : To concentrate attention on a particular subject of the mind is Dhyan.

8. Samadhi : Samadhi is attained when the attention becomes the objective. At this stage, the

object of attention is not separate from the process of attention instead, the process of attention

is merged into the objective (Dhveya). When Dhyar becomes stable in the Dirvepa (objective of

attention), then there is Samadhi.

Chitta Vritti Vichaar (The Concept of Chitta-Vritri)

As we have discussed earlier, when the objects or ambitions of the Chitta (the mental

processes) are controlled the Jeeva Swaroop. The Pritti is of two types, difficult and easy, that is

pain-giving and painless. Maharshi Patanjali has spoken of five types of Pritti.

They are as follows:

1.Praman-Vritti

2. Viparayaya-Vritti

3. Vikalp-Vritti

4 .Nidra-Vriti

5.Smriti-Printi

We shall understand all these five as follows:



1. Praman- Vritti : Praman is the measurement through which we attain true knowledge

2. Viprayaya-Vrittir It is false knowledge. It does not give the true picture of a situation.

3. Vikalpa-Vritti: Vikalpa is that knowledge which is dependent on words in the absence of the

object itself. Vikalpa is an element of thinking. Whatever knowledge is available in books is of

the Vikalpa type.

4. Nidra-Vritti : In a Nidra (dream) the object which is not present appears to be present

5. Smriti-Vritti : Not losing the experienced subject is Smriti (memory).

Tools of Control of the Mental Processes (Vritti)

Abhyas (Exercise) Vairagva (freedom from worldly desires) and Ishwarpranidhan are the three

principal tools of controlling. The Vritti (mental process).

1. Abhyas : The efforts applied for making a situation stable is Abhyas. If Abhyas is continued

for a long time and if it is done with devotion, it becomes firmly fixed.

2. Vairagya : To remove the mental process from the desires of worldly things is Vairagya.

3. Ishwarpranidhan : It is also a Yoga discipline. This discipline means to enter into God or to

merge ourself into Him, to surrender oneself entirely to Him. The purpose of worship (Upasana)

is to come so near Him that there is no distinction between oneself and Him.

The Nature of God and the Outcome of God-Devotion

The Nature of God: God is the embodiment of limbless knowledge. God is the Guru of even the

ancient Rishis, because He is not governed by time (Kal).

The Outcome of Devotion to God : This outcome is of two types:

(i) The eyes of the devotee are opened and he begins to see Purush and Parampurush

(ii) Obstruction to concentration and flaw of Chitta (mental process) begin to evaporate,

Samadhi Sadhan Pad

Sadhan Pad is the second part of Yoga philosophy. This part is not limited to the description of

various tools of Yoga nor does it discuss all the tools of Yoga. Within this part, we shall refer

only to the Panch Klesh.

1. The Panch Klesh: The Five Obstructions: These are Avidya, Asmita, Rag-Dwesh and

Abhiniwesh. We shall understand the meaning of these below:

(1) Avidya: It is false knowledge (Midhya Gyan).

(ii) Asmita: In Asmita the present state of consciousness is given so much importance that the

welfare of the entire life is left behind.

As an influence of Asmira the individual begins to understand himself as of the highest

importance in the world. In disturbing the balance between the individual and social life Asmita

plays a major role.



(iii) & (iv) Rag-Dwesh (Attachment and Rivalry): Man considers himself as an intellectual being.

Unfortunately his life is not always guided by his intellect. Emotions step into the arena and the

whole thing is disturbed. Due to Rag and Dwesh he is not able to perceive anything into the

right perspective. Rug and Dwesh make one's life bitter.

(v) Abhiniwesh : Abhinwesh is the fear of death. It has been said in the Yogasutra that fear of

death pains the ignorant as well as the Pandur (the learned person). Love of life is associated

with life itself. On the other hand, the possibility of death is always felt. Some people do not

understand why they are afraid of death. As long as we are living we happen to be spared

death. When death occurs, then we shall go beyond pain.

Yoga-Vibhutian (The Special Powers or Excellencies of Yoga) What is Vibhuti?

Some contend that in a philosophical discussion no place to Vibhati is warranted. The one who

takes Yoga as a tool for attaining special powers becomes misguided from his real path.

The following ones are considered as the Tibhrutian (special powers or excellences of Yoga).

1. A Yogi knows about the knowledge of the past and future.

2. A Yogi knows about the time of his death. He comes to know about his previous birthe time of

3. A Yogi, through concentration of his attention, is able to know about the sun, the moon and

the stars. Similarly, he knows about his internal organs.

4. He hears divine message or words. The sky does not put any obstruction before him. He can

see things which are hidden from him.

5. He can read the thoughts of others without asking anyone about the same.

6. He can develop his power like that of an elephant any time.

7. He becomes above unirst and hunger. During meditation he may remain without food and

water.

8. He can conquer demons. The gravity of earth may be suspended for him. He may walk in the

sky. He may stay in the air-atmosphere.

9. He may cross the limit of his body. He may rule over others by entering into their bodies.

10. He may make his body invisible to others.

Karwalya:

The consciousness of having acquired the wisdom (Vivek) on the part of a Yogi, is also a kind of

bondage. He must rise above this as well. When he rises above even this, he gets deliverance

from the influence of evil spirits, wordly miseries and possible spiritual obstructions. After this

the individual gets detachment from all types of attributes. This stage is called Kaiwalya. In

Kaiwalya the Yogi becomes a Kewali. This the peak of Yoga

Ishwar (God):

The subject of Ishwar occupies a very important place in the Yoga philosophy. Pranav is a

synonym of Ishwar. By the Jap (repetition) of Pranav the Yogi is able to concentrate and

acquires control over his mental processes. Ishwar has never been in bondage and will never

come into any bondage. Ishwar is full of Gvan (knowledge), Ichcha (desires) and power of



activity. None is as powerful as Ishwar. Ishwar has always been Ishwar and will always remain

Iswar. He is full of excellences. He knows everything. He is always free (Mukta). In addition to

the 25 elements as propounded by Sankinwa philosophy, Patanjali has not attributed any

element (other than the 25 ones) to Ishwar. Thus, inspite of having multifarious peculiarities,

Ishwar remains only a Purush Vishesh (special person). Ishwar has nothing to do for Himself.

Still to be kind to all creatures in His mission.

Educational Implications of Yoga Philosophy

These days there is some talk about including some aspects of Yoga in the activities of our

educational institutions. Our central government, at times, telecasts some Yogic programmes in

physical exercises for improving the health of viewers. In these programmes, sometimes a brief

description about the utility and importance of Yoga is also given, in the form of questions and

answers. In colleges of physical education in our country the topic of Yoga has also been given

a place in the curriculum. But the teaching and practice of the same is never taken up seriously.

It is true that the purpose of teaching Yoga practices to our young boys and girls cannot be to

make them experts in the art and science of the same. But what is really needed is to

emphasise the importance of the eight parts of the Yoga which include: Yama, Niyam, Asan.

Pranayam, Pratyahar, Dharana, Dhyan and Samadhi. We have already explained the meaning

of there terms in the for giving pages. Hence they do not need repetition here.

It may be noted that Foga practices are helpful not only for one's health but for the general uplift

of an individual. Needless to add that we may solve many of our mental and other problems with

the help of principles of Yoga provided they are practised in right earnest

Just as teachers are trained for teaching various subjects in our schools. similarly some able

persons should also be trained in Yogic exercise. And one such person should be appointed in

each school for training our students in Yogic practices at least for their physical well-being.

There can be no denying of the fact that the ideal of Yoga is meant for persons who are free

from wordly attachment and it will never be possible to encourage the students in general to fall

in line with the same for obvious reasons. Nonetheless, the significance of Yoga will be

evergreen for the good of the entire mankind. Thanks to the great seer Patanjali .

Summary:

The main aim of Yoga philosophy is to control the aspirations and ambitious of the mind and to

understand the real form of soul. Eight aspects of Yoga-Yam. Nivem. Asam Pranava, Pratyahar,

Dharana, Dhyam and Samadhi. Ignorance is wiped off. Wisdom is awakened through these 8

aspects. Peak of Yoga is to get detached from all types of attributes. God knows everything and

to see his form is Yoga meditation. To emphasise the 8 aspects of Yoga to the students in our

educational institutions. Specially trained teachers for these schools.

(III) NYAYA PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION



Gautama Aksapada was the first to systematize th Nyaya sutras, which existed by then. It is a

system of logical realism. This philosophy has emphasized on conditions of correct thinking and

means of acquiring a true knowledge of reality. It is a system to develop logical thinking and

rigorous criticism. It is basically system of logic and epistemology but it can also be considered

as a philosophy of life like other Indian systems of philosophy.

The profound work done by Gautama is in the form of Nyaya sutras, which was divided into five

adhyayas or books. Each consists of two sections or "ahnikas'.

Later on there were others who contributed to Nyaya sutras are:

Vatsyayana Nyayabhasya

Uddyotakara Nyaya-varttika

• Vacaspati's Nyaya varttika-tatparaya-tika

Udayana's parisuddhi Nyaya-varttika-tatparya

Kusymanjati's & Jayanta's - Nyaya manjari

Ganesa - Navya-Nyaya (modem school)

They all made a lot of critiques, by attacking, counterattacking and with defence on the practice

of Nyaya and gradually the new Nyaya, an epoch made by Ganesa .

The Nyaya philosophy can be understood comprehensively under four dimensions. They are: I

1. The theory of knowledge

2 The theory of physical world.

3. The theory of individual self and liberation.

4. The theory of God

This philosophy can be an elaboration of 16 philosophical issues / aspects like:

1. Pramana

2. Prameya

3. Samsaya

4. Prayojana

5. Drstanta

6. Siddhanta

7. Avavava

8. Nimaya

9. Vada

10. Jalpa

11. Vitanda

12. Hetvabhasa

13. Chala

14 jati

15. Tarka

16. Nigrahaschana

1. Pramana - knowing things truly which, includes all sources of knowledge.



2. Prameya - an object of true knowledge. According nyaya the objects of true knowledge are

1. Self(Atrna)

2. Body (Sarira)

3. Senses (Indriya)

4. Sensible qualities (Artha)

5. Cognition (Buddhi) or (Jnana) and apprehensio (Upalabdhi)

6. Mind (Manas)

7. Activity (Pravritti) – vocal

mental good or bad

bodily

8. Mental defects (dosa)

a) raga - (attachment)

b) dvesa - (hatred)

c) moha - (infatuation)

9. Rebirth (pratyabhava)

10. Pleasure and pain experiences (Phala)

11. Suffering (dukha)

12. Liberation from suffering (Apavaga)

3. Samsya (doubt)- a state of uncertainity

4. Prayojana - work to attain desirable or avoid undesirable

5. Drstanta - undisputed fact general rule.

6. Siddanta-doctrine i.e certain

7. Avayana - any of the five propositions of syllogism.

8. Tarka - hypothetical argument.

9.Nirnaya- certain knowledge through legitimate methods.

