ACTIVITY 2

ACTIVITY 1

1Plastics are all around us today and help to make our personal lives cleaner,

easier, safer, more convenient and more enjoyable.

introducing

The use of plastics is increasing all thetime as they replace materials such asmetal, wood, paper, ceramics and glassin a wide variety of uses. There arealso new roles which only plasticscan fulfil.

The motor car is a good example ofa product in which plastics are nowextensively used. Over the last 20 years,the use of plastics in cars has increasedby 114 per cent and it is estimated thatwithout plastics today’s cars would beat least 200kg heavier. Weight savingsachieved through the use of plasticshave enabled parts, such as the chassisand drive shaft, to be made lighter. It isestimated that over the average life-span of a car of 150 000km, thislightweighting has contributed to areduction in fuel consumption ofaround 750 litres. In turn, this reducesoil consumption by approximately12 million tonnes and CO2 by

30 million tonnes per annum inWestern Europe.

But what are plastics? Why arethey so useful and so widespread?Why do they behave as they do?What is their chemical structure?

Many materials we use every dayare made of polymers. These are large,long molecules constructed of smaller,shorter molecules called monomers.

Polymers can be natural or synthetic. Natural polymers are common in

animals and plants. Much living tissueis based on polymers - for example,proteins in animals and carbohydratesin plants. A lot of our food is basedon polymers - for example, fibre, grainand meat. Plants and animals alsoproduce non-living materials based onpolymers. These are usually produced

Think of at least three objects which, a few

years ago, would have been made

of other materials and which are

now commonly made of plastics.

For each object you listed, see if there are

any obvious advantages of the plastic over the

other material. Give reasons why you believe

plastics are now used.

This picture shows a typical

modern car. Which parts are made

of plastics materials? What

advantages do you think plastics

have over metal? Think of

safety

economy

style

colour

cost

It is estimated that a 1000kg

car, containing 100kg of plastics,

would use 4% less fuel than a car

made of more traditional

materials. If a car uses 2000 litres

of fuel each year, costing 70p per

litre, how much money is

saved through the use

of plastics?

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2

This diagram shows the structure of a

monomer and a polymer

monomer

polymer

ACTIVITY 3

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as fibres and then have to beprocessed to produce materials suchas threads and fabrics.

Synthetic polymers are mademainly from petroleum. This isprocessed in an oil refinery toproduce basic chemicals known asmonomers. The monomers are thenturned into polymers. Some polymersare turned into a solid plasticsmaterial, and others into textilefibres. Some can be turned intoeither, depending on how they areprocessed.

As we enter the 21st century it isclear that plastics are now an integralpart of our lives. From the packagedproducts we purchase, the transportwe use and the buildings we live andwork in, to the sports equipment weuse and the advanced medicaltechnology employed to keep us fitand healthy, plastics have becomeindispensable.

Plastics products were first madein 1862 from plant materials.Cellulose fibres in the form of cottonwool were treated with nitric acid toform cellulose nitrate (‘Celluloid’),which was used to make objects suchas ornaments, knife handles, boxes,cuffs, collars and film for movies.

In 1909 a new source of rawmaterials was found - coal tar. Thisprovided the ‘Bakelite’ plastics, usedfor electrical insulation and the cases

for cameras, early radios and evenjewellery.

In the early years of this century,chemists began to understand thereactions which they were observing,thus accelerating the search for newtypes of material. In the 1930s themanufacture of plastics from chemicalsproduced from petroleum began, andpolystyrene, acrylic polymers, andpolyvinyl chloride were produced,although their use grew only slowly.

Nylon was discovered in 1928, andentered production in the late 1930s. Itwas produced as long filaments whichcould be spun and woven or knitted.The production and manufacture ofother plastics materials - low densitypolyethylene, polyurethane, polyvinylchloride (PVC), PTFE, polyesters,

Look at these pictures of

objects made from synthetic

polymers. Try to decide

whether the polymer is a solid

plastic material or a fibre.

Whether a plastic is a solid material orwhether it is a thread-like fibre dependsonly on how it has been produced. Fromnow on, the word plastics will be used todescribe all such materials.

The history of plastics

silicones, epoxy resins - grew during the1940s. Polycarbonates were added inthe 1950s. High density polyethelene(HDPE) and polypropylene were addedin the 1960s.

The1970s saw the arrival of the‘third generation’, high-tech,performance plastics which built onprevious developments. These includednew polyamides and polyacetals.Innovation continued throughout the80s and 90s, with new polymers beingcreated to meet specific designchallenges. For instance, recentadvances in catalyst technologies haveallowed even better control of apolymer’s molecular structure andprovide improved physical properties.For example, a new generation ofmetallocene catalysts allow muchstronger polyethylene films to be madewhich are tougher and moretransparent while using even less rawmaterials.

Today, more than 700 types ofplastic are produced which fall into18 main polymer families. Readilyavailable, versatile and economic tomanufacture, plastics are used toproduce both hi-tech and everydayobjects. A regular consumer surveyshows that the most positive attitudestowards plastics are in connection withinnovative, hi-tech applications.

ACTIVITY 4

80

70

60

50

40

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20101870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Describe the shape of this graph.

Why do you think the graph changes shape so

much during the 1950’s?

What happened in the early 1970’s to make

the graph change direction so sharply?

Extend the graph to the year 2010. What does

this suggest the level of production will be?

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The growth in the production ofplastics across the world (tonnes m)

These fractions are still complexmixtures of compounds and nochemical changes have yet takenplace. They need to be chemicallyaltered to make them into moreuseful products with different meltingand boiling points and differentchemical properties. There are twotypes of process:

Cracking breaks large molecules intosmaller ones which are more useful –and therefore of greater value. Forexample, very high boiling pointfractions are cracked to produce

2The raw material for plastics is crude oil, a complex mixture of thousands of

compounds. To become useful, it must be processed. Around 4% of the

world’s production is turned into plastics.

the raw

Cracking

ACTIVITY 1

Because the compounds in crude oilhave different masses, and thereforeboil at different temperatures, it ispossible to separate them by a processknown as fractional distillation.

The mixture is separated intofractions, not into individualcompounds. Fractions contain amixture of compounds whose boilingtemperatures are similar.

The diagram on page 2 shows thefractional distillation process. It ismainly the naphtha and gas oilfractions which are used for furtherprocessing to make products suchas plastics.

Heating,electrical &

energy42%

Transport45%

All other 5%

Other petrochemicals 4%

Plastics 4%

Most compounds in crude oil are hydrocarbon molecules –

they contain carbon and hydrogen atoms only. These

diagrams show a few of the compounds which are found in

crude oil. Diagram (a) shows ethylene.

Draw the formula of each of these compounds in the

following form

CH2=CH2 This is the structural formula of ethylene

And then write the formula in this form

C2H4 This is the molecular formula of ethylene

The mass of a molecule depends on the number of carbon

and hydrogen atoms in it. A carbon atom has a mass of

12 units; a hydrogen atom has a mass of 1 unit. In the

example shown below, the mass of an ethane molecule,

C2H6, is [2x12] + [6x1] = 30 units

Work out the mass of the molecules shown here (a-g).

If the boiling point of the compound increases as its

mass rises, arrange the compounds in order of increasing

boiling point.

A range of

molecules showing

different ways in

which chemical

bonds are formed

between atoms.

represents a carbon atom

represents a hydrogen atom

represents a chemical bond

a

c

d

f

g

e

b

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4

Monomers

reactive compounds

small number of carbon atoms in amolecule

usually a gas or a liquid

relatively cheap compounds toproduce

of little use as they are

Polymers

unreactive compounds

very large number of carbon atomsin a chain

always a solid

nearly always more valuable to sell

very useful once they have beenprocessed

Polymer chains have very different properties to monomers

ACTIVITY 2

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gasoline and gas oil fractions. Today,most cracking uses catalysts, but someheat treatment still occurs.

Reforming changes the internalstructure of molecules to producedifferent compounds with a greaterusefulness – and therefore highervalue. By altering conditions – such astemperature, pressure and the catalyst– the cracking and reformingtechniques can now be controlled toproduce exactly the blend ofcompounds which will be most usefulat a particular time.

Naphtha is cracked by mixing itwith steam and heating it to 800°C.It is cooled rapidly to 400°C, causingchemical changes. The mixture of C6

to C10 compounds is converted to asmall number of C2, C3 and C4

compounds which contain carbon-carbon double bonds, C=C.

The simple compounds are oftenknown as ‘basic chemicals’ – many ofthese are shown on this card inActivity 1.

All the basic chemicals are smallmolecules containing between two andseven carbon atoms. It is thesemolecules which are the ‘monomers’from which the ‘polymers’ are thenmade.

The small monomer molecules arereacted together to form a polymerrather like paper clips to form a chain.In order to make the monomers reactand join up together, small amountsof special catalysts are added to thepolymerisation reactor.

