unit 2 - physical geography and natural systems - study guide

7/31/2019 Unit 2 - Physical Geography and Natural Systems - Study Guide

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System

A set of connected things or parts forming a complex whole, in particular.Spheres

Atmosphere

A layer of gases that surround a material body of sufficient mass, and that is held in place bythe gravity of the body

Lithosphere

The rigid outmost shell of rocky planetHydrosphere

The combined mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of a planetBiosphere

Any closed, self-regulating systems containing an ecosystemEarths Ecosystems

Definition:

A biological environment consisting of all the organisms living in a particular area, as a wellas all the nonliving, physical components of the environment with which the organisms

interact, such as air, soil, water, and sunlight.

Can be as large as a forest or a small as a tree

Largest ecosystem is Earth

Human intervention can affect ecosystems greatly

Physical forces affect ecosystems

El Nino

A quasiperiodic climate pattern that occurs across the tropical Pacific Ocean roughly every five

years. It is characterized by varies in the temperature of the surface of the tropical eastern

Pacific Ocean (warming or cooling known as El Nino and La Nina respectively) and air surface

pressure in the tropical western Pacific (the Southern Oscillation).

Earths Physical Systems

Equilibrium

The condition of a system in which competing influences are balancedNothing on Earth is permanent

The Sun is the Earths main source of energy

Greenhouse gases and global warming could cause more natural disasters especially when somenatural disasters feed off heat

Dynamic Systems

Greatest benefits on Earth come from the Earth itself

Natural disasters are natures way of going back to normal/healing itself


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Earths layers:

Soil Iron inner core

Liquid Iron outer core

Lower mantle

Rigid upper mantle

Continental crust/lithosphere

Plate Tectonics

Continental Drift

About 200-300 million years ago, the plates were in a certain way so that all continentscame to together. This land mass is called Pangaea.

Alfred Wegener developed the theory of how Pangaea broke up and the continents driftedin different directions. He called this theory Continental Drift.

Wegener developed four supportive points to prove his theory: He saw a jig saw fit between South America and Africa He found fossil of the same plants and animals on different continents. He felt that they

could only exist in both places if continents were once joined.

There are mountains similar in age and structure on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Ice sheets covered South Africa, India, Australia, and South America (warmer plates

today). His reasoning was that these plates were closer to the South Pole.

Scientists disagreed with Wegener because they could not believe that a mechanismpowerful enough to move hug continents existed.

The Plate Tectonics Theory was developed approx. 50 years later. This theory stated that the Earths outer shell is made up of about 20 plates consisting of

continent and ocean.

Plate Tectonics

It is thought that the uneven distribution of heat in the Earth causes convection currents to

move the plates.

The Movement of Plates: Plates may collide, pull apart, or scrape past each other.

There are three methods to plate tectonic movement:

Divergent These are zones where two plates move away from each other, allowing magmafrom the mantle to rise up and solidify as a new crust.

Convergent One plate is pulled beneath another (subduction zone) forming a deep trench. The

long narrow zone where two plates meet is called a subduction zone.

A plate will melt as it collides. Ocean Plates go under the continent plate and the plate melts.


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Ocean Plates going underneath the continent plate causes continents plates to riseand cause mountains, also it can push magma out of from other the surface causing

eruptions.

Transform (Strike/Slip) At transform plate boundaries plates grind past each other side by side. These are

responsible for many of Californias earth quakes.

Geologic Time

Earth is 4.55 billion years old Earths history has been divided into four time periods called ERAS:

Precambrian

(Time: 4600 mya) Earliest Life Proterozoic Archean Hedean 1st living mulit-cellular organisms about 3.5 billion years ago (bacteria) Mountains of Canadians Shield were eroded The sediments produced were carried to rivers/seas to form sedimentary rock

Palaeozoic

(Time: 570-245 mya) Ancient Life The Appalachian Mountains formed Parts of North America covered by seas Complex organisms such as fish, insects, and amphibians evolved Amphibians were the first animals to live on landMesozoic

(Time: 245-66 mya) Middle Life Marks the beginning of the breakup of Pangaea Tremendous tectonic forces caused the Rocky Mountains to form Dinosaurs and other reptiles walked about First known flowering plants, birds, and mammals evolved By the end of the era, more than half the life became extinctCenozoic