10. Vada - discussion with the help of pramanas and tarka.(vada - prativadi - arrive at truth)

11. Jalpa - vadi and prativadi aim only at victory over each other.

12. Vitanda - the opponents do not establish themselves instead refute others/ exponent.

13. Metvabhasa - appears as a reason but in reality not a valid reason.

14. Chala - kind of unfair reply to contradict a statement.

15. Jati-unfair reply based on false analogy. In other words a futile argument

16. Nigrahasthana - misunderstanding about one's own or other party's statemnt i.e. defeat in

the debate.

Nyaya a Logical Realism: Reality

Existence of objects and things of the world are independent of the knowledge or mind, whereas

the images, ideas, feelings of pleasure and pain are dependent on some mind i.e. an individual

mind is necessary to experience them. The realistic view about the wordily realities is based on

logcal grounds and critical reflections. Liberation is possible only through true knowledge of

reality. This true knowledge gives an insight into an understanding of what knowledge is. How to

distinguish true knowledge from false knowledge?

Epistemology or Theory of Knowledge



The theory of reality of nyayikas is dependent on theory of knowledge. The acceptable

approved sources knowledge

According to nyaya system of philosophy

1. Perception - Prathyaksha

2. Inference - Anumana

3. Comparison - Upamana

4. Testimony - Sabda

1. Perception

According to Nyayikas perception can be defined as a definite cognition, which is produced by

sense-object contact and is true.

For instance I perceive an object/thing i.e. I see a fruit is in contact with that fruit and I am sure

of that fruit before me. But in case of a distant object, think about something else: thus

perception is an indefinite cognition i.e. not a true perception. i.e. my eye

In other words perception can also be defined as immediate cognition or cognition due to the

stimulation of the sensory organs. Many other systems and some of'Navikas also accepted it.

Vedantins and some of the principles of the Nyayikan reject perception without sense-object

contact.

Perception can be classified as:

1. Perception

1. Ordinary - (laukika) - direct sense contact with the object.

a) visual (Lakshya)

b) auditory (Srautra)

c) tactual (Sparsana)

d) gustatory (Rasana)

e) alfactory (Ghranaja)

f) mental (Manas a)

1. savikalpa determinate - explicit knowledge

2. nirvakalpa (indeterminate- primary perception

3. Pratyabhijnal recognition re-cognition of some object.

2. Extraordinary-alaukika-not direct through some other unusual medium.

1. samanyalaksana-perfection of universal nature of things.

Eg: perceiving manhood. .

2. jnana laksana - basically sense of touch qualities built are perceived through sight.

Eg.: ice looks cold: fire looks hot.

3. yogaja - perceived through supernatural way,i.e. yogabhyasa.

External (bahya) through sensation

Organs of smell (ghrana)

Organs of taste (rasana)

Organs of sight (caksub)

Organs of touch (tvak)



Organs of hearing (srotra)

Internal (antrendriya) it is not by material elements / bhutas

through mind/manas

perceives the qualities of soul desire - (icha)

aversion - dvesa) willing - (prayatna) →

pleasure - (sukha)

pain - (dukha) cognition

Savikalpa (Determinate)

This perception is called vivecana or judgment of the object i.e after analysis, synthesis, the

senses data is interpreted through manas or the mind. In other words the individual perceives

the qualities of the things and their relationship with others i.e., they are expressed with subject

predicate proposition, e.g: this is a bat that is blue sky etc.

2.Inference(Aurnnana)

Anumana literally means (anu: after, mana- knowledge) a cognition or knowledge, which follows

some other knowledge. For instance, “The hill is fiery", because it smokes and whenever it

smokes, it is fiery.

Here we start with the perception of smoke in the hill to the knowledge of existence of fire in the

hill i.e., based on our previous knowledge. Similarly, another illustration: Rama is mortal

because he is a man and all men are mortal.

Thus, from the examples it can be understood that nference is a process of reasoning in

which

We pass from apprehension of some mark - Linga.

To that of something else by establishing a concomittant relation between the two –

Vyapti

According to Dr. B.N. Seel, it is can be stated like this

1. Anumana (inference) is the process of ascertaining, not by perception or direct observation,

but through the instrumentality or medium of a mark (linga) that a thing possesses a certain

character.

The different constituents of inference

Thus, it can be understood that an inference must have its constituents three terms and at least

three proportions. The inference (character) we arrive at is the knowledge f some mark and that

of its universal relation.

From the first example, we have arrived at the inference e, which we have not perceived i.e., an

invariable relation between smoke and fire.

From the example

Subject - Hill - Paksa - Minor term

Object - Fire - Sadhya - Major term/Smoke-linga - middle term /Reason-hetu - (relation between

two)

The mark or sign, which indicates the presence of fire, which is called the hetu or sadhana i.e.,

reason. This reasoning is in correspondence with the syllogism's minor, major and middle terms

Inference

1.Apprehension is about hetu (smoke) in the paksha



2.Recollection of the universal relation between linga sadhya ( & fire), and

3. Cognition of the sadhya (fire) as related to paksha (hill).

1) The hill is fiery - (prediction of sadhya)

2) Because the hill is smoky -Affirmation of hetu.

3) Whereever there is fire there is smoke (e.g. kitchen)

- Affirmation of the hetu is as invariably related to the sadhya The above discussion is according

to nyayikas, sankhya pramanas are accepted by yoga & yoga has accep ed Nyayaikas view.

Inference is further divided into two kinds they are:

1. Vita or affirmative.

2. A vita or negative.

3. Upamana or Comparision

It is the third source of valid knowledge according to Nyayikas. This is not accepted by any other

system of Eastern philosophies as a separate valid source of knowledge

Upamana is nothing but acquiring knowledge about something by comparing it with the



similarities of the other familiar things for eg: A child or man recognize guvaya as similar to cow

and remembers the description and acquires knowledge that "the guvaya is an animal

resembling the cow", But other systems dill it as a form of inference,

4. Sabda (Testimony)

The fourth source of valid knowledge according to Nyayikas is sabda. The

statements/sentences come from a trustworthy person authoritative texts or sources.

Laukika (not accepted by sankya as pramana) the

Vaidika - pramana for sankya and yoga.

A Statement words arranged in a certain way.

Word it is sign that denotes (vacaka) & Its meaning tartha) is the thing

that denotes something.

Understanding of a sentence requires the meanings of the constituent words.

The sabda i.e., from Vedas we acquire true knowledg. This can by be acquired by means of

super sensuous realities which cannot come mto the purview of perception and inference.

The Vedas are not written by ordinary men but are produced by authe suers sages and these

are not eternal but the arise out of spiritual throu periences of sages in the meditative super

conscious state called as nepas puruseya’:This knowledge is accepted as true knowledge and

is bond conserved and preserved through one generation to another by a pun Continuous line

of instruction. of ete

Thus these are the three sources of knowledge accepted by sankya hana yoga as the valid

pramanas of knowledge.

Laukika secular not all valid, it is the testimony of the human beings,

may be true or false,

Vaidika scriptural it is perfect and infallible.

Sabda is based on the words of some trustworthy person, human or divine. Thus sabda gives

knowledge of certain things either through spoken or written sentences by some authoritative



persons. According to Nyayikas a sentence should have a logical structure and it consists of

words, which convey some meaning. According to them an intelliglble sentence should have 4

conditions.

1. akanksa - expectancy -quality of words and the interdependency of words which convey a

complete meaning.

2. yogyata - mutual fitness of the words.

3. sannidhi - (asatti) the proximity between the words of a sentence.

4. tatparya - the meaning conveyed by a sentence.

Nyaya's View on Physical World

The world of objects of knowables which are not found in the physical world are pramanas.

According to Nyayikas, the physical elements time, space, and akasa, constitue this physical

world. The ultimate constituents of this physical world are unchanging atoms of earth, water, fire

and air. All the products are the composite forms of the atoms with those qualities. Nyaya also

agrees with the theory of vaiseikas.

Concept of Self and its Liberation

They adopt the realistic view of self. Self is a unique substance which experiences all cognitions

related to feelings of desire, aversion. volition, pleasure, pain. Self is indestructible, infinite and

is not limited by time and space. Selfis distinct from mind/manas, body and senses and also the

consciouness.

Self can be interpreted either through testimony of spiritual authorities or by inference Self can

be experienced through internal perception. According to Nyayikas the state ! negation is where

the soul is released from all pain suffering and att bondaxes/bonds with their body and senses.

It attains freedom from pain and pleasure ie the soul exists as a pure substance and attainment

of ctoral bliss. To attain liberation it needs to know the self or Tattvainana ie self is different from

body, mind, senses, etc.

For liberation

True knowledge (Tattva jnana)

1. Sravana (listens to scriptural knowledge)

2. Manana (through reasoning - knowledge of self)

3. Nidhidyasana (meditate on the self in conformity with the principles of Yoga)

True knowledge can be the cessation/liberation from all pain and suffering, desires and

impulses.

Nyaya Theology and the Concept of God

There is no explicit mention of God in Nyayikas. But they feel that the grace of God is necessary

for the liberation of the self. Also they feel God is the eternal, infinite self, who is the basis for

the creation, sustenance and destruction. He governs all the individuals and self morally

The existence of God can be proved through:

1. The theory of causation - 'causal argument Every thing exists with cause and effect relation.



The mountains, stars, rivers etc. are due to the creator who created i.e. karta for all this

existence.

2. Argument of Adrsta

Some are happy and some are miserable on this earth due to their own deeds, good or bad or

merits or demerits, which are determined I by our own actions. Then good deeds give punya

and bad deeds give papa. This adrista has to be guided by a person i.e. God.

3. The authority of scriptures

On the basis of authority of Vedas the supreme authority or the author of Vedas i.e. the author

is omniscient

God, who has the direct knowledge of all objects, past, present, future, finite, infinite, sensible,

and supersensible.

The Vedas and all other scriptures are revealed by God.

4.Sruthi as a testimony

Vedic scriptures proves god's existence. He is the eternal higher self-all pervading, hidden

everywhere. Sruthi is helping us in experiencing the God and to develop belief in God.

There are also antitheistic arguments.

Educational Implications of Nyayika's

This is basically a system of philosophy, which laid more focus on the acquisition of knowledge

through different sources or pramanas. It is a major contribution to the knowledge acquistion

process. Thus the implications that can be drawn from this system are:

The very insights for the education could be:

1. Aims To provide

1. The skills of logical thinking.

2. Rigorous criticism.

3. Science of reasoning.

4.Science of critical study.