Polymer manufacturing hasbecome increasingly sophisticated inrecent years, as researchers havedeveloped new compounds to meetthe needs of specific designchallenges. For example a new familyof catalysts known as metallocenesgive greater control over howmonomers join up in a more ordelyfashion. This can make the resultingplastic much stronger and transparent.

One of the simplest synthetic polymers is polyethylene.

This is made from ethylene.

The structure of Part of the structure

ethylene is: of polyethylene is:

List the structural differences between

the two molecules.

The monomers react by the end of one

molecule bonding to the end of another. In this

way chains are formed. This is rather like

paper clips being linked together. Draw your

own picture of how this chain formation

takes place.

11

2

Reforming

H

H

H H H H H H

C C C CCC

H H H H H

C

H

CCH

H

H

H

This diagram shows the fractional distillation process. It is

mainly the naphtha and gas oil fractions which are used

for further processing to make chemicals such as plastics.

fractionising

column

crude

oil

heater

gasoline

naphtha

kerosine

gas oil

40°C

110°C

180°C

260°C

340°C

refinery gases

long residue

3Eight of the most important polymers are produced from only three basic

chemicals which come from naphtha.

polymersand

polymerisation to form polybutadiene which is a synthetic rubber

Ethylene C2H4

Propylene C3H6

Butadiene C4H6

polymerisation to form high density polyethylene (HDPE), low density polyethylene (LDPE) or linear low densitypolyethylene (LLDPE)

reaction with chlorine to form chloroethene polymerisation to form polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

reaction with benzene to form styrene polymerisation to form polystyrene (PS)

reaction with oxygen to form ethene oxide further reaction and polymerisation to form polyethyleneterephthalate (PET)

polymerisation to form polypropylene (PP)

reaction with oxygen to form propylene oxide further reaction and polymerisation to form polyurethanes (PU)

Ethylene and propylene can be polymerized together to make a rubber which can also help make polypropene even tougher

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ACTIVITY 1

The table to the right shows the

total sales of the major plastics by

Western European manufacturers

from 1992 to 1998 (figures show

thousands of tonnes sold).

Describe how sales have

changed for each of the plastics.

Summarise in one sentence

how sales of plastics generally

have changed over the period.

Suggest reasons for the

changes you have reported.

1

2

3

LDPE

4698

4544

4920

4727

’92 ’94 ’96 ’98 ’92 ’94 ’96 ’98 ’92 ’94 ’96 ’98 ’92 ’94 ’96 ’98 ’92 ’94 ’96 ’98 ’92 ’94 ’96 ’98 ’92 ’94 ’96 ’98

LLDPE

899 1281

1429

1692

PVC

4829 5401

5251

5370

PP

4432 4982

5782

6834

HDPE

3107 3

718

3861

4195

PET

433

630

604 965

PS

1779

1749 2146

2194

ACTIVITY 2

Imagine that you are a small part of a thermoplastic polymer. You are part

of a lump of plastic material which is waiting to be processed into a cup.

You have strong chemical bonds along the polymer chain to parts of the

molecule next to you; you also have some weak bonds across to parts of the

polymer which are positioned near to you. The weak bonds keep the plastic

material solid and rigid.

As part of the manufacturing process, the plastic material is warmed to

make it soft and pliable; then squeezed in a press into a new shape; then

allowed to cool and solidify into the new shape.

Describe what happens to your part of the polymer as this processing

takes place.

Use words, a diagram, or a cartoon to do this.

It is clear from this that the chemicalbonding in a polymer and the shape ofthe polymer will affect its properties.

Although there are many different examples of plastics, they fall into two distinct categories:

These are called thermoplastic polymers because theykeep their plastic properties

These polymer molecules consist of long chains whichhave only weak bonds between the chains

The bonds between the chains are so weak that they canbe broken when the plastic is heated

The chains can then move around to form a differentshape

The weak bonds reform when it is cooled and thethermoplastic material keeps its new shape

These are called thermosetting polymers because onceset into a shape, that shape cannot be altered

These polymer molecules consist of long chains whichhave many strong chemical bonds between the chains

The bonds between the chains are so strong that theycannot be broken when the plastic is heated

This means that the thermosetting material alwayskeeps its shape

Those which soften on heating and then harden again on cooling

Those which never soften once they have been moulded

The bonding process. When thermoplastic polymers are heated they become flexible. There are no cross-links and themolecules can slide over each other. Thermosetting polymers do not soften when heated because molecules are cross-linked together and remain rigid

Most plastics made from thebasic chemicals that come

from naphtha are thermoplastic

Examples are polyethylene(HDPE, LDPE and LLDPE),

polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS),polyethylene terephthalate (PET), andpolyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Common examples ofthermosetting plastics are

polymers based on formaldehyde(Bakelite was the earliest example)

Examples aremelamine/formaldehyde

(MF), urea/formaldehyde (UF),phenol/formaldehyde (PF) and

polyurethane (PU)

Epoxy glues are alsothermosetting plastics

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The polymer is made from onemonomer e.g. A-A produces

In addition reaction, chains areformed from one small molecule. Themonomer always contains a carbon-carbon double bond.

Most thermoplastic plasticsmade from naphtha are

addition polymers. e.g. polyethylene,polypropylene, polystyrene.

High density polyethylene HDPE Dustbins Bottles Pipes

Low density polyethylene LDPE Bags and sacks Bin liners Squeezable detergent bottles

Polypropylene PP Margarine tubs and Garden furniture, Telephonesfood wrappings crates, suitcases Car bumpers

Polystyrene PS Food containers Computers Video and audio cassettes

Polyvinyl Chloride PVC Blood bags Credit cards Window frames and pipes

Polyethylene Terephthalate PET Fizzy drinks bottles Oven-proof trays Anorak and duvet filling

Polyurethane Upholstery Sports shoe soles Roller skate wheels

Acrylics (e.g. Perspex) Sink and bathtubs & tap tops Protective glasses Car light covers

Polycarbonates CDs Car headlights Firemen’s helmets

Plastic Uses

This table shows the main plastics and gives examples of some of their uses.

ACTIVITY 3

Write down the molecular formula of each of the

compounds shown above, in this form:

CxHyNz and CxHyOz

The first step in the polymerisation is the two monomers

reacting together to form a dimer. In this reaction a

molecule of water H2O is produced from the H of one of the

NH2 groups and the OH of one of the COOH groups.

Draw a diagram of this dimer.

Write down the formula

of each of these compounds

in this form:

CxHyOzNw

1 2

3

There are two ways of producing polymer chains:

Addition reactionsCondensation

reactions

The polymer is made from twomonomers e.g. A-A and B-B produce

In condensation reactions, chains areformed from two small molecules.During the reaction a small moleculesuch as water is formed and removed(condensed out). All thermosettingpolymers are condensation polymers,for example, formaldehyde-basedplastics and epoxides.

Some thermoplastic polymers arecondensation polymers. Examples areNylon and polyethylene terephthalate(PET).

Nylon belongs to a class of polymerscalled polyamides. Nylons are producedby condensation polymerisation. Twomonomers which can produce Nylon are:AA A A AA AA

CC

AA A B BBBA

H H H H H H HH

NC C C CCCN

H H H H H H H H

H

O

OO

H H H H

C C C CCC

H H H H

O

H

6 Extrusion andextrusion coating

The materials are heated, compressed,and extruded through a die of thedesired shape. Materials can also becoated with soft polymerand then passedbetween rollers togive an even coating(coatings on foodand drink containers).

Heated polymer is fed betweentwo rollers which squeezes itinto a thin sheet (flooring,tiles, panelling, sheeting).

4 Rotational moulding

Plastics powder or paste is heatedinside a closed mould which isrotated until the walls ofthe mould are coveredwith an even layerof polymer (large,hollow items suchas litter bins, fueltanks, drums).

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ACTIVITY 4

Find out more about the uses of plastics. Suggest two properties which PET has which the other plastics do not have.

What special properties do you think that polypropene has, if it is used as a wrapping for food such as biscuits and crisps?

Look at the uses of the two forms of polyethylene. From your knowledge of the different things which the two plastics are

made into, list the main differences in their properties.

Think about these objects which are all made from polyethylene:

➔ toys ➔ pipes ➔ film ➔ wrapcoatings for cardboard containers ➔ petrol tanks in cars ➔ electrical cable ➔ coatings

Which is likely to be made from the high density form, and which from the low density form? Why?

Consider PVC window frames. Suggest reasons why PVC compares favourably with other materials used for window frames.

Try and find out why PVC is used rather than other traditional materials.

Design an investigation to test the effectiveness of the plastic used to wrap biscuits. Begin with a clear statement of what

you wish to test. Now design a simple method of investigation.

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The plastic is first heated, thenthe soft polymer is

forced underpressure into acool, closed mould(containers, lids,footwear, crates,

gear wheels).

1 Injection moulding

2 Compression moulding

5

The polymer is placed in a mould andpressure applied to make the plastic

take up the shape of the mould(electrical plugs and sockets).