(Time: 66 mya present) Recent Life Ice Age due to glaciers developed as a result of a slight cooling of the Earths climate Completion of the Rocky Mountains Shaping of continents Humans and mammals develop


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First Rocks

Igneous Rocks

Latin for Fire Rocks or born from fire Born from magma (inside the earths crust) or lava (outside earths crust)

Formation of Igneous Rock

Sometimes they form beneath the ground in magma chambers

Igneous rocks can be intrusive (forms underground) or extrusive (forms above ground)

Canadian Shield created by extrusive igneous rock

Sometime they form above ground from volcanic eruptions

Can be formed on the ocean floor, under water and are called pillow lava.

Types of Igneous Rocks

Basalt Cools by air, extrusive

Obsidian Cools by water, extrusive

Granite

Pumice Floats on water, density less than water

Rock Examples

Some have air pockets Pumice

Some cool very quickly without air pockets Obsidian

Some cool slowly Basalt

Some form slowly underground Granite

Sedimentary Rocks

Glimpse of the biological past

Only rock that can hold fossils

Any rock (igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic) exposed at the Earths surface can become a

sedimentary rock

The forces of wind, rain, snow, and ice combine to break down or dissolve (weather), and carry

away (transport) rocks exposed at the surface. These particles eventually come to rest

(deposited) and become hard rock (lithified).

Guelph has a lot of limestone

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rock

They form in visible layers

Example: Sandstone the most common sedimentary rockOther sedimentary rocks

Conglomerate Limestone Shale

Bones covered up by sedimentary rock eventually are compressed and become fossilised


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Metamorphic Rocks

Q: What does it mean to metamorphose?

A: To change properties or to become something else, to transform Limestone can metamorphose into marble

Formation of Metamorphic Rocks

Heat and pressure increase with depth below Earths crust

Eventually the rock undergoes metamorphosis

Rock Cycle


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Three highland areas

Western Cordillera Appalachians Innuitians

Location is Canada

(describe

provinces/territoriesand N,E,S,W)

Yukon, British

Columbia, Northwest

Territories, Alberta

Nova Scotia, New

Brunswick, PEI,

Newfoundland andLabrador, Quebec

Nunavut

Topography (surface

appearance)

Stands along western

edge of Canada like a

great wall. Range after

range of mountains

separated by plateaus

and valleys.

Rolling hills though

once was high peaks

(higher than the

Rockies) Long bays

provide harbours for

ocean freighters. Fertile

river valleys along

seacoast.

Stand like big watch

towers in Canadas far

North. Some measure

over 2900 metres high.

Rock Types(s) Volcanic rock, igneous,

metamorphic and

sedimentary

Non-metallic minerals

such as coal, iron, and

zinc, sedimentary rock

Igneous, metamorphic,

and sedimentary rock

Formation Collision of North

America and Pacific

plates. The heavier

Pacific plate forced its

way under the lighter

North American plate

causing volcanic

activity.

Erosion reduced

Appalachians size from

peaks to rolling hills.

Glaciation played a big

part, grinding down

peaks and separating

hills and mountains

with wide valleys. Ice

Age weight of ice

pressed down

Appalachians.

Shaped in the middle of

the Mesozoic era when

the North American

plate moved

northward.

Resources Fishing, iron, zinc, and

coal

Population Description Lightly populated

Canadian Shield and three Lowland Areas

Canadian Shield Great Lakes St.

Lawrence

Hudson Bay -

Arctic

Interior Plains

Location in Canada

(describe

provinces/territories

and N,E,S,W)

Ontario, Quebec,

Labrador,

Manitoba,

Saskatchewan,

Northwest

Territories,

Nunavut

Ontario, Quebec Ontario, Quebec,

Manitoba, Yukon,

Northwest

Territories,

Nunavut

Alberta,

Saskatchewan,

Manitoba,

Northwest

Territories, British

Columbia

Topography (surface

appearance)

Relatively flat with

rounded hills of

rock which are

actually the roots

Separated into

two parts by the

Canadian Shield.

Flat plains, glacial

Hudson Bay:

Very flat, low area

covered by

swamp forest.