5. More importantly the liberation as the ultimate aim.

6. Absolute cessation of pain and suffering.

7. Acquire the knowledge of reality ie, self

8 To solve the problems of life, logic and epistemology

2. Curriculum

It can be understood from the basic 4 concepts of philosophy i.e. The emphasis laid on leaming

about the various sources of knowledge.

Physical world which is through scientific approach about the individual self.

Process of liberation,

Testimany of Vedas.

Theology - related to existence of God.

Language.

3. Methods

Nyayika's philosophy explicitly focuses on the following for obtaining knowledge.

Perception Recitation Meditation

Inference Lecture

Upamana Logical



Sabda Analytical

4. Discipline

Self-discipline, freedom, spirituality, and liberation through freedom of self Teacher should

provide all the necessary language to develop logical thinking and rigorous criticism

(IV) VEDANT OR UPANISHAD PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION

Upanishads are seeds of Indian philosophy. That is why, all the great Indian philosophers have

written commentaries on Upanishads. Some philosophers regard Upanishads as Vedant. In

support of this contention they say that the last part of Ved is Gyan Kand (Avanyak) which is

altogether different from Karma Kand.

1. The Meaning of Upanishad: The syllable UP means SAMP. i.e., near, and 'NI' stands for

definteness (Nishachayatmak). Upanishad means that knowledge (Vidya) which nulifies or

undoes (destroys) ignorance (Avidya) and takes the desirous of salvation (Moksha) to Brahma

or God and helps him to understand Him in the true sense and thus cut the bondage of this

world (that is the freedom from the cycle of birth and death). In other words, Upanishad refers to

that knowledge (Vidya) which removes one's ignorance, makes him free from the wordly

bondage and leads him to attain the ultimate stage of bliss (Parampad).

2. Classification of Upanishads: Traditionally 108 Upanishads have been recognised. But only

the following ones are considered as the main ones. They are Ishwasya, Ken. Kath, Prasna,

Aitareya, Mundak, Mundukya, Taittariya, Chandogya, Brihadaranyak, Swetashwatar. Kwishi

Taki, Maitrayani, Mahanarayana.

3. The Period of Upanishads: It is difficult to say definitely about the periods of the various

Upanishads. It is believed that some of the oldest Upanishads, such as Chhandogva,

Bihhadranyak, Ken. Aitreya, Taittiriya, Kaushaitaki and Kath have been written before 600 B.C.

and the other ones might have been written at any time before 300 B.C., that is after Lord

Buddha.

4. Upanishads as Chief Source of All Indian Philosophies : Various schools of Indian

philosophies have been very much influenced by various Upanishads. All the theist schools

quote from Upanishads in support of their contentions. Even many atheist schools also appear

to have impact of Upanishads.

5. The Subject of the Upanishads: According to Shankaracharya Brahma Gyan (knowledge

about God) is the subject of Upanishads. Through this Brahma Gyan a person attains salvation

by knowing about birth and death. The knowledge of salvation

(Moksha Gyan) is Brahma Gvar. This has been called Gupt Vidya. i.e., secret knowledge (or

light). Paul Diason also supports this viewpoint To some Upanishads are expositions of Vedic

philosophy. As we have already stated above, probably due to this, Upanishads have also been

called Vedani, ie, the end of Ved. In fact, Vedant, as the meaning of Upanishads appears to be



more appropriate. In short, as said above. Upanishads tell us about Moksha Vidya or Brahma

Vidya (the knowledge about salvation or God).

Knowledge and Ignorance (Vidya and Avidya)

Discussion about the difference between knowledge and ignorance is the main subject of

Upanishads. Para Vidya or Supreme Vidya (spiritual knowledge) is Brahma Vidya (knowledge

about God). This knowledge is an instrument of salvation (Moksha). Apara Vidya (knowledge

about mundane affairs) is work-centered knowledge.

(Karma Pradhan Vidya). There may be delay in getting the result of a Karma(work), but the

result of knowledge is obtained immediately. A person immediately gets salvation (Mukta or

Moksha) after obtaining Brahma Vidya. The Vedic rituals, that is, the Vedic Kurma Kanda are of

lower order. The Gyan Marg (the path of knowledge) as enjoined by the Upanishads is the

supreme path (Shrestha Marg).

For salvation, the knowledge about self (Atma Gyom) is necessary. The intellectual knowledge

(Buddhi Gyan) is not necessary for it. The Buddhi Gyan is a symbol of Apara Vidya (the

knowledge about mundane affairs) and Atma Gyan is a symbol of Para Vidya spiritual

knowledge). Atma Gvan (self knowledge) is introvertive and Buddhi Gvan. Our senses normally

run after external objects. It is necessary for an Arma Gyani (the one who knows his selt) to

divert his insight towards introversion. Extroversion is an obstruction in introversion. A spiritual

devotee should draw in his external propensities and obtain self-insight (Antardarshan).

Andartlarshan is a step towards "selfknowledge. It is self-knowledge or Para Vidhu (spiritual

knowledge) which is an instrument of salvation (Moksha).

Parum Tutva (Supreme Truth)

The subject of Param Tarva (supreme truth) is of highest mportance in Upanishads. The entire

world is a deformed appearance (ikri) of this supreme of ultimate truth. What is that by knowing

which everything is revealed by itself? What is that which is ever conscious (Sachetan) ? What

is that which is always active in creative work (Srishti-Karya) and the body (Sharir) remain

unconscious in sleep? What is that root (Mula) which is always rising in a new form even after

continual death? In other words, what is the basic substance? What is the ultimate truth? What

is soul? What is God? These problems have been resolved in the Upanishads.

What is Called Param Tatva ?

In the Upanishadic language the Param Tava is the last substance, it is the root of all

(Sarvadhar). What is the beginning (Aad) base and end (Anta) of this world Jagar) ? In the

Upanishad the beginning, base and end of this world is Brahma (God). Therefore the Brahma is

the Param Tarva (the ultimate truth). This is as also called Atma Tatva (the substance or truth of

self).

Brahma Vichar (The Concept of God)

In the Upanishads, Brahma is the real truth, knowledge and endless (Anant). This is no other

existence Sand except the Brahma. According to Kathopanishad the one who sees only the



Brahma in the entire creation (Sampuran Srishun) is the knower (Gyani) in the real sense. It is

Brahma who can create the world Jagan). In Kathopanishad Brahma is regarded as the

Supreme Light (Parum Jyoti). The sun, moon, planets and the stars do not shine by themselves,

but through the Brahma Himself.

Forms or Brahma (Brahma Ke Swaroop)

In the Upanishads the Brahma has been defined in two major forms-Par (infinite) and Apar

(finits) or Nirguna (absolute) or infinite and Sagun (possessing attributes).

The Nirgun (or Par) Brahma cannot be described through adjectives or attributes. He is free of

all attributes (He is Guarita). Brahma is beyond (Pare) of all wordly attributes. In the

Brihadaranyak Upanishad, it has been said that Brahma is not concrete (Sthool), not subtle

(Sukshma),not short (Harasva), not long (Dirgha), not blood, not liquid, not shadow, not

darkness, not juice, not smell, not air, not sky, not speech, not mind, not volume. He does not

eat anything. No body eats Him. This is the essence of the concept of Brahma as stated in the

Kathopanishad Mundakopnishad and Kenospanishad. Thus the Nirgun Brahma is

indescribeable Anivarchumiya).

The Sagun Brahma

The Upar Brahma has been regarded as the Sagun Brahma. The Sagun Brahma has attributes.

He may be described. Brahma is truth, knowledge and endless (Anant). In Chhandogya

Upanishad Brahma is regarded as the cause of this world. God resides in all creatures. He is

the chief actor (Sutrachhar) of the universe (Vishva). He is the knower of all (Antaryami). He is

all pervading. God is the soul of nature. It is the existence of God in Jeeva and Jagat (beings

and world).

The Difference between the Par and Apar or Nirguna and Sagun Brahma

The Par Brahma or Nirgun Brahma is endless (Anant) and monistic. From the philosophical

viewpoint it is more important But the creation (Srishti) cannot be explained through the concept

of Nirgun Brahma. From the religious viewpoint God and Devotee, i.e., dualism cannot be

explained. So from the religious viewpoint; the Sagun Brahma is more important in the form of

creation of this universe, the-Protector and the Destroyer.

The Concept or Soul

In the Upanishads soul is regarded as immortal. It is fearless (Abhav). It is not liable to decay or

old age (Ajar). Soul is different from Jeeva (being) and perishable world. It is different from

mind, intellect, and conceit. It is wholly unwordly, all pervading, eternal and free from all

bondage. In the Brihadaranyak Upanishad it has been proved as spiritual. Speech cannot

describe it. Mind cannot conceive of it. Eyes cannot see it. Ears cannot listen it. But it may be

noted that it is the soul that empowers the speech, mind, eyes and ears to perform their

function. Soul has been regarded as the ear of ear, eyes of eyes, speech of speech, mind of

mind. In the Maitri Upanishad it has been said that body is charriot and the soul is its driver.

Soul is purely peaceful, eternal and completely free. In the Kishitaki Upanishad soul has been

conceived as master of the body and governor of the senses. Soul pervades from the finger-

nails to the top head. All the senses obey the soul.



Four Positions of the Soul:

Consciousness is the nature (Swarup) of soul, but this consciousness han four positions

as below:

1) Awakened (Jagrat) : This is the first position in which the subject of soul is the external world.

(ii) Dream (Swapna): This is the second stage in which the subject of the sout is internal. In this

position the consciousness uses subtle subjects.

(iii) In the third position the consciousness does not use either internal or external subject. In this

position consciousness is called Pragya.

(iv) The fourth position is that of Turiya. In this position the consciousness does not use any

subject internal or external, nor any kind of pleasure. Turiya is the pure position of soul. It is

neither consciousness nor unconsciousness. This consciousness or soul is regarded as the

Prom Tarva (or the Ultimate Truth). Eyes cannot see it , hands cannot touch it. It is

indescribcable.

Kosh or Atwa

The Panchavad of Upanishad is very famous. In the Panchkosha a search has been made for

the ultimate truth. The Panchkosha are as below:

1. Annamaya Kosh - Food is the ultimate truth.

2. Pranayama kosh - Prum is the ultimate truth.

3. Manomaya Kosh - Mind is the ultimate truth.

4. Vigranmaya Kosh - Vigvam or intellect (Buddhi) is the ultimate truth

5. Anandamaya Kosh - Ananta (soul) is the ultimate truth (Brahma).

What is the ultimate truth, due to which this world is created and this world exists and after

some time it is destroyed? This ultimate truth is not Anna not Pran, not Man, not Buddhi- but this

is the Anundamcıya Atma (Brahma). The pure eternal Atma (Soul) is different from Sihool

Deh(concrete body), Pran (life), Man (mind) and Buddhi (intellect). etc. This is pure

Anandamava (Blissful) consciousness. This is Brahma.