The warm, soft polymer is blowninto the shape of a mould by

compressed air or steam (bottles,containers).

Soft polymer is forced into atube-shape. This is blown upwith air and either heat sealed orslit (bags, film).

7 Calendering

The family of materials which formplastics has a wide variety of differentproperties. Some resist high pressureand extremes of temperature, someresist air and moisture. There aredifferent forms of the same basicplastics type which can be stiff orflexible and so suitable for particularapplications.

Plastics’ properties can also betailored by the use of additives (seecard 4).

Polymers are converted intoplastics products inseven main ways.These are listedhere. A briefdescription of thedifferent methodsis given and a listof typical products.

3 Blow moulding

Blow film extrusion

4

ACTIVITY 1

Today, plastics provide an environmentally sound and cost-effective

solution for many design challenges.

the propertiesof

Plastics do not usually conduct electricity. Think of as many different

ways in which this property is used in the home or at work.

A lot of the plastics used to package foods are transparent. How might

this increase food safety?

Plastics are widely used in hospitals. Look at this picture. What are the

particular advantages of using plastics in this way? Think of the advantages

that cheapness of production brings.

Plastics are likely to be safer than glass because they do not break, and

safer than steel because they do not rust and are less likely to have jagged

edges. Can you think of objects made from plastics which might pose a

hazard to people or animals if not disposed of sensibly?

Some plastics can withstand very high temperatures, why might this be

useful?

Some plastics are waterproof and resistant to attack by chemicals.

Think of ways in which these properties are useful to us.

Industries, especially the hi-tech onessuch as aerospace, medicine,computing and communications, relyon new plastics materials for progressin engineering and design. Plastics areoften superior to any other materialsin these fields. Many newdevelopments would not in fact bepossible without them.Think about the clothes we wear, thehouses we live in and how we travel.What about the toys we play with,the televisions we watch, thecomputers we use and CDs we listento? Whether we’re shopping in asupermarket, having major surgery ormerely brushing our teeth, plastics arean integral part of everything we do.

Why are plastics so widely used in allour lives? It is because they are:

➔ safe and hygienic

➔ tough and durable

➔ lightweight, cost-effective andconvenient

➔ good insulators

➔ flexible and adaptable

➔ capable of re-use

➔ supportive of innovation

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Safe and hygienic

ACTIVITY 2

1 Around 30-50% of food

produced in developing countries

is wasted before it reaches the

consumer, whereas in western

Europe this figure is only 2-3%.

Modern plastics packaging plays a

part in this. What other factors

might be responsible for this wide

difference?

Look around at home in the

kitchen or bathroom – or in a

supermarket. Find as many

different ways as you can in which

plastics add to the safe use of

other things.

By weight, plastics account for

about 50% of the packaging of

food sold in supermarkets, yet

only 17% of packaging waste by

weight is plastics. Look at these

pictures and think of the food you

buy yourselves. Make a list of

different types of packaging for

food. Think in particular of

examples of how shape is used as a

means of protection.

Expanded polystyrene is an

alternative to corrugated

cardboard as a protective

packaging material. Design an

investigation to compare the

effectiveness of the protection

offered by the two materials

against penetration by a sharp

object such as a screwdriver. You

will need to think of the quantity

of each material used to provide a

fair comparison. Discuss your

ideas before you begin the

investigation.

Bubble-wrap is widely used to

protect delicate objects such as

crockery. Just how effective is it?

How much protection can it give

to an egg? Design an investigation

which compares the amount of

protection given to the shell of a

hard-boiled egg as the amount of

bubble-wrap used changes. Begin

by thinking of ways in which you

can carry out the investigation.

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Tough and durable

cost-effective and

ACTIVITY 3

Suggest why using bottles

made from plastics on jet aircraft

can save up to £6000 per year on

the cost of running an aircraft.

What else might you need to

know about the plastic bottles

before you could say whether the

real saving was £6000? Explain

how it might be more or less

than this figure.

When faced with a choice of

using plastic or paper bags which

do you choose? Why? What does

it depend on? Make a list of the

advantages of both paper and

plastic bags for holding fruit and

vegetables.

Compare the masses of

plastic and paper bags which are

used to carry fruit and

vegetables. First of all decide

how you will ensure that your

test is a fair one.

Looking at your results,

discuss what the impact would

be on the mass of packaging used

if we had to use paper bags all

the time.

Compare a soft drink carried

in a plastic, glass, metal, and

card container. Measure the

masses of the total package and

the masses of the liquids they

contain. Make a chart showing

the percentage of the total mass

which is taken up by the

packaging material.

Compare a one-litre drink

packed in glass and one packed

in plastics. Make a list of the

differences in the use of energy

as it moves:

from the factory towarehouse to storage in theshop

from storage in the shop tothe shelves

from shelves to checkout tohome and storage

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Now do the same but compare

metal and card drinks packaging

with plastics. Are these likely to

be similar to glass or plastics?

Why?

Compare the four materials

again. Think of other advantages

and disadvantages of each one.

Now summarise the

advantages and disadvantages of

using plastics as containers.

Think of energy savings, the

amount of raw materials needed,

other environmental issues such

as pollution and waste, and the

impact on our lives.

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Lightweight, convenient

Plastics are widely used in cups,

mugs and beakers, at home and in

vending machines. You know that

various plastics materials conduct

heat to different extents. Design an

investigation to see how the

material used affects the rate at

which heat is lost from a cup containing hot water. Try to use expanded

polystyrene, a thin-walled plastic cup and a paper cup. You will need the

cups, a thermometer and a clock or watch that records seconds. Discuss

ways in which you will make this a fair comparison.

Plastics are normally poor conductors of electricity. Look around your

home and make a list of ways in which plastics are used in objects with

an electrical power supply. Looking back in time, would some of these

objects previously have been made of other materials? See if you can

identify the material which plastics have replaced.

ACTIVITY 4

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The properties of everyday plasticsare different from those of the basicpolymers. A wide range of additivesis used to give plastics the requiredproperties. They are ‘designer’materials – we are able to createexactly what we want from the rawmaterials.

The additives used include:

➔ Pigments incorporated intoplastics to add colour.

➔ Impact modifiers to ensure thatplastics don’t crack or break whenthey are knocked or bumped.

➔ Anti-static agents to reduce theamount of dust and dirt whichadheres to the plastic due tostatic electricity.

➔ UV absorbers protecting againstdecomposition by ultra-violetlight.

➔ Flame retardants reducing theflammability.

➔ Mineral fillers increasing rigidityand improving the properties ofelectrical insulation. Inertmaterials such as talc, chalk andclay are used.

➔ Blowing agents which breakdown at high temperatures(above 200°C) to release gasessuch as nitrogen or carbondioxide. When this happens insidea plastic in a mould, a foam isproduced.

➔ Anti-oxidants used widelyprolonging plastics’ life bypreventing reaction withoxygen and breakdown of thepolymer chain.

Flexible andadaptable

Good

insulators

The versatility of plastics. Theplastic wrapping is used to store andsafeguard this frozen meal. The plasticwrapping is removed and the meal canbe quickly reheated in a microwaveoven using the plastic container andcan then be eaten on the plastic plate.

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ACTIVITY 5

Today, everyone is more aware of theneed to act more responsibly to protectour world for the future – a drivetowards sustainable development. Thismeans acting in a way which does notlimit the range of economic, social andenvironmental options available tofuture generations.

Ensuring we use our valuableresources wisely is an importantconsideration for all of us. Re-use isone way of achieving this. But first wehave to make sure we use as littlenatural resources in production anduse as possible.

Plastics make the most of valuableresources by using the minimumamount of raw materials and energyduring manufacture and processing.

Plastics only consume a smallfraction - 4 per cent - of the world’soil. Today, plastics are lighter, yetstronger and more adaptable than everbefore, thanks to continuingtechnological innovation. This meansthat product for product,proportionally less of the world’s oiland energy resources are being usedwith lower overall impact on theenvironment.

Look at what happens to

plastics which come into the

home. How many are used

again – and what for?

How many are disposed of –

and how? Which are re-used

and which are thrown away?

Why is this?

Throughout their history, plastics haveenabled designers to innovate, toimprove existing products and tocreate new ones that improve ourquality of life and minimiseenvironmental impact.

In every aspect of our lives wehave benefited from theseinnovations. For example, theenhanced performance of the sportsequipment made with plastics hasallowed athletes to set themselvesever more challenging records tobreak. In medicine, plastics not onlyprovide an alternative to traditionalmaterials for garments and productsimproving hygiene and safety, butthey have enabled ground breakingdevelopments in micro-surgery.

Plastics packaging hassignificantly improved theconvenience of buying food for oneperson with microwavable packagingfor ready meals. And the shelf life ofpackaged fresh food has beenlengthened with oxygen-scavenging

films. Refill pouches for detergentshave significantly reduced thepackaging to product ratio found onsupermarket shelves.