The landscape is

composed of

rolling hills, deep,

wide river valleys.


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of ancient

mountains

hills and deep

river valleys.

Great Lakes

located around

here.

Layer of

sedimentary rock

which rests on top

of the ancient

soil.

Arctic:

Gentle rolling

landscapes, no

farming

Land slopes

downward from

west to east,

though it does

have some flat

area.

Rock Type(s) Some of the

worlds oldest

rocks. Igneous and

metamorphic.

Lead, gold, nickel,

copper, zinc, and

diamonds

Bedrock formed

of sedimentary

roc

Hudson Bay:

Sedimentary rock

Arctic:

Lignite

Sedimentary rock,

the rock contains

most of the oil

and gas found in

Alberta and

Saskatchewan

Formation Magma forced its

way through thecracks in the

Earths crust. This

process took

thousands of

years. When it

reached the

surface it cooled

making/forming

the Shield.

St Lawrence:

A rift valleyformed by

faulting. Rift

valley was

flooded in the last

Ice Age by the

Champlain sea,

forming the

lowlands.

Great Lakes:

Glaciers carried

huge amounts ofmaterial from the

Shield and

dumped it

throughout the

region. Great

Lakes dug out by

glaciers.

The last Ice Age,

nutrients layeredand compressed

creating the

sedimentary

rocks, melting of

ice caused the

swampy marshes

and forests

Interior plains

were oncecovered by seas,

sediments from

the Shield and

Rockies were

deposited into the

sea and after

millions of years

they were

compressed to

create the plains.

Resources Lead, gold, nickel,

copper, zinc,

diamonds. Called

the storehouse

of Canadas

metallic minerals.

Good agriculture

due to excellent

soils and warm

climate

Coal, oil, and

natural gas

deposits

Oil, gas,

agriculture. Called

Canadas bread

basket.

Population

Description

50% of Canadas

population lives

here. Called

Canadas

industrial and

urban heartland.


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Definitions

Glacier: A large mass of ice flow. There are two types of glaciers that exist.

Alpine Glacier: Smaller glaciers that are found in mountainous regions

Continental Glacier: A large glacier that covers a large area of land mass or an entire continent.

Wisconsin Glacier: was the last lacier that covered North America. The Wisconsin Glacier carved

out the Great Lakes

Icebergs: Floating sea-based ice. Melting of icebergs does not affect sea level rise.

Moraine: Ridges of till (glacial soil) that are deposited by a retreating glacier.

Esker: A long ridge of material deposited by a melt water stream flowing beneath a glacier.

Drumlin: An egg-shaped hill with a steep side at the wide end and a gentle slope at the other.

Continental Glaciers

Continental glaciers are also called Icecaps and Ice Sheets

These are massive glaciers that extend for hundreds or even thousands of kilometres

The most famous Ice sheets/caps include:

Antarctica Ice Sheet

The Greenland Icecap

Wisconsin Ice Sheet (11,000 years ago)


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Weather

The daily condition of the atmosphere

Descriptions include detail about:

Temperature Precipitation

Hail Snow Rain Slate

Humidity Wind

Speed Direction

Cloud Cover Air Pressure

Climate

Long term pattern of weather

Evolved from averaging records of weather from different places over time

There are 6 different things that affect our climate they are:

Latitude Ocean Currents Winds and Air Masses Elevation (Altitude) Relief (Mountain barriers) Nearness to water

Latitude

1. Further from the Equator = Cooler2. Concentration of suns rays

a. At equator = smaller areab. Farther North, rays are spread over larger areas

3. Amount of atmosphere traversed:a. At equator smallest amountb. Farther North or South, greater thickness of atmospherec. Therefore greater amount of energy reflected back by atmosphere

Ocean Currents3 currents that affect Canada

Alaska a warm current keeping the west coast region warmer during the winter. Labrador a cold current keeping Newfoundland and Labrador cooler in the winter. Gulf Stream (North Atlantic Drift) a warm current keeping Southern Nova Scotia and East

coast areas warmer in the winter.

Canadas Fog Machine


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Where ocean currents meet south of Labrador they create lots of fog.