The Two Forms of Mokshra (Salvation) Tadatma or the First Form:

In the Upanishads Moksha is regarded as the Param Purusharth The extinction of birth and

death is Moksha. This is called attainment of immortality. In the Upanishads there are two

explanations of Moksha - Tadatma and Samipya. Tadarma is the perfect identification of the

Arma (soul) with the Brahma (God). Shankaracharya and the oner advocates of Advaitvad

(Monism) regard Moksha a as the Tadarmo (identification of the Atma (soul) with Brahma (God).

Just as rivers lose their identity by falling into an ocean, similarly the Jeeva (the being) loses its

identity by being merged into Brahma This is the unity between Arma and Brahma (soul and

God).

Samipya The Second Form of Moksha:



To be near God is the Moksha for the devotee. Immortality is the attainment of the Der-Loka

(the abodę) or the place of God, where the devotee enjoys pleasures through being (Samipya)

with God. Ramanuja and other philosophers accept this kind of Moksha.

Gyan (Knowledge) is the Instrument of Moksha, Not Karma (Work):

According to Mundakopanishad (3.1.8) the entire personality is purified through knowledge and

thereby the individual attains Brahma This is not possible through eyes, speech, penance or

work.

Bhakti (Devotion) and Upasana (Worship):

In the Chhandogva Upanishad, it has been stated that salvation may be attained through

devotion and worship of Brahma (God).

The Concept of Maya (Asatya-Untruth) in the Upanishads:

Maya has been mentioned several times in many Upanishads. In the Brihmdaranyak Upanishad

Maya has been accepted as very powerful. At one place it has been said that Indra took many

forms through his Maya. In the Shwetashwatar Upanishad God has been described as Mayavi-a

juggler and He creates the world through His Maya In this Upanishad it is said that the Jeeva

(the being) comes into the bondage of Maya In Kathopanishad Maya is considered as a

synonym of untruth. In the Chhundogya Upanishad it has been stated that because of the net of

Maya we fail to recognise the true (Satya) Atma Atma is all the time in our heart. The one who

reaches near Atma attains deliverance (Mukta). In the Prashnopanishad it is said that until we

abandon Asatya (untruth) and Maya we cannot obtain Brahmaloka. Thus in the Upanishads

Maya has been described in various ways, but we do not find in them a systematic philosophical

principle regarding Maya.

Purloka Vidya in the Upanishads- The Knowledge about the other World in the

Upanishads

Where does man go after death? After death the relationship between the Jeeva (being) and the

world comes to an end and he becomes a citizen of the other world (Parloka). After death three

positions of an individual has been accepted-Devayan, Pitriyan and Tritha. These three

positions are related with the future life of man.

In these three positions we find answers to the following questions: Where does man go after

death? Where does he reside? How does he come again in the world?

Devayan : Those who practise Adhyatma Vidya (Spiritual Knowledge) ultimately reach the

Brahmatok after having entered into the funeral fire on death. Jeeva (the being) resides in the

Brahmalok until he realises the truth of the Nirgun Brahma. This person does not descend on

earth (Mrityalok). But when Brahma is born again then this person takes birth on earth. This

process continues till Moksha is attained. After Moksha the cycle of birth and death ends.

Pitriyan : Those who perform Yagya, gives charity and worship and pray, they enter fire after

death. After going through various processes they ultimately reach the Pitriloka. From Pitriloka

they come to Chandraloka where they become grains. God eats these grains. They remain in



the Chandraloka until their piety (Punya) is not exhausted. When the piety is finished they are

born again on earth according to their previous good or bad deeds. I

Trittiya Gati (The Third Position): This Trittiya Gati is meant for lower animals, birds and insects

etc. These creatures continue to die and take birth. This process is never broken.

The above three positions have reference to future life after death. It is true that the cycle of

birth and death continue till Moksha (Salvation) is attained. Through spiritual knowledge one

may attain Moksha. This position is possible only for those who perform their duties without any

attachment for the outcome. Those who work with attachment may enjoy heavenly pleasure

according to the noble nature of their deeds but their cycle of birth and death will never end.

The Nature of Education During The Upanishadic or Vedantic Period and The

Implications of the Same for Today:

The Aims of Education :

According to the Upanishadic philosophy the following were accepted as the principal aims of

education for the students in the Gurukul :

1. Acquisition of the Supreme Knowledge

2. Physical Development

3. Character Building

4. Complete Development

5. Individual and Social Development

6. Spiritual Development

7. Education for Culture

We shall explain these, in brief, as below:

1. The Aim of Acquisition of the Supreme knowledge : This amounted to acquiring that

knowledge which could help one to forget worldly pleasures and understand the Brulu (God), in

other words, to attain immortality. This kind of knowledge was considered above everything

else. It was to be different from virtue, vice, cause and effect and the past and present .

2. The Physical Development Aim : For achieving this goal the student had to live in the Gurukul

an austere life. This period was the first order (Praitham Ashram) of life, that is, the

Brahmathurver (the life of celibacy). A healthy student alone could lead this type oflife. Hence

the emphasis on physical development. The student had to observe strict disciplinary rules in

the Gurukul. Fer developing a healthy body he was required to perform Pranayam in the

morning, noon and evening. Through recitation of the Vedic texts he used to take strenuous

vocal exercises. Besides, he had to perform prayers for obtaining vigour and strength. He had to

do many things in the Gurukul, such as to beg alms, to gather full-sticks and tend the sacred

fire. All these required enough physical labour.

3. The Character Development Aim: Training of the will-power was considered necessary for

character development. Towards this end the student was required to think of only good things.

He ud to observe various rules of moralities. He had to study Vedas and the other

supplementary texts daily. The Upanishad warns a student to shun bad conduct if he wants to



develop his character.

4.The Complete Development Aim: The complete development aim amounted to controlling of

senses and practising introversion This was considered as the ideal method for complete living

which meant all-sided development. The various duties to be performed daily in the Gurukul had

to lead to the realisation of the peal of all-sided development.

5. The Individual and the Social Aim: The daily disciplinary life in the Gurukul meant to develop

in the students many individual and social virtues. A student was required to be truthful all his

life. With the development of the body, mind and heart the student was trained to develop some

such virtues which could make himawcially efficient individual. He was required to be free from

deceit, diplomacy, pride and falsehood. He had to believe in giving charities.

6. The Spiritual Development Aim: The performance of Yagyas (Yajnas) was considered above

everything else. The various Upanishads have explained the qualifications that were considered

necessary for spiritual development. The Kathepaamishad has introduced the term "introversion

as the best method for spiritual development. This meant that a student had to shut himself upto

the external world and was advised to look entirely within himself.

7. Education for Culture: During the Upanishadic days hospitality was considered as a

compulsory social obligation, and it was raised to the position of a religious duty also. To offer

food to a passer-by or to a guest was regarded as equivalent to a sacrifice. The principle of truth

was honoured as the highest virtue. The habit of cleanliness was considered as a trait worthy of

cultivation by all. During the Upanishadic age the preservation and development of culture of the

race was given the highestimportance in educat.on.

Subjects of Study

In various Upanishads we find clear references to a number of subjects which were taught to

the students. The students were required to study two types of the Vidvas, viz., the Paruvidve

and Apurovidya. The Purevichw was considered as supreme knowledge which pertained to

study the relationship between man Jewwa) world custel) and God (Paramama. In other words

an attempt was made to know the ultimate reality. The mundur consisted of the four Versand -

Herdermgas. subjects of phonetan, knowledge of rituals, waune, astronomy, exegeties and

matrices, Intar Perurus, ethic, military mience, etc.etc.

The Preceptor (The Guru or the Teacher)

The Upanishads have repeatedly asserted the superiority of the preceptor (the Guru). The

preceptor was said to be wonderful as he was the propounder of the Brahmavidya. The student

was also regarded as wonderful as he received that knowledge and wonderful was he who

comprehended Him, when taught by an able teacher. Rarely did a pupil understand that "self"

merely by hearing to many. The teacher was considered to be enlightened so he alone was

capable of teaching the pupil about the Supreme Wonder of Wonders. Such was the ideal

concept of a teacher. In the Upanishadic era. In the Upanishads it has been said that the

preceptor belonged to the family of Vedic teachers who were richly equipped with highest

experiences. The preceptor used to show fatherly affection to his pupils. A preceptor was



famous for the virtues of humility and truthfulness. He was all the time ready to answer any

question put by his disciple. He was always inclined to seek the ultimate truth. The preceptor's

plain living, high thinking, disciplined routine, abstinence from pleasures, mental control and

above all his sincerity of purpose were the principal factors in the success of his work.

The Students and His Discipline:

A Brahmachari or a student had to go about begging alms for his Guru. He was to tend the

sacred fire of the Guru. He was to tend the house of the Guru. He had to guard his Guru, his

house and the cattle. In the Chhundogva Upanishad it is thus stated- Satya Van was sent away

with his teacher's cattle into a distant country where he remained for a series of years during

which 400 cows became a thousand. The student used to study Vedas daily after he did the

duties belonging to the teacher's house-hold. The student was expected to serve his Guru with

his mind, word and deed (Mansa. Vacha Karmana). He was just like a member of the Gurus

family.

The student was under the direct observation of his teacher all the twenty-four hours. The

student received both mind-making and manmaking education in the house of the Guru. The

Upanishads propounded the spiritual disciplines, viz., conservation of strength, absence of

delusion, and knowledge combined with monasticism, were be practised by the student During

the studentship, the seeker of the truth had to strengthen himself physically and spiritually. Only

then he could receive instruction from his Guru. The student had to live as a Brahmachari as

long as he was in the Gurukul. He was expected to be calm in mind, self-restrained, self-

denying, and patient. In this way the student had to pass through severe discipline in the

Gurukul.

The Student Teacher Relationship

The Guru and his wife had to perform respectively the role of the father and that of the mother

for the disciple accepted in the Gurukul. The pupil accepted the teacher aş his father and

mother as well, and he never dared to oppose him in any way. The Manusmriti explains this

relationship thus in a clear manner: "A Dwija is born twice: first after his mother's conception

and secondly at the time of his initiation ceremony when he is made fit to acquire the knowledge

of the Brahma".

The Guru also performed his duty honestly. He taught his student the truth exactly as he knew

it. He never concealed anything from his disciple. The disciple also did not conceal his

weakness from his Guru. The Guru says, "I do not know Him, if I know Him, why should I not tell

you? Surely, he who speaks what is untrue withers away to the very root, therefore, I will not

say what is untrue. In the Chhandogva Upanishad it has been said that the knowledge of the

Brahmavidya was to be imparted to the Gurus son or to his disciple. “Let no one tell this doctrine

to anyone, except to a son or to a pupil. But no one should tell it to anybody else.