They’ve contributed to increasedcomfort, safety and energy efficiencyof many forms of transport, from carsand bikes to planes and trains.Providing a lightweight alternative toconventional materials, they conservenatural resources in manufacture,contribute to reduced fuelconsumption and ultimately limitenvironmental impact. Plastics havealso played a crucial role inthe development of electriccar technology andinnovations such asairbags in cars and theaerodynamic noseconeof high-speed trainslike the Eurostar.

Communicationshas been completely transformed byplastics. With mobile phones, palm-top computers, the internet anddigital technology, we can accessinformation more easily and contactpeople while on the move. Internetusage is forecast to continue growingat more than 300 per cent a year.Although polymer optical fibres havebeen available for 30 years, theirusage has increased exponentially inline with the demand for cost-effective global communications.

If anything, the pace ofinnovation is increasing. Designers inevery industry are experimentingwith plastics’ capabilities. Where thepolymer doesn’t yet exist to meet thedesigner’s needs, researchers aredeveloping new types of plastics.Plastics batteries, light-emittingpolymers and roll-up computerscreens may sound like fantasy, butthey could be in the shops in thenear future.

1

Innovation

supporters

Capable of

re-use

5Everyone is increasingly aware that we need to act more

responsibly to protect our world for future generations.

Many industries and governmentsexplain their commitment as “actingin a way which does not limit therange of environmental, social andeconomic choices available to ourgrandchildren”. This mission is knownas ‘sustainable development’.

Everyone has a key role to play.Plastics and the plastics industry playtheir part in contributing tosustainable development in thefollowing ways:

➔ Environmental protection:

constantly seeking ways to helpsave resources such as oil, otherfossil fuels, water and even food.The industry aims to do morewith less.

➔ Economic development: the plasticsindustry adds value to societythrough the employment and thewealth it creates – over one millionworkers in Europe.

➔ Social progress: plastics play acrucial role in innovativetechnologies and products thatprovide higher standards of living,healthcare and education for anever-growing world population.

This card explores how plastics cancontribute to environmentalprotection to help us all achieve theambition of a more sustainablelifestyle. You may want to look atcards 4, 6 and 7 to help with some ofthe activities.

The environmental group Greenpeaceoften asks the question “why are weusing these materials in the first place

Doing more with less

protecting our world for future

and are they necessary?” This is agood starting point.

All products are made from rawmaterials. Most plastics are producedfrom crude oil, which is a limited andvaluable resource. However, very littleof total oil production is used for thispurpose – only 4 per cent for allplastics products. Although theproduction and use of plastics havegrown steadily, the amount of oil usedhas grown less quickly. This is becausecontinuing innovation means plasticsare lighter, yet stronger and moreadaptable.

This opens up a huge range of usesfor plastics yet at the same timemeans that, product for product,proportionally less of the world’s oiland energy resources are being used,with lower overall impact on theenvironment.

Describe three examples of efforts people are making now to live

more sustainable lives than, say, in the 60s and 70s, e.g. using less

energy than before, or using resources more efficiently. What benefits do

these efforts bring?

1

Assessing environmentalimpact

Everything we use, whether made ofwood, glass, plastics, paper or metal,has an impact on the environment.This includes finding raw materials,making and using products anddisposing of them at end-of-life.

Heating,electrical &

energy42%

Transport45%

All other 5%

Other petrochemicals 4%

Plastics 4%

ACTIVITY 1

Environmental impacts includecontribution to global warming,depletion of finite natural resourcesand waste. Without taking all of thesefactors into account, through properstudies, it is impossible to make soundenvironmental decisions. Such studiesinvolve looking at each part of the ‘lifecycle’ of a product, as shown above.While the European wastemanagement industry is working hardto meet the challenges of therecovery targets set by the EU (seecard 6), it is important to keep inmind the ultimate goal – the efficientuse of resources to meet the needs offuture generations. In some instances,new plastics products andtechnologies, that reduce the amountof raw materials used and the impactduring use, may make it moredifficult, and therefore lesseconomically or environmentally

beneficial, to collect and sort theplastics at end-of-life.

For example, lightweight film usesless raw materials than traditional

packaging options and is lighter totransport meaning less fuel isconsumed and fewer emissionsproduced. However, at end-of-life,plastics film is often contaminatedand difficult to separate from thehousehold waste making it difficultto recycle mechanically. Using lifecycle analysis it is possible todetermine the overall environmentalimpact of a product, from productionto disposal.

ACTIVITY 2

Think of a plastics item you might find in your home or classroom. Using

the flow diagram as a frame, consider the environmental impact of this item

throughout its life cycle.

Use these ideas to draw your own flow diagram. Begin by making a rough

sketch and then compare notes with others in your group. Then see if there

are any points you want to add to your sketch before making your final

diagram. You might find it helpful to add artwork of some kind.

Make sure it is clearly labelled with the following key words:

➔ raw materials ➔ energy ➔ manufacture

➔ product distribution ➔ consumer use ➔ re-use

➔ disposal ➔ combustion with energy recovery

➔ recycling ➔ chemical treatment ➔ landfill

1

Savings throughout thelife cycle

raw materials

acquisition

manufacturing,

processing and

formulation

distribution and

transportation

use/re-use/

maintenance

recycling

waste management

Reducing the amount of rawmaterial used in the first place

New polymers and new technologieshave greatly reduced the amount ofraw materials needed to pack aproduct. For example, by printinginformation directly onto the plasticswrapper of its bread, one supermarkethas reduced the need for extra labelsand packaging materials by 23 percent per package.

Using less fuel, creating feweremissions during use

Reducing the amount of material usedin a product has a direct impact onthe weight of loads. For example,reducing the amount of packaging for

outputs

watereffluents

airborneemissions

solid wastes

products

power and heat

inputs

energy

raw materials

a product – whether large or small –means you transport more productand less package each time you fill atruck or load a train. This reducesemissions, fuel usage and costs.Granular detergents are now beingsold in plastics pouches which use 90per cent less packaging thanequivalent containers.

Improvements in design andtechnology used in cars havedramatically reduced fuelconsumption. Between 1974 and1988, fuel consumption dropped byan average of 14 per cent for 18 carmodels in Europe. Plastics contributedto at least half the saving throughlighter weight and improvedaerodynamics because of theirmouldability.

Minimising impact and maximisingrecovery at end of life

Often we look at waste when wethink about saving resources. But animportant question should be askedbefore we think about waste andwhether it should be recycled orthrown away. Can we prevent it frombecoming waste in the first place?Either by reducing the amount ofmaterial used to make it or extendingits life by re-using the product.

Making transport work harderDifferent modes of transport havedifferent environmentalconsequences. For instance, ifeveryone travelled to school by bus,rather than in individual cars, therewould be less fuel used and feweremissions. This may not always be apractical solution but we should all beencouraging such systems.

Plastics have made a greatcontribution to energy efficiency intransport because they are light andreduce the weight of vehicles. Thiscan be achieved by a simple designsolution i.e. choosing plastics insteadof a heavier material, and bytechnological advances.

For example plastics have madepossible the largest one-piececomponent in the world – a railwaycarriage. This is manufactured inSwitzerland and has four majorbenefits:

➔ the carriages are quicker to make;

➔ they are 25 per cent lighter thantraditional carriages;

➔ they need less raw materials anduse less energy to manufacture.

➔ Their low mass means less energyis needed to pull them, there is lesswear on the machinery, the wheelsand the rails and the plasticsmaterial will not rust.

Looking further into the future, itis predicted that ultra light-weightvehicles will be made from plastics,including parts of the engine,transmission and axles. This couldmean a 500kg car with greatlyincreased fuel efficiency that weighsless than its passengers and luggagewhile retaining its safety features.

Sustainable development

ACTIVITY 3

and how we can make a contribution in our

day-to-day lives

For example, a large chain ofsupermarkets encouraged customersto bring the company’s plastics bagsback to their stores and use them

again. The incentive was a smallrefund for every bag re-

used. As a result, theyreduced their use ofnew bags by 60million in one yearand saved 1000

tonnes of plastics. ACTIVITY 4

Look at the different

means of transport which

students in your class use

to travel to school. List

some parts of those vehicles

which are made of plastics,

e.g. car seat, bicycle

mudguard. For each one,

what alternative material

could be used, e.g. leather,

metal. Can you describe any

advantages or disadvantages

of using plastics in terms of

function, environmental

impact or cost?

1

Find an example of an

object that can be made from

less raw material today than

in the past. Does the object

function better, worse or the

same?

Do you think there are

energy savings from using

less raw materials to make

it? What are they?

1

http://www.apme.org

➔ Emergency housing: today, morepeople live in cities than the totalnumber of humans alive 100 yearsago. At the same time, with theworld’s population growing fasterthan at any time in history, theprovision of shelter is becomingeven more critical. Advances inplastics engineering and design areallowing the development of low-cost ‘system-built housing’ that canbe constructed simply and quicklyin any climate and can even meetthe demands of earthquake zones.