Warm Gulf Stream Current Cold Labrador Current

Air Masses

Air has weight. Its weight is caused by the force of gravity and is called Air Pressure.

Air pressure is greatest at sea level and lowers as altitude increases because there is less air

above you.

Air masses = a large volume of air that has the same temperature and moisture throughout.

When it moves it carries these characteristics

Wind and Air Movement

Winds are created by difference in air pressure. Differences are caused by altitude and

temperature.

Movement of air has created a pattern of winds around the world

Prevailing winds over most of Canada Westerly blow from West to East.

Pressure Systems

L = Low pressure system

H = High pressure system

Elevation

Temperature decreases with increasing altitude

Air rises, expands, looses heat, and becomes cooler

Rate of cooling vary according to moisture content

Condensation begins when relative humidity of 100% is reached

Relief

Relief is the difference in elevation of the Earths surface

Mountains ranges affect climate because they act as barriers to the movement of air masses

Mountain ranges tend to cause precipitation to occur

Nearness to Water

Moderating effect of water

As an air mass moves over a large body of water (ocean or lake) it absorbs moisture

When passing over land moisture may be released as precipitation

Areas closer to water usually receive more precipitation than those farther away

Precipitation

Caused when moist air is forced to rise

Air rises, air pressure decreases, air cools

Water vapour condenses into water droplets, forming clouds


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Droplets are knocked together and become heavy, then the fall as precipitationEvapotranspiration: Evaporation that only come from trees, water/dew from leaves

Sublimation: Solid to gas transformation without going through liquid stage (example: frost)

Below Freezing

If the water droplets form at temperatures below freezing they become ice crystals and they fall

as snow

Hail is formed when water droplets are forced upward and are frozen, forming small pieces of

ice

Sleet is a mixture of ice and water (freezing rain)

3 types of precipitation

Relief/Orographic

Frontal/Cyclonic

Convectional

Relief/Orographic

Winds carry air up over mountain barrier

As air rises it cools, condensation occurs, clouds from, precipitation occurs

Ex. West Coast of British Columbia

Ascending air cools Descending air

adiabatically to dew point warming adiabatically

water vapour condenses

Frontal/Cyclonic


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Caused by moving masses of warm and cold airThe leading edge of moving air mass is called a FRONT

Warm air is forced over cold air

A cyclonic storm is a large low pressure cell that forms when air mass collides with a cold air

mass

This is the most common form of precipitation in Canada

Convectional

Sun heats Earths surface to a high temperature

Earths hot surface heats air above it, forcing it to rise

The warm air cools as it raises causing precipitation

Very common in the tropics and in Canadas prairies

Summer rain in many parts of Canada


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True soil consists of four main parts. If one of these parts is missing the material is not

considered true soil.

Minerals Come from rock known as parent material Rock is broken down by weathering into smaller particles and becomes part of the soil Many of these nutrients such as calcium, phosphorus, and potassium are needed for

plants to grow

Bacteria and Organic Materials Plants and animals that have died break down/decompose by bacteria in the soil The bacteria releases nutrients from the organic matter, these decaying organic

materials from humus which provides nutrients and moisture for plants

Humus gives the soil the darker colour Air

Plants need air around their roots. High humus levels help produce air in the soilbecause loose decaying materials allows for a lot of air pockets.

Air pockets/spaces can also be created by worms, insects, or small animals that tunnelthrough the ground.

Moisture Water dissolves the nutrients in the soil and the plants take the dissolved nutrients up

through their roots

Water is necessary in the weathering process (chemical and physical) and decayingmaterial

New mineral materials are added at the bottom of the soil by the weathering of parent material.

At the same time new material is added to the top, the op layer containing humus is called

topsoil

Topsoil is a slow process, over the last 6,000 10,000 years only 15 25cm of topsoil has been

formed under the Canadian forests. Though grasslands and prairies around 40 100cm has been

developed.

A well balanced mixture of sand, silt, clay, and humus is called loam. Loam is the best soil for

growing plants; it encourages growth, holds moisture, and allows water to pass through at a

moderate rate so the plants can take up enough nutrients.

Leaching is another process which contributes to soil formation. In areas where there is a lot ofrain or water there is a continuous downward movement of the water through the soil.