Methods of Study:

During the Upanisbadic age, the Guru imparted the instructions orally to his disciples. The

students were trained to listen to the Gurus words attentively. Both the Guru and the pupils used



to become very active in the process of teaching and learning. While imparting knowledge of the

self, Yajnavalkya speaks thus to his wife Maitreyi. Verily, the Self is to be seen, to be heard, to

be perceived, to be marked. When the self has been seen, heard, perceived and known. then all

this is known. The first stage of the study I was listening. The second was Abhyas, i.e., practice

or the recitation of the text taught. The third stage was immediate apprehension of the meaning.

The fourth stage was that of Phala which means comprehension of results. The fifth stage was

Arthavada, which stands for the study of explanatory texts and the Brahmuna texts. The sixth

was Upupa er attainment of Conclusions. Thus these were the six principal stages of the

method of study. The Guru used to tell stories, parables and apt illustration for helping the

students to comprehend the matter. At times discourses and disputation (Shastrartha) were also

organised for the benefit of the pupils.

Examination

The Guru never arranged examinations for his pupils. He used to pay individual attention to

each Student However, this does not mean. that the pupils' performance were not assessed.

While the pupil was performing his various duties in the Gurukul the Guru used to supervise all

his activities. Thus his performance was being assessed everyday. The Guru used to be very

fair in his assessment. He never showed any favour to any particular student. If the Guru

declared any pupil fit, the latter could again come to him for further instruction whenever he

desired. Indira took a certain problem for investigation for which he had to stay for 101 years

with his Guru. It was after 101 years that Indra was declared successful.

Farewell Address

On completion of his education the student used to take his last bath in the Gurukul. After this

bath the student was finally addressed by the Guru thus:

**Speak the truth. Do your duty. Do not neglect the study of Vedas Do not neglect greatness ...

Do not neglect the sacrificial works due to gods and fathers. Let your mother be to you like into

a god, let your father be to you like into a god. Let your Guru be to you like into a god, let your

guest be to you like into a god.

Whatever actions are blameless, those should be followed, not others ... What is given should

be given with faith, not without faithwith joy, with modesty, with fear and with kindness ... and

soon ...

" Implications of the Upanishadic Era for Modern Education

The Ideal of Development of the Whole Man:

We have seen in the foregoing pages that the educational system during the Upanishadic

period stood for an all-sided development of the pupil in such a way that he realised himself as

a full man and ultimately attained immortality. Educationists like Mahatma Gandhi, Rabindranath

Tagore, Swami Vivekananda and many others in our country have also emphasised the ideal of

the development of the whole man. But the words of our wise men have not made any impact

on our modern educational system. With the result that today we happen to see many stunted

specimens of humanity in the forms of graduates of our colleges and universities. These

specimens do not know how to make a decent living. A despondency is writ large over their



faces. Hence all of us should take a lesson from the Upanishadic age and strive to develop the

whole personality of our students in general.

The Ideal of Good Moral Character: An ideal man does not live for himself alone. In fact, he

lives for others as well. In essence all his activities are directed towards social good. The aim of

education during the Upanishadic age was also to enable the pupil to develop himself in such a

manner that he might contribute to the development of society. The third and fourth order of life,

i.e., the Vanprastha and Sanyas meant only to stimulate the individual to shun his personal

desires and work for the social good. Even the order Ashram of Sanyasthe life of a recluse

meant to realise the ultimate spirituality with a view to guide others towards the same goal. Thus

we find the practice of highest moral ideal during the Upanishadic period. Today many of our

youths happen to be so misguided as to work as social miscreants disturbing the peace of our

society. So we must incorporate in our modern educational system the ideal of high moral

character,

The Concepts or the Ideal Teacher and the Ideal Student: We have seen in the foregoing

pages that the Upanishadic Gurus assumed the roles of ideal teachers and they derived

spiritual pleasure in helping their pupils to understand the truth of human existence. So in the

Upanishadic age the pupils presented themselves before/their Guru as real seekers of truth. our

modern educational system we have to incorporate the concept of the ideal teacher and the

ideal pupil. Only then our Bharat will be Mahan (great as sometimes we speak today about our

sublime goal in the interest of our country,

The High Ideals or the Upanishadic Gurus to be Achieved:

Our modern training colleges preparing teachers for schools profess to develop in the trainees

the ideals which were actually praised by the Upanishadic preceptors. But so far they have not

succeeded in the professed ideals. Many of the educational departments of the various

universities in our country have fallen short of everything that are desirable for an ideal teacher.

Man of these educational departments are now also producing B.Eds. either through

correspondence course or through summer courses in addition to their regular B.Ed. courses.

The main purpose of these B.Ed., Summer and Correspondence courses appear to mint

money. So much so that many of the invitee-lectures in these courses have adopted the slogan

Paisa Peeto B.Ed. Banao, i.e. make money and produce B.Eds. Such is the pitiable position of

our centres which are supposed to prepare ideal teachers. Even the B.Eds. from regular

courses are not getting jobs corresponding to their technical qualifications. Many of them are

working as clerks in many offices. Then what has been the necessity of starting B.Ed. through

summer and correspondence courses, except that of making money? Due to such a deplorable

tendency we have to forget the high ideals that a teacher must profess and practise. It is high

time that we revert back to the great ideals of our ancient preceptors of the Gurukul system and

produce ideal teachers.

College and Universities Hostels to be Re-patterned on the Great

Upanishadic Ideals of a Gurukula

During the Upanishadic period the house of the preceptor (the Guru or the Acharya) used to

function as a residential university for pupils who were there for seeking the Para or Aparavidya.



The entire routine of a Gurukul was laid under the strict supervision of the preceptor and the

pupil continued his study there for a period of 12 or 32 years in certain cases. The modern

colleges and universities having hostel facilities seldom do any good to the students. So much

so that many of the hostels have become centres of miscreants and police forces are used to

either control them or to evict them out. Evidently, hostels are now no more centres of learning.

In order to make them ideal residential centres for our students we should look towards the

great grand traditions of the Gurukuls of the Upanishadic age and remodel them on the same

pattern under the strict supervision of some really good teachers.

The Upanishadic Ideals for Modern Students

The pupils during the Upanishadic age were admitted to a Gurukul of the preceptor's Ashram

after his deservingness was fully tested by the preceptor. Hence the pupils in those days were

really truth seekers. Today many students join college and university in order to become film-

stars. Very often they are seen wasting their time in love-making or other vulgar activities in

place of their studies. Students, to-day, come to colleges and universities to learn new fashions.

Our students may be saved from these undesirable things if we assimilate the ideals and

principles followed by the Upanishadic preceptors. Then the problem of indiscipline which is

eating away the very vitality of our educational centres will be automatically wiped off.

Summary:

Upanishads sources of all Indian philosophies. It means knowledge and for salvation,

knowledge about self is necessary. Brahma is the Supreme Truth. So unmental. Education

should aim at acquisition of supreme knowledge and complete development. Preceptor richly

equipped with highest experience and the student was always under his observation. In modern

education, the concept of the ideal teacher and the ideal student to be incorporated. The

student should learn the Upanishadic ideals to build the highest form of moral character for the

social good.

(i), IDEALISM

Idealism contends that spiritual aspects are the chief aspects of human life. When emphasis is

on the spiritual aspect, that is called Idealism or philosophy of Idealism. The idealist "idolize" the

mind beyond every thing. Idealism exalts human personality.

Idealism is a philosophy of thought propagated by the great philosophers like Plato, Descartes,

Berkeley. Hegel, Kant etc. Adisankara Charya. Swamy Dayanand Saraswathi. Yogi Aravinda

Ghosh, Swamy Vivekananda, Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore advocated this

philosophy.

The Vedic seers were great idealists. The Upanishads and the Bhagavadgita made a very

comprehensive analysis of idealism. Plato was a great Greek philosopher and an idealist.

Kathopanishad: An idealist is one, who possesses supreme knowledge by concentration of man

kind.

Brubacher: It is the mind that is central in understanding the world.

D.M.Dutta: Idealism holds that ultimate reality is spiritualism.



Idealism and Aims of Education:

Idealism provides us aims of education, which are considered to the most important contribution

of idealism to education.

Froebel: The object of education is the realization of a faithful, pure, inviolable and hence holy

life Education should lead man to utility with God.

Types of Idealism:

Sri Aurobindo: The central aim of education is the building of the powers of the human mind and

spirit. Not gold but only men can make the people great and strong men who strive for truth and

honours sake stand fast but suffer long.

University Education Commission: If we wish to bring about a savage upheaval in our society, a

"Rakshasa Raj' all that we need to do is to give vocation and technical education and to starve

the spirit. We will have a number of scientists with out conscience.

There are four types of Idealism.

All the four postulate that mind or spirit is essential World stuff. The reality is of a mental

character.

They are :

1) The subjective Idealism,

2) The objective Idealism,

3) The Scientific Idealism and

4) Theistic Idealism.

1. The subjective Idealism: Leibnitz and Berkeley conceived reality in terms of experiences of

the individual mind. It concludes that nothing exists in the World apart from mind.

2. The objective Idealism: Emmanuel Kant, the founder of objective idealism presented

formalistic or transcendental introspection of the main idealistic principles. Hegel was inspired

by Kantian interpretations put forward the idea that the human World was made up of mind

made objects.

3. The Scientific Idealism: Scientific idealism was founded by Hermann Cohen. Cohen applied

Kant's critical method to humanistic and Scientific studies. Ernst Cassirar, who was noted for

clear analysis of man, defined Scientific Idealism as that which creates culture through a unique

capacity for symbolic representation.

4. The Theistic Idealism: The Theistic idealism was founded by RH Lolze. According to him all

phenomenon is found in their unity. The World ground is the transcendental synthesis of

evolutionary World process, which is both mechanical and theological. T.H.Green and

F.H.Broadly are the followers of Lolze.

Rusk: Education must enable mankind to enter into the spiritual realism.

Aims of education: The following are the aims of education according to the philosophy of

idealism.



1. Self realization: According to Idealism, man is the most beautiful creation of god. Hence the

advocates of Idealism lay great emphasis on the exaltation of human personality, they mean

self realization. It involves full knowledge of the self. The first aim of education according to

Idealism is to develop the self of the individual. Self realization is to be achieved through the

process of education

2. Development of will power: Idealists give special attention to development of will power. Man

should be the author of his own future. Individual is not only the creation but also creator of

heredity and environment. He makes his progress in society by means of the power of

determination. He is the will power of the society. Man makes his development by this power.

Unfolding of divinity and such will power is necessary.