What do you think is meant by an ‘intelligent polymer’? Describe an

imaginary intelligent polymer and what uses it would have.

What functional and

environmental benefit might

there be to ‘system-built

housing’ compared with

conventional building methods?

Think of the features of a

housing construction site, e.g.

bricks, wooden beams, window

frames, glass.

ACTIVITY 5

1

Creating sustainable buildingsThere are many examples of buildingmaterials and fittings where plasticsmaterials are replacing traditionalones because of their benefits ofstrength, durability, lightness,insulation, low cost, lowenvironmental impact, non-corrosionand aesthetic appeal. These includewindow frames, pipes and insulation.

Plastics contribute to sustainablebuildings in a number of ways:

➔ Energy efficiency: is a key concernin modern buildings, and plasticscan provide huge benefits. Innorthern European countries,almost one quarter of total energyconsumption is used for domesticheating. Plastics’ insulatingproperties means that this can andis being reduced considerably.Research shows that 50kg ofplastics foam used to insulate ahouse saves 3,700 litres of heatingfuel over 25 years – equivalent to150 litres a year. It is estimatedthat since the energy crisis of the1970s, the use of such foam inconstruction has saved theequivalent of more than five billiongallons of oil.

➔ Environmental impact: in southernEurope, more and more homes arebeing fitted with solar heatingsystems which turn the sun’senergy into heat. Plastics are avital component of the solar heatingequipment.

As well as helping to warmbuildings, plastics can also helpkeep them cool. Two ‘intelligent’polymers are now being developedto provide shade and preventoverheating in buildings. Thematerials are transparent at roomtemperature but become milkywhen exposed to bright sunlight.They reflect the light and preventthe building overheating. They willprovide alternatives to blinds andthe need for air conditioning.

➔ Space exploration is providing theinspiration for some of thesedevelopments. For example, one ofthe concepts considered for livingquarters on the International SpaceStation is a lightweight, inflatablehabitation module. Based on thedesign of a space suit, the module isa multi-layer, puncture-resistantconstruction to house four to sixastronauts.

6Despite reduction and re-use, there will always be waste to deal with,

whatever materials we use.

deal ing with

As the demand for plastics grows, thechallenge is to find ways to ensuremaximum recovery to avoid the lossof a valuable resource at the end of aplastics product’s or package’s usefullife. The best way to do this is to useall the available recovery techniquesto optimise the balance betweenenvironmental gain and cost. Thereare three main options to manageplastics waste:

The process of mechanical recycling isencouraged where it makesenvironmental and economic sense.For example, this is often the casewhen large amounts of the same typeof plastics waste can be easily collected,such as distribution and agriculturalfilms, car battery cases, soft drinksbottles and other containers.

Recycling

The five stages in the recycling ofplastics are:

1 disposal by the user

2 collection by a local authority orcompany

3 sorting into single types ofplastics

4 cleaning to remove labels, dirtand content residues

5 re-processing into granules orflakes which can then be formedinto new products

Throughout the European Union,material recycling targets have beenset for some sectors and opportunitiesto increase plastics recycling are being

explored. For packaging, for example,research forecasts that there is thepotential to increase the amount ofmechanically recycled packagingplastics to a European average of 15per cent in 2006, compared to 11 percent in 1995. There are alsoopportunities for increases in areassuch as agriculture, automotive andproduct distribution. However, thereare barriers where the waste is hard tocollect or where different componentsin integrated, complex products, mustbe separated (for example computersand electronic equipment).

Different thermoplastics do notmix well when heated together andthe strength of the recyclate isreduced. While mixed plastics can berecycled into products such as fenceposts it is much better to recycle thesame type of plastics together.

Recovery Options

Municiple Solid Waste

(MSW)The incineration of

plastics waste alongwith other materials in

MSW can safely andcleanly generate heat

and/or power.

Mechanicalrecycling

Material reprocessingof waste plastics byphysical means intoplastics products.

Feedstockrecycling

Material reprocessing ofwaste plastics by

chemical means intobasic chemicals,

monomers for plasticsor hydrocarbon

feedstock.

High calorificalternative fuelWhen separated fromother waste, the high

energy content ofplastics make them anexcellent substitute forfossil fuels in energy-

intensive processes, forexample in cement

production.

Landfill – A disposal route for residues not recoverable

Energy recovery

Plastics are made from oil –this gives them a calorificvalue equal to or greater

than coal. This energyvalue can be recovered

via combustion.

Material recycling

Reprocessing in a productionprocess of waste plastics forthe original purpose or forother purposes excludingdirect energy recovery.

ACTIVITY 1electrostatic separation. Thiscan be used with plastics that

take different electrical charges – forexample, PET and PVC

selective dissolution. Organicsolvents are used to dissolve

one or more polymer types that canthen be filtered, isolated andre-solidified

It is important to try to separate different plastics early in the recycling process.

Why is waste separated into different plastics always likely to be more

valuable and more useful than waste which remains mixed?

Why are dark plastics separated from clear plastics - even though they are

made from the same material?

Have a look at home at the plastics packaging materials in the kitchen or

bathroom. Look for the code number stamped on the bottom or inside of a

container. Make a table showing which plastics are used for which purposes.

Make a careful note of where two different plastics are used in the same

item e.g. for a lid and a container. Why are different types selected?

1

2

3

4 ACTIVITY 2

The density of

polypropene is 0.91 g/cm3.

The density of polystyrene is

1.05 g/cm3. What density

would a liquid need to be to

make sure that the

polypropene floated and the

polystyrene sank?

PET has a density of

1.35 g/cm3. What density

would a liquid need to be if it

was to separate PET from

polystyrene?

Ease of separation of

plastics materials is now

being taken into account at

the design stage. What

recommendations about

design rules would you make?

Think about densities, colour,

inks and labels.

Recycling makes a lot of

sense, but only if demand for

recycled materials matches

the supply. If demand is much

less than the supply, what

will happen to…

➔ the price paid for therecycled material

➔ the amount of recycledmaterial in storage

➔ the costs of the process

➔ the profitability of theprocess?

If there is a large

difference between supply

and demand, the amount of

waste being collected will

have to be reduced. What

effect might this have on

public opinion and on the

wisdom of recycling?

1

2

3

4

5

The common plastics have been givena code number which you will find onmuch of today’s packaging. Thiscoding system can now be used tohelp identify plastics when separatedby hand. In several Europeancountries, including Germany andFrance, a labelling system called the‘green dot’ is used to indicate thatmoney has been paid to nationalrecycling systems.

To further help in recycling end-of-life products, manufacturers arebeing encouraged to take recyclinginto account at the design stage. Thiscould, for instance, involve making alabel more easily removeable from a

package by using water-soluble glue.Recycled plastics are often used in

completely different applications. Forexample, fizzy drinks bottles are mainlyrecycled into fibres.

Apart from hand-sorting, threeother methods for separation are used:

analysis of the elements inthe plastic. PVC is easy to

spot because of the chlorine atom inthe molecule. Automatic systems exist,for example to identify and sortdifferent types of plastics bottles

separation by density. Theplastics are cut into

flakes and mixed with a liquid sothat some float and some sink,or can be spun in centrifuges

PET (polyethylene

terephthalate)

HDPE (high density

polyethylene)

LDPE (low density

polyethylene)

V (vinyl)*

*PVC

PP (polypropylene) PS (polystyrene) Other (including

multi-layer)

Re-use and recycling are not the onlywaste management options. Plasticswaste has a high calorific value,equivalent to coal or oil, which can besafely and cleanly released throughcombustion to generate heat and/orpower.

There are three main types ofplants to recover energy from plasticswaste: combustion with householdwaste in a municipal incinerator or thecombustion of plastics as a fuel, usuallyin combination with traditional fossilfuels in a manufacturing process or apower generation plant. Pre-sortedmixed plastics packaging waste forexample, has been used effectively as asubstitute for coal in energy-intensiveprocesses such as cement manufacture.In mixed waste incineration, the 8%plastics content produces 30% of theheat energy released.

One concern often associatedwith combustion is the level of dioxinemissions. A very small number ofthese are toxic although their degree

There are four main methods offeedstock recycling:

Pyrolysis

Plastics waste is heated in avacuum producing a mixture ofgaseous and liquid hydrocarbonsnot unlike petroleum.

Hydrogenation

Plastics waste is heated withhydrogen. This ‘cracks’ thepolymers into a liquid hydrocarbon.

Gasification

Plastics waste is heated in airproducing a mixture of carbonmonoxide and hydrogen gases.This is used to produce new rawmaterials such as methanol.

Chemolysis

Certain plastics can be chemicallytreated and turned back into theraw materials for making the sameplastics.

ACTIVITY 3

Summarize these processes in a flow diagram. Make sure that you

distinguish between the different stages, and between the usefulness of the

four end-products.

What other factors do we need to take into account before we can know

whether processes such as these are actually of benefit? Think of the costs

involved.

1

2

of toxicity varies greatly.Dioxins are formed where carbon,

oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine and heatare present and they are an unwantedby-product in a variety of combustionand manufacturing processes. Theycan also occur in nature in forestfires, volcanoes and compost heaps.

Dioxin emissions from wastecombustion have been closelymonitored and much researchundertaken to reduce such emissionsto meet the most stringent safetyrequirements. Well operatedincinerators in fact destroy dioxins.European legislation means that by2005 all municipal and clinical wastecombustion will contribute just 11gper year (or 0.3%) to overall dioxinemissions.

Already across Europe over2.6 million tonnes of plastics waste isburnt each year replacing fossil fuelsto produce useful heat and/or power.This takes place in well-managedincineration plants or cement workswhere emissions are carefullymonitored and limited.

There is an obvious need inrecycling to balance supply anddemand. There is no point incollecting material for recycling if therecycled material cannot be producedand marketed in an environmentallyand economically acceptable way.There is also a need to consider otherways of treating waste.

What should we do?

➔ Recycle plastics as materials?

➔ Recycle them as feedstock

chemicals?

➔ Release the energy they contain

through combustion?

Feedstock recycling

Energy from waste

The potential of new recyclingtechnologies such as feedstockrecycling is being investigated by theplastics industry.

Feedstock recycling, which ismainly used for mixed plastics wasteis currently only practised in Germanybut possible investment in othercountries is being considered. There isstill much to be learnt about thepotential for these technologies ifthey are to offer the opportunity toincrease recycling in the future.

Collection and sorting

Treatment of the plastics wastee.g. grinding

Feedstock recycling into basic rawmaterials

Closed-loop recycling back to theoriginal plastics or as feedstock for

new petrochemical products

15000

12500

10000

7500

5000

2500

kcal

1kg lignite 1kg diesel oil 1kg plastics

This diagram shows the heat energycontent of 1kg of lignite, diesel oil andplastics.

The answer is probably to do all three,and to decide on the best combinationof options. The option chosen dependson the specific circumstances. Forexample: What sector is the wastefrom? How is it collected? Whatsorting, separation technology isavailable? Is there a demand forrecyclate, feedstock or alternativefuel? Studies can be done which assessthe environmental impact of therecovery or disposal option chosen. Infact, such studies can be carried outover the whole life-cycle of theplastics product and this sort ofanalysis can help with choosing thebest material at the design stage.

Degradable plastics have beenproduced which can be broken downeither by light or bacteria, but theyare not yet widely used. Such plastics,however, are not an easy solution towaste management because they cantake many years to degradecompletely and can represent the lossof a valuable resource that could beotherwise recovered for a second life.However, they do have certain

Degradability

ACTIVITY 5

1/ Draw up a table of

advantages and

disadvantages of

➔ recycling of waste

➔ energy recovery fromwaste through burning

Think of transport costs,

emissions, effect on other

resources, land use.

Legislation now strictly

controls the design and

operation of landfill areas.

1

http://www.apme.org

ACTIVITY 4

1/ Look at the following information & produce a poster which summarises it.

2.6 tonnes of domestic waste has the energy value of 1 tonne of coal.A 10% increase in the amount of waste combusted would save over1 million tonnes of coal.

Sweden already recovers energy from 33% of its plastics in domesticwaste, providing a significant proportion of its total district heatingneeds. In Denmark, 56% of plastics in domestic waste is recovered forenergy. In Switzerland the figure is 55%.

If European waste was incinerated and the heat energy recovered, it couldprovide 5% of our domestic electricity needs and halve coal imports.

This table shows what happens to plastics waste across Europe

Amounts (’000 tonnes) 1994 1995 1996 1997

total plastics waste 17505 16871 17454mechanically recycled 1057 1222 1440feedstock recycled 51 99 251 334energy recovered 2348 2698 2496 2575total plastics recovered 4019 4067 4349% waste recovered 20% 25% 24%

1

2

Complete the table by calculating the data missing from the empty boxes.

applications in medicine (e.g.degradable stitches and other bio-products) and agriculture (e.g. film forimproving the growth of crops).

In parts of Europe where waste cannotbe burnt to release energy, it is stilldisposed of in landfill sites. Landfill is awaste of resources. The plastics industryis committed to optimising thecombination of recovery options todivert as much waste as possible fromlandfill.

In the past, landfill sites have oftenbeen located in disused quarries or claypits. Filling these large holes in theground with solid waste has been agood way of removing landscape eye-sores and restoring land.

Landfill sites contain organicmaterial – usually more than 50 percent of the total mass of waste.Because of this they behave likegigantic compost heaps with paper,food and natural fibres slowly breakingdown through bacterial activity.Modern sites can contain many millionsof tonnes of material, with thousandsof tonnes being added each day.

Landfill

Landfill sites create two by-products – a liquid and a gas. Theliquid is rather like concentratedsewage and must be contained withinthe site to avoid its seeping into thewater supply. To prevent this, the siteis usually lined with clay or plastics.The gas is a mixture of carbon dioxideand methane (which can be explosiveif not properly controlled) and bothcontribute to global warming. Thereare a number of sites where this gas isnow collected and used for thegeneration of electricity or heat.

Today, it is recognised that landfillis not a viable long-term wastemanagement option. To encouragemanufacturers to design products thatmaximise the use of resourcesthroughout the life-cycle and to makerecovery options more attractive, thefinancial cost of landfill is beingincreased.

This card has shown something ofthe three main options for dealingwith plastics.

➔ Recycling

➔ Combustion with energy recovery

➔ Disposal

All of these are used to varyingdegrees across Europe today. There arechanges from time to time as to whichprocess is the most attractive. Forexample, changing oil prices on theworld market can affect the value ofrecovered plastics materials and hencethe incentive to recycle.

7Individuals, communities, corporations – we all contribute to the large

amounts of waste that need to be taken care of.

deal ing with

On average each of us throws outthese items each year:

As discussed in card 4, plastics areoften used for packaging becausethey are resilient, light, clean and costeffective. Therefore, household wastecontains plastics as well as othermaterials. In card 6 we looked at someof the ways in which we can dealwith plastics waste.

Increasingly, efforts are beingmade to manage this waste in orderto reduce its impact on theenvironment and maximise theamount of waste given a second life.

Once collected, waste can be re-used, recycled or recovered asenergy. As a last resort it shouldbe buried in landfill sites forsafe disposal. However,when we throw thingsaway irresponsibly theyhave no chance ofentering a sensible waste

management andrecovery system andinstead, they become

litter. Litter typically consists of

packaging items thrown awaywithout regard to the surroundings.It ends up in public spaces causingserious social, and environmentalconsequences, as well as being awaste of resources.

In an ideal world, litter would notexist because people would behavewith care for their environment.

One of the most important stepstowards solving the litter problem ismaking sure that everyone knowsthat it is people who create litter,and not the companies which makethe products.

Sadly, wherever you are youwill find litter – in citycentres, the countryside,on the coast and at sea.Although it’s hard tobelieve, even MountEverest in theHimalayas has a litterproblem!

A survey of European cities foundthat the top five items of litter werecigarette butts and matchsticks,pieces of paper, sweet wrappers andbits of plastics.

To find out whether our attitudetowards littering is improving orgetting worse, litter in theenvironment is measured.

Identifying litter

of vegetable wasteand food scraps

70kg

66 plasticbottles

130newspapers ormagazines

290metalcans

110 glassbottles

ACTIVITY 1

One way of measuring litter is with alitter index such as the one below.Using a five-point scale, litter found ona 50-metre length of road, footpath,beach or parkland is measured.

Nearly all of us can remember anincident when our behaviour createdlitter. The way we act in differentenvironments determines the type oflitter produced and where it isfound.

For example, litter found onbeaches comes from a number ofsources. Holiday-makers picnickingon the beach bring a large number ofdisposable items such newspapers,packaged food and drinks andcigarettes. When these items aretaken home after use or put in a bin,

no litter is created, butfrequently people don’t

dispose of themresponsibly. Sometimes

this is becausethere are not

enoughbins, but

often it isjust carelessness.

But not all coastal litter is createdby irresponsible individuals at thelocation in question. Evenuninhabited islands are littered withmaterials washed ashore by oceancurrents that do not recognisenational boundaries. This litter cancome from other beaches or by the

(source: Tidy Britain Group)

As a class, identify at least ten different 50-metre strips of land near your

school or where you live. Identify, list and classify all the items of litter.

For example bottles, bags, cigarette butts.

Which items are most commonly found?

Which could be dangerous to people or wildlife? Explain why.

Which would be difficult or costly to remove?

Which could be recycled or used again?

Using the Litter Index below, what grade A-D would you give to the areathat you surveyed?

Based on the Tidy Britain Litter Index, towns and cities can be assessed as awhole. If ten sites were surveyed and each scored A (or 5), then the townwould score 50/50 or 100%, but if each site scored only D (or 1) then itscleanliness index would be 10/50 or 20%.