3. To cultivate truth, beauty and goodness: Idealists assert the development of spiritual values is

the individuals pursuit of highest ideals namely-TRUTH, BEAUTY AND GOODNESS should be

encouraged more and more. Rational attitude is to be cultivated.

4. Preparation of Holy life: The aim of education according to idealistic philosophy is to prepare

the child for a holy life. Froebel rightly remarks "the objects of education is the realization of a

faith feel, pure, inviolable and hence holy life”. Cultural and spiritual heritage is to be stressed.

3. Development of intelligence and rationality: According to Adams “man can understand the

purpose as well as the plan and organisation. There are set principles working in this creation".

An idealist always tries to discover and understand these principles so that on the basis of moral

elements the world remain organized. In other words universal education with universal

individuals should be developed

6. Universal Education: Education should not oniy cater to the needs and development of a few

but for the society as a whole. In the opinion of Indian sages & seers, every individual should

develop fellow-feeling and spirit of brotherhood. Their education should be universal in nature,

According to Ross, "The goal of educative efforts must be self-realization for all not merely for

favoured few". In view of Rusk, "Man's higher or spiritual nature is essentially social", and that

“The social is an expression of man's spiritual hence universal nature"

. Role of the Teacher:

According to the idealists, the teacher occupies the highest place in the process of education.

The development of the child's personality but not the body is possible only by an effective

personality of the teacher. The function of the teacher is to awaken the innate powers of the

child. A child can not acquire knowledge without the teacher. The true teacher destroys the

ignorance of the disciple. Teacher guides the student, takes the student from the darkness to

light, gives real knowledge and builds the total and sound personality. The teacher is the axis of

the teaching process totally

The qualities of an Ideal teacher can be best understood from fue following sayings of these

great personalities:



In words of Sri Aurobindo, **He is a man helping his brothers, a child leading other children, a

light kindling other lights, an awakened soul awakening other souls. **

In words of Rabindranath Tagore, "Only he can teach, who can love. The greatest teachers of

men have been lovers of man. The real teaching is a gift. It is a sacrifice, it is not a

manufactured article of routine work: and because it is a loving thing, it is the fulfilment of

knowledge of the teacher himself."

In words of Mahatma Gandhi, *-education of the hear could only be tone through the living touch

of the teacher.**

In Froebel's metaphor of the kindergarten, the kindergarten, the function of the idealist teacher

is found. Froebel regards school as a garden and the teacher as a gardener. Just as the

function of the gardener is to tend the little plants so care fully as to help them to grow into

mature and beautiful trees, similarly the functions of the teacher is to lead the children to their

perfect developments - self realization or the realisation of truth, beauty and goodness. The

teacher makes all efforts the child to grow in all respects.

Role of the Student:

In idealism the student role is passive. The student is obedient and should have disciplinary

attitude. The disciple should be always controlled by the teacher and follow the instructions

strictly.

Methods of Teaching:

The method of teaching used by the idealist teacher is not based on a "Logic of facts". The

purpose of the idealist method of teaching is to lead the teacher and students to have more

creative insights in order to reach their transcendental levels.

They have not adapted any specific any definite methods of teaching they prescribe the

methods like question answer method, conversation, dialogue, discussion, lecture,

argumentation, introspection, book study, debates etc.. Almost they prescribe oral methods.

Froebel an idealist philosopher regarded teaching method as "self stimulated activity' or 'self

activity. Education through play way method involves education through self activity.

Discipline:

Self-realization is the goal of life and the aim of education. To achieve his aim, idealists do not

favour free discipline. They believe in strict discipline of the pupils. The teacher should impose

discipline upon the pupils and try to prepare an environments which will help them to realize the

higher helves of life through self-discipline.

Control is an important component in idealistic philosophy of education. They feel that there is

more possibility of harm and less of benefit from full freedom given to children. Hence they

advocate limited liberty to children as the children are immature to understand the



consequences of all acts. Student has to lead a disciplined life. Thusdiscipline originates from

his her soul and not from any external pressure or repression. The student is directed by the

voice of the soul. and not by the fear of some external authority. Self imposed regulation and

discipline is essential for self realization.

Curriculum:

The idealist educator prefers the order and pattern of a subject matter/ curriculum that relates

ideas and concepts to teach other. The synthesis of conceptual systems such as those of

language, mathematics, and aesthetics represents the varied dimensions of the absolute.

The idealist curriculum constitutes the cultural heritage of humankind, is hierarchical. At the top

are most general disciplines, philosophy and theology. Mathematics is especially valuable

because it cultivates the power to deal with abstractions. History and literature also rank high

since they are sources of moral and cultural models, exemplars are heroes. But somewhat

lower in curricular priority are the natural and physical sciences, which deal with particular cause

and effect relationships.

Since it is necessary for communication, language is an essential tool at all levels of learning.

To the idealist, values reflect the good inherent in the universe. They are absolute, eternal and

universal. Since the ethical core is contained within and transmitted by this heritage, philosophy,

theology, history, literature and art are rich value sources. Poetry, fine arts, religion are also

included for development of moral & aesthetic sense.

Plato, Berkelly, Locke, Kant and Hegel are some of the important thinkers, who have

contributed to the thought of idealism. According to them education is for the mind, body and

soul. According to idealists the teacher occupies the highest place in the process of teaching.

Ross scheme for a complete curriculum in the light of idealism:

1. The present world is threatened by materialism, which ignores higher values of life. Idealism

aims to restore man to his proper place.

2. Idealism holds that the past culture must be given its due place in any scheme of educational

reconstruction.

3. The present machine and electronic age threats the human being as a machine,

4. Idealism assigns important place to the teacher in the entire educative process.



5. Idealism insists that for the realization of the "self every human being must receive a chance

to be educated. Thus the goal of the idealist in this context is universal education,

6. Personality development has provided a fresh look at human relations in teaching.

7. Idealism provide clear guidelines for determining aims in education, curricular teacher's role

and methods of teaching learning process.

Criticism on Idealism:

1. Idealism being an abstract doctrine avoids present realities. It does not show any interest in

the present world and it prepares for the other World.

2. It avoids day to day real problems of the life and concentrates on the ultimate end of life.

3. It places under emphasis on intellectuality.

4. In the modern educational process, child is more important than the teacher. But idealism

gives more importance to the teacher.

5. Idealists impose their imaginary ideas on the youth.

6. Though idealists accept the individual freedom and personality excellence, yet they adopt a

common curriculum, common content and common discipline. Therefore students are coming

out just like a machine product.

7. As idealists are away from facts of life, they neglect economic progress, productive

competencies and technological skills. 8. Methods of teaching in idealism show that they are far

from the inductive approach.

9. They pay attention on arts and literature, which are of very little utility in the mundance life.

10. They under estimate the physicale and productive activity. 11. The concept of equality is

viewed as limited to a few categories only.

12. To formulate the evaluati tools for the achievement of their progress is not possible to

universalise them.

Conclusion:

Man is the best creation of God and his life has two aspects. One biological which he inherits

and the other sociological or cultural which he acquires. If he acquires “ideal educat ion" he

becomes humanised and learns to live and act like a normal human being. Mis-education leads

him to animalization. The modern materialists World is more distructive of human life than even

the most warlike and the most savages of its predecessors. At this critical moment idealism is

the only potential force in the philosophical domain to work as a tool, for all over moral,

aesthetic, social and spiritual ills. Its importance in the modem materialistic culture cannot be

over emphasized. Man with woes and sufferings in this circumstances will turn to this system for

moral upliftment and mental peace.

Thus, the philosophy of idealism has its own importance in the present scenario.

(ii) NATURALISM

The Naturalism in education was a revolution against the education of mastery of books and



harsh discipline. Their main aim was the acquisition of knowledge. The naturalistic movement

overthrew that conception of education and made education child centred.

* Return to nature", "Break the chains of society are the important slogans raised by the

naturalists. The most important philosophers, who were considered as naturalists are: 1.

Lencippus and Democritus (5 century), Epicurus (371-270 B.C.) Lucretrus (96-55 BC), Thomas

Hobbes (1588-1679 AD), J.J.Roussean (1712-1778 AD) and Herbert Spencer (1820-1909 AD).

Definitions:

George Haward: Naturalism is the exclusion of what ever is spiritual.

Characteristics of Naturalism:

Nature alone is the source ofall knowledge. It is the whole reality.

2 Mind is subordinate to Nature.

3 Material world is the real world,

4 There is nothing like 'super natural".

5 . All values exist in nature.

6. Scientific knowledge is final.

7. Values are created in terms of specific needs.

8. Senses are the gate ways of knowledge.

9 In the natural order of things all human beings are equal.

10. Every thing that comes to us from nature is good but it generates in the hands of man.

11. Man creates societies to meet some of his needs.

12. Moral instinct. innate conscience, providence, power of prayer and freedom of will etc., are

all illusions.

Types of Naturalism:

Naturalism is classified into three types. They are:

1 . Biological Naturalism

2. Mechanical Naturalism

3. Physical Sciences Naturalism

1. Biological Naturalism: This type of naturalism assumes man as a product of evolution. Man

because of his own nature is the supreme creation of Nature. He is termed as the Supreme &

Superior most animal. The main aim of this school is at achieving the present & futurg

happiness of the child.

2. Mechanical Naturalism: Naturalists consider the universe as a huge machine. Man is a part of

this machine and a complete machine in itself.

3. Physical sciences Naturalism: It lays stress on external nature. According to Darwin, the

founder of theory of evolution, believed in the principle of the struggle for existence and

consequent survival of the fittest. The main aim of education of this naturalism is to equip the

individual, or the nation for that struggle to ensure survival in this world.

Aims of Education:

It is generally accepted. It has very little to offer as regards aims of education. Naturalists differ



in this respect.

1. Developing the child in accordance with the nature.

2. Sublimating of redirecting and coordinating the natural tendencies of the child.

3. Equipping the child for the struggle of existence and ensuring the survival.

4. Enabling the child to live in harmony with his surrounding and environment.

5. Laying stress on the autonomous development of the individuality of the child.

6. Self-expression: The child is born good and remains good. This goodness of the child should

be given a free and natural expression. The nature of the child should be given time to grow and

develop, in a free atmosphere. As a result, the child can express his self naturally.

7. Development of Individuality: The proper goal of human life is perfection of the individual.

Education must enable every individual child for the development of innate potentialities. This

individuality ideal which aims at making the child selfless, tolerant and loving, ever eager to live

in harmony with others in the society. He cannot be a selfish individual, hostile to others.

Through this educational system, the individuality of the child can be developed completely.

Role of the teacher:

1. Art of observing: Rousseau states "wish some discrete person would give us a treatise on the

art of observing children.