Use the grades that the class calculated for the ten sites to calculate anoverall cleanliness index for your neighbourhood.

Although you are probably moreaware of the litter in your local areathan elsewhere, when you visit otherplaces you cannot escape the litterproblem. In fact, litter in holidayspots and at sea attracts the mostattention. Is this because we expectto enjoy the seaside or naturalscenery where we choose to spendour holidays and forget that ouractions create the same impactwherever we are?

Grade A Rating 5/5

Completely free of allitems of litter

Grade A- Rating 4/5

Appears free of litter but oncareful inspection has 5 or less

small items of litter

Grade B Rating 3/5

Small items of litter present,like bits of paper and milk

bottle tops

Grade C Rating 2/5

Clearly noticeable build-up of litter: cigarette butts, paper,

cans and packets

Grade D Rating 1/5

Lots of clearly visible litter and large items like

household goods

▲▲▲▲▲

Coastwatch Europe collects dataabout coastal litter and pollution.A recent survey of some 10,000 sitesfound over 60 items of packaginglitter at each location. These includedcans, cartons, bags and bottles as wellas cigarette butts, matches andnewspapers. Pollutants – includingsewage, oil and tar – were also seen.

of litter

Causes and consequences

ACTIVITY 2

casual but illegal dumping at sea ofitems including food packaging andbottles.

While some litter will rot overtime, much of it remains unless it iscollected and removed. Apart fromthe fact that it is unpleasant tolook at and spoils our environment,

it can also:

injure peopleFor example, rustingcans and broken glasscan lie hidden in thesand or in the grass

and cause nastyinjuries when people

tread on them.

be a health hazardInsects, rats and micefrequently congregatearound discarded foodwrappers andsanitary products,potentially leadingto the spread ofdisease.

kill or injure wildlifeFor example, a harmless plastic bagdisposed of carelessly could look likean edible jellyfish to a sea turtle, but ifeaten it may kill. Damaged fishing netscut loose by fishermen can be a deathtrap for dolphins who becomeentangled and drown.

cost money to clean upFor example, according to the Local

Government Financial StatisticsUnit of the Department of

Environment, Transport andthe Regions, street cleaningin England and Wales costslocal authorities almost

£340 million a year.Throughout Europe, campaigns havebeen run to raise people’s awareness oflitter. In the UK, the Tidy Britain Group,which uses programmes of action andeducation to fight litter andlittering, is the recognisednational agency. On amore local scale, schemesrange from theannual enlisting ofvolunteers fromschools, sportsclubs and localorganisationsto help clearlitter on aparticularday, to more formal partnerships. Forexample, in Devon, the Tamar EstuariesManagement Plan brings togetherlocal municipal and harbourauthorities, water companies andresidents. They work together to ensurethat adequate facilities for litterdisposal are in place, collection servicesarranged and that the public is keptinformed.

ACTIVITY 3

Find out what schemes operate

in your country, who is involved

and how they work.

solve the problem of litter?What can be done to

Everyone is responsible for theproblem. If anyone breaks the litter orwaste disposal laws then localauthorities can take action. Thishappens all over Europe. Localauthorities also encourage individualsto take pride in their area, providedisposal facilities and organise littercollection. Clearly, it is much cheaperto manage waste disposed ofresponsibly, than to collect it as litterfrom the streets, countryside and sea.

Think about the type of waste found in different places:

rural, urban and coastal.

Who is responsible for the litter in each environment?

Do you think the amount of litter has increased in recent years?

Consider each environment in turn, what measures could be taken toreduce litter?

Identify what litter might be biodegradable, do you think biodegradabilityis the answer to protect our environment or would it encourage people tolitter more?

Consider the consequences of the types of litter foundin each environment.

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http://www.apme.org

What can you doACTIVITY 4

Who would you needto involve?

Which organisations/authorities would beable to help oradvise?

Which organisationswould you need toconsult?

Can you say that you have never addedto the problem? When did you last dropa sweet or crisp wrapper, a piece ofchewing gum or drinks can somewhereother than in a waste bin?

Now you have learnt a bit moreabout the consequences of youractions, would you stop and thinkbefore contributing to the litter

problem?

While it is important that cleaningup litter is organised, it is only part ofa solution. We all have a role to playso that one day litter will no longerbe a problem.

As a class, discuss the litter problems in your local area.

Think about the causes and the consequences. Choose ONE

aspect of the litter problem and draw up a plan to tackle it.

For example, this could be organising a litter

awareness campaign in your school, or getting the

local authorities to place more bins in a specific

location.

Make sure your plan answers these points:

How could the planbe carried out?

How would you tellpeople about it andget them to takepart?

How would you checkits progress?

How and when wouldyou measure itssuccess or failure?

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to help?

8

We live on a blue planet, where two-thirds of the surface is covered with

water, but most of the water on Earth is too salty to be useful for

anything but sailing on.

for l i fe

Only 3.5 per cent of the planet’s totalsurface water is fresh, and most of thatis frozen in the ice caps. A mere 0.01per cent – one drop in every bucketful– is in a form suitable for direct humanuse: in streams, rivers, lakes andgroundwater aquifers.

Between 1950 and 1990, globalwater demand tripled – and it is stillrising. If current trends persist, thedemand for water could exceed theavailable supply within 30 years. Theresimply won’t be enough falling fromthe sky to satisfy our needs.

to solveA problem But we need more water now. TheUN has declared water a human right,which means that everyone shouldhave access to sufficient, affordable,accessible and safe water supplies andsanitation services. Unfortunately, onebillion people live without access toadequate drinking water, and over twobillion people lack basic sanitation.

Every day, 10,000 children die fromcholera and other waterborne diseases.Eighty per cent of all diseases and one-third of all deaths in developing nationsare caused by contaminated water.Bilharzia, typhoid, salmonella, E coli,hepatitis, parasitic worms – all theseare potential killers. They can be foundin the rivers and streams that many ofthe world’s poor depend on for their

water supplies.There are many needs that

must be met by clean water.Farmers need water for their crops.

Families need water for cooking andwashing. In parts of Africa, women andchildren may spend three hours a daywalking to a water source, thenqueuing for a chance to fill a pot.

Water is also a problem in Europe.In an average year, over 3000 cubicmetres of water are available for everyEuropean Union inhabitant. Around 20per cent of the available water isactually used, but there are stillshortages in some areas. For example,in southern European countries,periodic droughts are a majorenvironmental, social and economicproblem. In other countries, ageingwater supply systems lead to crackedpipes and subsequent water leakage.

The problem of water shortageslooks set to get worse due to theimpact of climate change. Mostscientists agree that globaltemperatures will rise by the end of thecentury by between 1.4°C and 5.8°C.There are likely to be more floods andstorms but also more droughts andheat waves, affecting crop yields, watersupplies and health.

We have to learn to use the waterwe have more carefully, in a moreefficient way. The world is becomingincreasingly aware of the need to actmore responsibly to extend our help tothose in need and at the same time, toprotect our world for futuregenerations; what is now known as“sustainable development”. This is aterm used to describe acting in a waythat does not limit the economic, social

ACTIVITY 1

How much water do you

think you use on average per

day? Think about what purposes

you use water for and list some

ways in which you could be

more efficient in your use of

water.

Identify three European

countries that you think would

be likely to suffer water

shortages in summer.

Can you discover the name

of one European country that

uses desalinated sea water for

nearly half its drinking water?

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22008 UK Water AW 04-03-2003 10:21 Pagina 2

and environment options available tous now and in the future. Efforts topromote sustainable developmentreceived a boost at the World Summiton Sustainable Development held inJohannesburg, South Africa, in 2002,where world leaders met to discuss theprotection of the environment and howto tackle the causes of povertythroughout the planet. Scarcity andmisuse of fresh water were highlightedas two of the most serious threats tosustainable development. As a result ofthe Summit, all heads of governmentsagreed to aim to halve the number ofpeople without access to clean water orproper sanitation by 2015.

Water can be ‘delivered’ toconsumers in different ways. Whateverthe solution, the aim is to makeavailable adequate quantities of watersafe for human consumption.

Plastics play a vital role inpreserving and distributing watereconomically and reliably to a growingworld population. In many areas of theworld where water is scarce,conservation and irrigation systemshelp retain water and distribute it –either for domestic or industrial use,or for growing crops. Plastics are afavoured material in many of theseapplications due to their cost-effectiveness, ease of transport andassembly, flexibility and durability.

‘All people, whatever their stage ofdevelopment and social andeconomic condition, have the right tohave access to drinking water inquantities and of a quality equal totheir basic needs.’Source: UN Conference at Mar del Plata, 1977

ACTIVITY 2

Where would it be best to source water for piping? Further upstream?

From a deep water pool? From a spring above the village? Explain why.