2. Art of suggesting: Rousseau writes “To know how to suggest is the art of teaching".

3. Art of stimulating: Rousseau says, the highest function of the teacher consists not so much is

imparting knowledge as on stimulating the pupil in its love and pursuit".

4. Free development of the child: The teacher should not impose himself on children. He should

provide an environment with full freedom.

Views of Rousseau on Teacher:

According to Roussean, education is guidance. The teacher is an observer of the child's

development rather than a given of information, ideas & ideals. His place is behind the scene. In

teaching learning process, the teacher not only wares as an observer, but also as a *supplier of

materials & opportunities, provider of an ideal environment, 'creator of conditions under which

natural development takes places'. Thus, this system of education is termed as autoeducation.

Education is not at all an artificial effort made by the teacher on his pupils. It is rather a free

development of his interests and motives. Hence, the teacher should provide perfect freedom to

the child to foster natural development.

Role of the child:

A Naturalist accepts the child as a 'hero' or 'star'. Tender regard for the child is very essential in

the process of education. The whole process of education revolves round the child as it is a

child centered process. The education proceeds in accordance with his interests & motives.



Methods of teaching:

Roussean's views on methods of Teaching:

Development of the child through natural process is an enjoyable, rational, harmoniously

balanced, useful and hence natural life. Stress is given on direct experience of things. Bookish

knowledge should be minimized.

Science should be learned through the pupils' own works in the laboratory, even the apparatus

used by the child should be self-invented.

Goemetry should be learned in its original sense of earth measurement by the help of surveying

the playground or school field. Roussean recommends the method which is a combination of

heuristic and experimental method. "Learning by doing' is the general principle which governs

the education.

1. Experience is the best teacher: Rousseau advises "give your Scholar no verbal lessons, he

should be taught by experience." 2. Observation Method: The child should observe things and

discover for his / herself.

3. Individualized instruction: Naturalist say every child's ability to acquire knowledge and to

benefit the individual. Hence the method of class teaching is not useful.

4. Self Education: The naturalist advocates that the child is expected to acquire information,

knowledge and ideas by oneself.

5. Things rather than words: "Teach by during what ever you can and only fall back upon words

when during is out of question".

6. Social learning through participation: A child acquires social learning when he takes part in

the social activities. Children should learn the rights and duties of a citizen through the

organization of a free, natural society.

Discipline:

1. Discipline by Natural Consequences: The concept of discipline according to idealists may be

expressed in four words, Discipline by Natural consequences”. Natural consequences are those

experiences which the child receives by following an activity. When the child turns head against

the table, he feels pain. The remembrance of pain makes the child disciplined.

2.No punishment: “Children should never receive punishment as such it should always come as

the natural consequences of his action." If a child is late for a picnic or party, let him Icarn from

this experience of being late.

3. Full freedom to the child: A naturalist starts with the assumption that the nature of child is

essentially good. Therefore, he should be given freedom of expression and development. In the

process of education, it is the child himself rather than the educator, the School, the subject,



which remains in the foreground of educational picture.

Curriculum:

1. Curriculum should be related to the aptitudes, interests and needs of the child.

2. Curriculum should be constructed to meet the needs of the child and according to the nature

of development at each stage.

Rousseau recommended the curriculum at 4 stages of the development of the child as follows.

So, curriculum should be bared on the nature of the child, his aspirations, interests etc., It lays

stress on the subjects, which are helpful in the self preservation. It stresses basic sciences

giving importance to physical and health sciences.

Limitations of Naturalism in Education:

1. No clear-cut goals: Naturalism does not offer definite aims of education

2. Neglect of books: There is a very minor place for books. We cannot neglect the treasure of

knowledge contained in the printed materials.



3. Negligible importance to higher values: Naturalism by and large, ignores the higher ends in

the process of education.

4.Undue emphasis on education through Nature: It is certain that physical nature alone can not

be considered adequate for providing all types of education.

5. Absolute Freedom is a Myth: Absolute freedom does not exist. It never existed. It will never

exist in a civilized society. Child cannot be given the long rope to hang himself.

6. Very little Role for the teacher: Naturalism minimizes the role of the teacher in the education

process. Even in this electronic age, a teacher occupies an important place in the teaching-

learning process.

7. Neglect of Moral and Spiritual Values: Naturalism ignores the moral and spiritual

development of the child.

Contribution of Naturalism to Education:

1.Naturalism indicates that educational institutions should be set up in natural surroundings.

2 It has brought to the fore front of the recognition of the child in the process of education.

3. It advocates that education should be child centred. The emphasis on the nature of the child

leads to the study of psychology.

4. It has stressed that the educative process should be made a pleasurable and enjoyable one.

5 It brought to light the significance of progressive methods of teaching like learning by

observing and learning by inductive approach.

6. Naturalism has given birth to new movements and new types of educational institutions like

A.S. Neill's summer school and Visvabharati.

Criticism on Naturalism:

1. Naturalism lacks higher ideals of life.

2. Absolute freedom is only a myth.

3. Spiritual and moral values are neglected.

4. Naturalism in its extreme form neglects books and media.

5. Naturalism assigns very little importance to the role of the teacher.

6. Child acquires discipline only through self control, which is far away from practicality.

7. Child's future life is not taken care of. As a result the child may become incompetent, when

the child enters the real World:

8. Due to uncontrolled freedon, th: individuals may develop selfishness.

Conclusion:

Naturalism gave importance to feed of the child in his process of learnining in educational field.

Because in the opinion of Roussean. Education comes to us from nature. He gave importance

to Negative Education. This education is not a preparation for life but rather a preparation

against the social conditions in which the child lives. A child should be imparted negative

Education from five to twelve years of his life, then he will be mature enough to take on positive



education. This Roussean's concept of natural education has a great significance in the present

educational system. The curriculum frames can consider this aspect of education while framing

the curriculum of the pupils of all age levels.

(ii) PRAGMATISM

Etymologically the word "pragmatism" is derived from the Greek word "pragma' which means

'activity' or 'work done'. Some other scholars think that the word pragmatism has been derived

from the Greek word 'pragmatikos' which means 'practicability' or 'utility. Pragmatism is also

called as Experimentalism because pragmatists believe experiment as the only criteria of truth.

Pragmatism is first developed by Charles Pierce in the 18705, revised and reformulated in 1898

by William James, primarily as a theory of truth further developed, expanded and disseminated

by john Dewey and FCS Schiller.

Definition:

Gomes B. Prett : **Pragmatism offers us a theory of meaning, a theory of truth of knowledge

and a theory of reality**. Aims of Education:

Pragmatists have no fixed aims or goals of education. Since the aim of human life changes with

the changing need of times, places and circumstances, no fixed, ultimate and general aims of

education can be pre-determined.

According to Ross, "Since life itself is experimental, there is no definite goal towards which the

child must advance." The aims of education should differ from child to child according to time &

circumstances.

According to John Dewey. "Education is abstract idea only persons have aims

Some educational aims which can be framed from pragmatic point of view are as follows:

1. Creation of new values: It is the general aim of education. Values are relative to time, place

and circumstances, which contributes to human and social growth and development is regarded

as valuable and which restricts or contracts experierice is unworthy. The logic used is

experimentalist education is inductive and based on the scientific method. New values are

created through activity and experience. Provision of physical, intellectual, moral and aesthetic

activities act as the media for creation of values.

2. Social efficiency: It is the other aim of education. When the natural powers of an individual are

used for the social growth. social efficiency takes place. Efficient citizenship is also part of social

efficiency.

The aim of education is also part of social efficiency, which prepares the child for membership in

the modern community Personality is an empirical thing and is a function of each social situation

as it arises.

3. Reconstruction of experience: It is another aim of education. Pragmatism emphasizes

adaption to environment and construction to control the environment.



Adult life is continuous with child whole. Life is nothing of aggregate of experiences. Education

is reconstruction of experiences. Experience is building up of habits and thoughts in response to

the needs of living and growth. They constantly undergo change indicating a dynamic

interaction between the organism and its environment.


According to pragmatism, the teacher is neither superfluous nor the supreme authority. The

teacher is a pragmatist first and a teacher afterwards. The teacher is a friend, a philosopher and

guide of the child. The teacher does not attempt to dominate learning but seeks to guide it by

acting as a director or facilitator of the student's activities.

The function of the teacher is to create real life situations in which some problems may emerge

and the child is interested in the solution of those problems. The teacher has to simply provide

both the opportunities for activity and learning. Thus teacher is a friend and helper. He does not

care to follow a text book to all. Instead he goes from one experiment to another in a

disconnected manner.

The teacher follows the example of Socrates, who taught his pupils to think and act for them

selves, to do rather than to know, to originate rather than to repeat". Role of the student:

In the pragmatism the student plays an important role, when compared with the teacher. Both

are equal but student's activity is important. The teacher is the director, the student is the

discoverer and an achiever.

Methods of teaching:

From the pragmatic point of view, there is no difference between curriculum and method of

teaching. An activity and technique to be followed are not different from each other.

The pragmatists regard learning by doing is an important slogan of the pragmatists. The child

learns incidentally while carrying out some profits. Hypothesis is translated into several

activities. He goes on doing something, learning something and modifying previous learning.

Learning is essentially experimental. Knowledge is not obtained from books but by actually

doing things.

The project method introduced by John Dewey is not only a method of teaching but also a

device to cut accross the school curriculum for children. The project method enables the

children to set to themselves a problem or a task and carry out through their own planning and

activity

Project Method:

On the foundations of the John Dewey's ardent, disciple Kilpatrick formulated a solid and

practical method of teaching, which goes by the name of project method'.

Project is a whole hearted, purposeful and problematic activity This activity is carried on in its



natural setting. It is pupil centered. In project method the study is purposeful and the child sees

the meaning of the activities. Here the activity is chosen from the real life of the children. This is

not a theory, but it is an activity, a problem. The child is not required to learn the lesson by

heart. In this method, the child would really do and learn. The child is active both physically and

mentally. The subject matter is organized into units and projects. Children are provided

opportunities of work and play.

The problem requires.

1. Reasoning

2. Imagining

3. Evaluating

4. Calculating and

5. Judging.

It is not a mechanical activity. It is a meaningful act. There is no scope for artificial, bookish and

unrealistic education in project method. The project is carried out in social environment. It

makes the pupils self reliant and resourceful. This method is based on the psychological laws of

learning. The law of readiness, the law of exercise and law of effect. School subjects

consequently become useful studies, this method encourages a democratic way of learning,

Knowledge is gained as a whole. It makes the pupils to discover facts for their self instead of

providing discoveries already made.

Discipline:

There is no place for a strict and rigid disciplinarian in a pragmatist ischool. Pragmatists see the

school as a specialized environment, that is an extension of the more general social

environment.