Contaminated water may contain bacteria, viruses and parasites. For

each type of contamination, give an example and explain how someone

would be made ill by the micro-organism in the water.

The Guinea Worm is a parasite. Explain what a parasite is. Which of the

following are parasites and which are not?

house fly, fleas, rats, dandruff, tapeworm, salmonella

Would filtering water protect against bacteria and viruses? Explain why.

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Preserving and distributingclean water

In much of the world, polluted water,improper waste disposal, and poorwater management cause serious publichealth problems. Such water-relateddiseases as malaria, cholera, typhoid,and schistosomiasis harm or kill millionsof people every year. In an ideal world,the solution would be to prevent thewater supplies becoming polluted inthe first place. But sewage treatment toclean the water source is expensive andeven European rivers aren’t drinkingwater quality… yet!

There are other ways of accessingclean water. In remote mountain areas,such as Nepal, there is often plenty ofwater. But poor hygiene and a lack ofsanitation may leave the village streamor river badly polluted. One solution isto pipe in clean water from furtherupstream, relying on gravity flow.Plastic piping is ideal for this situation.It is light, flexible, easy to carry, yetstrong once it is in place.

life

Use of abstracted water(ie taken from rivers,reservoirs, canals etc) inEurope: 18% – public water supply30% – agriculture (mainlyirrigation)14% – industry, excludingcooling water38% – power (hydropower,cooling water) and non-defined uses

In lowland areas, the problems areoften more difficult. There are morepeople competing for the same water,which is often dirty and unsafe. Oneanswer is to drill down to the water-bearing aquifer below the surface.Using hand pumps and plastics pipes, avillage can often find clean water, butthe drilling operation can be expensiveand, if too much water is extracted, theaquifer itself can become contaminated.

Plastics also help purify water andremove disease-causing bacteria andparasites. A simple nylon filter hasalmost eradicated Guinea WormDisease which cripples victims, leavingthem unable to work, attend school,care for children or harvest crops.

The worm enters through thedigestive system, but then makes itsway to anywhere in the body, boringclose to the skin surface. When aninfected person steps into water, theworm releases millions of larvae. Peoplewho drink the water become infected –and the cycle starts all over again.

The answer is to filter the parasitesout of the water. In the past, this hasbeen done with muslin cloth, but thespecial nylon monofilament cloth iseasier to disinfect and cheaper tosupply. Filtering has successfullyreduced the cases of infection by95 per cent.

WaterAid was able to help7 million people gain accessto clean water in thedeveloping world, thanks, inpart, to plastic piping.

Water for

22008 UK Water AW 04-03-2003 10:21 Pagina 3

Preventing water lossthrough conservation and

irrigationWater lossIn most countries, leakage in waterdistribution networks is still too high.

Previously, where traditionalmaterials were used in the constructionof piping infrastructure, cracks andleaks would occur in the piping systemsover time. In some Europeancountries, old pipes resultin losses of up to30 per cent andthe cost ofleakage isestimated at over9 billion euros / year in clean waterwasted alone.

Although rarely seen, plastics pipesunder our streets and in our homesplay a critical role in delivering cleanwater for drinking and other needs. InEurope today, modern housing oftenuses high-strength plastic piping todeliver gas and water.

Plastics pipes have a long life-time, are flexible and mouldablewhich means that they are lessvulnerable to damage and easy tomanufacture and assemble. They areextremely strong, which means theycan be used in the most demandingof conditions, crucial to ensure thatthey can distribute water in townsand cities. Plastics are also light andprovide cost-effective solutions –qualities that also make the materialideal for widespread use, including inthe developing world.

IrrigationAgriculture requires water, and rainfalldoesn’t always occur when farmers needit. Add that to the fact that muchfarming is in countries with low orunreliable rainfall, making irrigation vital.

Irrigation systems exist to divertwater to crop, from a river, a dam or aborehole. The first irrigation probablytook place on the River Nile thousandsof years ago, using a simple bucket andlever mechanism called a shadouf.

Water forliving

ACTIVITY 3

Plastics are flexible and

mouldable. Explain why this is

an advantage for pipes that

carry water. Give an example of

a material with poor elasticity.

Give an example of a

European crop that relies on

irrigation.

Evapotranspiration

describes water loss from the

ground and through vegetation.

How do plants and trees lose

water and at what point in the

year is loss through evapotrans-

piration likely to be highest?

Some farmers use strips of

plastic as a mulch – spread over

the surface of the soil around

the growing plants. Why do you

think this is?

Try to explain why so few

buildings are constructed with

water conservation in mind.

What would it take to change

this situation?

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Today, agriculture is the largestconsumer of water, worldwide.Between 70 and 80 per cent of thewater withdrawn globally is used toirrigate fields. Traditional methods ofirrigation are, however, enormouslywasteful. It is estimated that only

40 per cent or so of all irrigation watergets to where it is needed.

One answer is drip-irrigation(sometimes called trickle irrigation).This works by applying water slowlythrough plastic piping directly onto thesoil. Traditional sprinklers throw hugeamounts of water into the air and ontoplants, where much is lost toevaporation. In contrast, micro-irrigation emitters apply water slowly,close to the soil and roots of plants.This is estimated to result in a 70 percent saving in water.

Drip irrigation is being used inCalifornia, Israel, Spain and SouthAfrica – all places where water isexpensive and in short supply. In thedeveloping world, a cheaper solutionusing buckets and surface pipes canproduce similar results.

In fact, pipes as old as 75 years havebeen dug up – still in excellent condition.Plastic sheeting can also be used toreduce water losses from the soil. InChina, farmers are using plastics to linethe furrows in which rice is planted.

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Solutions to the provision of cleanwater continue to evolve and plasticshave their part to play.

For example, future developmentsinclude a solar still which has beendesigned by a company as a way ofproducing pure water, using the simpleprinciples of evaporation andcondensation.

The pack is placed over a watersource – even floating on top of it ifrequired – and a wick allows water to

www.apme.org

ACTIVITY 4

Try making your own

solar still. Dig a hole about

50 cms deep and a metre

wide. Place a plastic bowl in

the middle and cover the

whole thing with a thick

plastic sheet. Put a small

weight in the middle of the

sheet. Leave during a warm

day and cold night. See how

much water has collected in

the bowl the next morning.

Think about water use in

the modern home. How could

designers reduce family

water consumption? Make a

list of water conservation

measures – consider reducing

waste, recycling, rain water

capture.

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The sheeting lasts for five years andprevents water waste in a desert areabetween Mongolia and the BadainJaran desert. The plastic-lined furrowsalso work to hold nutrients in the soil,giving the farmers a double benefit.

Farmers have used plastic sheetingto build temporary greenhouses foryears, but now the technology hasgone a step further with a purpose-built controlled environment whereevery plant has just the right amountof light, water and food, and unwantedflies and bugs are kept firmly outside.

Technology and plastics providesolutions to water losses in agriculture.

soak into the porous base. Sunlightheats the inside of the plastic tent andthe water evaporates, leaving behind itsimpurities as it does so.

On contact with the plastic walls,the moist air condenses and pure waterruns down, to be collected in a channel.The makers claim that the inventioncould provide more than a litre ofwater a day. But scientists areconsidering farms of solar stills, capableof producing enough water for afamily, or even a village.

Advanced plastics-basedtechnologies used in space explorationcould also be the key to improving thedistribution of fresh water supplies.

Plastics used in the life support systemsin space exploration help provideastronauts with the cleanest air andpurest water possible, and bettersanitation than ever previouslyexperienced.

Only a thousand or so litres of waterare carried into orbit because of weightand the amount of fuel that would beconsumed in order to take this water

into space. Space travel requires theability to reuse and recycle the existingsupply of water. As a result, highlyadvanced personal water purificationsystems have been developed for use byastronauts, based largely on a plasticsfilter system. These allow recovery of85–95 per cent of the waste water andurine. The water is then turned to steam,and, following additional stages ofchemical, heat and mechanicaltreatment, it is returned pure enough todrink some 8–9 hours later.

This technology is now beingdeveloped by organisations who hopeto make large scale water purificationsystems for countries that need it.

Solutions to our water problems doexist – the challenge is to make thesolution available to the people inneed. To date, plastics have helpedprovide millions of people with accessto clean water, and will continue toplay a vital role in the future.

“Innovative materials such asplastics have often providedthe solution to the problemsand challenges encounteredin space missions. Now thesame technologies are helpingto meet the challenges weface on Earth”, says PierreBrisson, Head of ESA'sTechnology TransferProgramme

One of the responses to the problem of poor water supply andhygiene has been the growth of bottled water in recent years. Thispresents a challenge in terms of packaging – how do you combinesafety, hygiene, convenience and ease of transport? Bottled drinksare frequently packaged in plastics because they are:

� lightweight yet strong (hence more energyefficient to transport) and safer than glass

� shatterproof

� able to withstand high pressures withoutshattering

� pure and do not affect the taste of theproducts they protect

� recyclable

solutionsInnovative

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