They emphasize discipline according to the society. This disapproves individual discipline,

instead discipline should be social discipline. The purposeful and happy environment induce

good discipline. Virtues like tolerance, mutual respect, self control, initiative, originality,

sympathy, consideration for others are cultivated through such social activities. This inculcates

self discipline. Discipline is not imposed by any etemal authority. Therefore, pragmatism

emphasizes social discipline through participation in co-operative activities of the school.

Curriculum:

The pragmatist believes that problems tend to occur singly, one after the other. Therefore he

does not recognize the utility of systematic subjects as the realist does, he does not like that a

student should become specialist in a subject, but may know nothing about anything else.

The curriculum should include the language, agricultural science, hygiene, history, geography,

physical training, sciences for boys and doméstic science for girls. The elementary school

curriculum should include reading, writing, counting, nature study, handwork and drawing

The pragmatist curriculum is concerned with the realities of child nature and of like. They feel



that physics and chemistry bring the student to systematic realm of symbolic abstractions.

1. Activity oriented : Curriculum is not fixed in advance. It should a flexible and changing

curriculum.

2. Utility oriented : Curriculum should be utilitarian. The activities and experiences provided

should enable the child to acquire the knowledge and skills required for present as well as future

life.

Pragmatist emphasizes pupils interest in curriculum. It is not static but dynamic in nature. Thus

it is not at all rigid in its real sense. It is broadly situation based. It denies existence of fixed,

eternal and absolute values. According to them education is not preparation for life, but life

itself. The curriculum should be based upon changing needs of the individual and the society.

Criticism on Pragmatism:

I. Pragmatism discards the higher values of life.

2. There is no place of Spirit' in the pragmatic way of education.

3. Pragmatism puts heavy demand on the teacher. Only a few resourceful and gifted teachers

may be able to cope with the demands of teaching in an environmental set up under Pragmatic

system.

4. Problems selected by the students may be unreal with no relation to the real life situations.

5. It is very difficult for the teacher to formulate the curriculum.

Conclusion:

The aims of education according to Pragmatism clearly lays down that this philosophy has no

fixed aims. Human being always creates new things and education helps him in doing so. It

gives a new direction, a new purpose to education. It helps the individual to lead a better,

happier and richer life. Education help the child in providing a social environment which will

enable him to modify his mind in such a way as it becomes dynamic & adaptable.

(iv) EXISTENTIALISM

The philosophers associated with the development of Existentialism are:

1. Soren Kierkgaard

2. Friedrich Nietzsche

3. Martin Heideggar

4. Jean-Paul Sartre

These philosophers interpret existentialism in their own way and more confusion is created if we

study their way of representing the philosophy because of diversities.

This philosophy originated out of the horrors of the two World wars. Some people started writing

stories, novels & plays on dispair, death, sufferings, anxiety, anguish, horror, dread, persecution

& human atic sacrifice caused due to these World wars.

Existentialists advocate that it is not enough if you to know the truth, you must exist the truth.



Existence does not mean mere living but it means to maintain complete, strong self-conscious,

responsible and progressive life. Emphasis on self realization:

According to existentialistic view-point, the existence of individuality is the fact that man should

get an opportunity for self realization. The self realization makes the inner life of man as the

centre of concentration free from anxiety. But it is possible only when man gets opportunity for

self realization.

Emphasis on Freedom and Individual Responsibility:

According to this philosophy, individual interest and individual discretions of the individual are

very important. If a man wants to experience real life, he would require freedom. The

mechanical and industrial life of today has snatched away the freedom of the individual and

therefore the individual is being deprived of realities and individual responsibilities.

Attention on human weakness and insecurity:

The existentialists have attracted the attention of the world towards human weakness and

insecurity. According to them in this scientific age, man is leading, a solitary life surrounded by

anxieties, frustrations, fear and feeling of guilt. His individuality is being blunted continuously. 其

If it continues as such, one day individuality will be lost from the world for ever. So far

preservation and existence of individuality of 1 man, he should be kept free from all worries,

frustrations, fear and feeling of guilt.

Education according to Existentialism:

The contribution of this thought to education is as follow.

The existentialists want to educate the whole man. The individual requires full development of

personality. So they do not like an educational system for one side of the development.

The existentialists do not give much importance to "objective knowledge”. They consider the

“subjective knowledge”, more important. Hence they do not give much importance to subjects

like natural sciences and mathematics etc. which give objective knowledge and sometimes they

oppose them too. But it does not mean that they consider these subjects as useless.

The existentialists do not imagine a person devoid of circumstances. The objective world around

us gives the individual the realization of "self". Therefore the existentialists give much

importance to environment. So paying attention to the environment i.e., all those subjects, which

can take the person to perfection and can give them self realization are to be included in the

curriculum.

The existentialists give more importance to subjectivity rather than to objectivity. According to

them, education should make the individual subjective and should make the person conscious

for one's own individuality or "self".

Existentialism is not a philosophy for revealing the truth or eternity and reality of objective world.



It is a doctrine of discussing the existence of self.

It does not consider the personality of others from the objective point of view. According to it,

there can be no alternative to individuality. So it is necessary to give special importance to

individuality of man in education.

Existentialism opposes the scientific, industrial and technical environment, which does not allow

the individual, social, economic, political and ethical environment around. Man tries to know

every situation in the context of other but not in his own context.

Educational implications of Existentialism:

The most important aim in education is the becoming of a human person as one who lives and

makes decisions about what one will do and be "knowing in the sense of knowing oneself.

Social relationship and biological development are all parts of this becoming. Human existence

and the value related to it is the primary factor in education.

The school should provide an atmosphere where the individuals develop in a healthy way.

Children thrive better when relieved from intense competition, harsh discipline and fear of

failure. Thus each child can grow to understand one's own needs and values and take change

of the experiences for changing them. In this way selfevaluation is the beginning and end of

learning process. As learning proceeds, children are freely growing, fearless, understanding,

individuals encouragement and acceptance by teacher's foster trustworthiness and sense of

security

Any subject in school can present existential situations for teaching and the development of

human beings. However some subjects reflect the meditative awareness of the essential

conditions than others. Literature and arts are the needs required on the part of the students.

The teacher is in a position to foster individual growth. He can facilitate development of

originality and creativity by providing a climate as well as basic skills and tools which make

possible exploration. The rewards or the punishments of the school do not foster growth. The

aims of school tasks should be to nurture self discipline and cultivate self evaluation. Mass

teachings and mass testings are not advocated. Ideal relationship between the teachers and

students is most important. The human self related to dynamic world forms the key to education.

The role of the teacher according to existentialism is regarded as an observer or a guide. The

teacher welcomes even the challenges to his/her ideas from the students. Democratic ideals

should pervade the school democracy must be the soil in which the individuals grow. It should

be the democracy of unique individuals, who value differences and respect one another. Self

government, pupil participation in planning, and the encouragement of a free atmosphere is the

characteristics of the school.

Moral judgments are made not according to traditional standards but according to fitness of

individuals. Teachers should avoid applying labels to children -- such as lazy, slow learner,

bright etc. for individuals. Children need positive evaluation but not labels. Good concepts issue

in worthwhile behavior. Mechanization and impersonality should be counteracted in school. The



tendencies in contemporary society, particularly in the west towards anonymity of collectivism.

Information about individuals is recorded through data processing on computer. Students may

be represented by cards/numbers and symbols. Students timetables and work progress are

computerized. Thus the relationship between the individual students and the school

programmes becomes an impersonal one. Besides this the use of programmed instruction,

teaching machines and other equipment decrease the personal contact between the teachers

and students. According to the opinion of the existentialists, this impersonality is a hazard to the

individual development and growth of the child's personality. Education in the contemporary

society, which is technologically advanced may well be cleansed and strengthened by

emphasizing the idea of "Man for himself".


The teacher is an important base of the educational process. According to existentialists the

teacher is important because he is the creator of such an educational situation in which the

student can establish contact with his self by becoming conscious of his self and can achieve

self realization. If the teacher is objective, he/she can not make the children introverts. The

teacher should so guide children that they become faithful to self by with drawing themselves

from exclusive faith in objective world.

Role of the student:

The existentialists want to give full freedom to the child. But the child should know the nature of

ones *self and recognize the existence and convert imperfection into perfection, But the

existentialists never mean that the child after education should become selfish, automatic and

irresponsible. They advocate freedom that is needed only for natural development

Existentialists believe that the teacher should provide education according to the individual

capabilities and needs of the child. The 'self of the child should not be blunted. The relation of

the child with one's own ‘self should be strengthened rather than severed.

Curriculum:

The existentialists want such an educational system which may gradually take the students to

subjectivity. Though in the beginning they may obtain objective knowledge in the contact of the

objective world. Subjects like science make the individuals so much objective that our relation

with "self" is broken. By learning science there is a sort of inner misleading and no peace. So

existentialism wants to include also the subjects of moral and religious education in the

curriculum. Along with humanities, subjects which teach dignity of labour should also be taught.

But all these subjects should be according to the nature of the child and individual interests.

Criticism on existentialism:

1. It is very difficult to bring self realisation all the time.

2. Providing free environment to the child always is not possible.

3. It is not easy to control the influence of external world on the individual since the individual

has to line in the society and interact with the society for various needs.

4. Ignoring the subjects like sciences and mathematics saying that they develop objectivity is

meaningless in the present world.

5. It is very difficult to control the emotions and feelings of the individual in each and every



situation. They are the psychological insticts of the individual. Even the impact of them may vary

from child to child. So it is difficult to generalise the consequences of psychological

characteristics.

6. There is possibility of preparing the child as 'self centered'.

Conclusion:

Existentialism is designed to create a sense of self awareness and to contribute to the

authenticity as human beings. Education is a process of developing consciousness about the

freedom to choose and about the meaning of and responsibility for one's own choice. The

classroom should be rich in the materials that provide themselves to self expression. An

existentialist educator encourages students to engage in philosophising about the meaning of

the human experiences of life, love and death. Existentialists regard school as a place where

individuals meet to pursue dialogue and discussion about their own lives and choices

Eclectic Tendency:

According to Eclectic approach to education, no philosophy is complete by itself. In this, man

has to strive for achieving unity in diversity. Values are subjected to change. Principles too

change accordingly. Therefore it is necessary to have altogether new principles. Life is a flow.

Educational policies also should change in accordance with the changed conditions of the

society. All 'isms' or schools of philosophy agree to some extent certain principles in general.

Instructions in schools should be learner centered. This is a combination of different view points

as laid down by different philosophers. This is actually the present system of education in India.

UNIT 4

VALUE EDUCATION

CONCEPT OF VALUES

Axiology is the branch of philosophy which deals with the system of values. It is considered as

theory of values. Values are very important in human life for success in material life and social

life of the individual. Inculcation of values from school onwards is very important in development

unit 3 educational implications of schools of …

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