As water moves down it dissolves chemical nutrients and carries it away. Though this takes away

nutrients that the plants need, sometimes so far down in the soil that the plant roots are unable

to reach it. Though it can also make great farmland if fertilizer is added.


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Another process which contributes to soil formation is calcification. It occurs in areas witchdryer climates. When water from the top soil evaporates, water from below is drawn up to

replace it; this process is called capillary action.

When water evaporates it leaves the dissolved nutrients behind resulting in thick and nutrient

rich topsoil.

However too many nutrients in the topsoil can be poisonous to the plants.

Regions vegetation is determined by its climate and soils.

Different types of vegetation require different types of climate and soils.

The vegetation affects the characteristics of the soil.

Plants must have moisture and heat to survive; these are the two things that influence plants to

grow.

Natural vegetation is usually quite different from plants that people grow or cultivate for food or

use in industries

Different types of natural vegetation grow in response to different climatic soils conditions.

There are seven natural vegetation regions across Canada they are composed of three types of

natural vegetation they are:

Tundra Forest Grassland

The forest region covers most of Canada

Info Facts

The size of rock particles is an important part of soil structure. The larger particles of sand allow

rainwater to drain quickly through the soil while the smaller particles of clay prevent rapid

damage.


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Below is a table of Canadas ecozones (Mixedwood Plains, Boreal Shield, Atlantic Maritime,

Prairie, Montane Cordillera, Boreal Cordillera, and Boreal Plains)

Name: Mixedwood

Plains

Boreal Shield Atlantic Maritime Prairie Montane

Cordillera

Boreal Cordillera Boreal Plains

Landfor

ms:

Plains and

rolling hills;

Great Lakes are

an important

feature.

Plains and low

hills of the

Canadian

Shield.

Hills and coastal

plains.

Flat to rolling

plains.

Mountains,

plains and

plateaus.

Mountainous,

some hills.

Level to gently

rolling plains.

Climate: Cool, short

winters (-7C);

relatively long,

mild summers

(20C) ;

precipitation700 1000mm;

growing season

180- 260 days

Long winters

(-15C); short

summers

(17C);

precipitation

4001000mm;

growing

season 130

260 days

Long, mild

winters (-4C);

moderately warm

summers (17C);

precipitation

1000 1400mm;growing season

180 210 days

Moderately long,

cold winters (-

15C); moderately

warm summers

(18C);

precipitation 250 700mm; growing

season 170 190

days

Temperatures

vary with

latitude and

elevation;

moderate

winters (-12C);moderate

summers (15C);

precipitation

varies widely

with elevation

and physical

aspects, 500

1000mm;

growing season

140 240 days

Long, cold

winters (-20C);

short, cool

summers (12C);

very dry,

precipitation 300 500mm;

growing season

125 150 days

Long, cold

winters (-20C);

short, warm

summers

(17C);

precipitation450mm;

growing

season 130

165 days

Vegetati

on:

Coniferous,

mixed with

deciduous; little

naturalvegetation

remains

Coniferous,

mixed with

deciduous

Coniferous mixed

with deciduous

Short-grass prairie

in drier areas;

long-grass prairie

in wetter areas;some trees; little

natural vegetation

remains

Enormous

variations

depending on

elevation;dominated by

coniferous

Mainly

coniferous

Coniferous

forests mixed

with

deciduous;extensive

marsh areas

Soil: Leached, wet-

climate soils

Heavily

leached soils;

bare rock;

swampy areas

Leached, wet-

climate soils

Rich, grassland

soils

Wide variety of

mountain soils

Variety of

mountain soils

Rich soils

formed under

forests; marsh

soils in some

areas

Major

Cities:

Toronto,

Montreal,

Ottawa, Quebec

City, Hamilton,

Windsor,

London

St. Johns,

Chicoutimi,

Sudbury, Sault

Ste. Marie,

Thunder Bay,

Thompson

Halifax, St. Johns,

Fredericton, Saint

John,

Charlottetown

Edmonton,

Calgary, Winnipeg,

Regina, Saskatoon

Kamloops,

Prince George,

Penticton

Whitehorse,

Dawson

Hinton, La

Ronge, The

Pas, Flin Flon,

Peace River,

Fort Smith


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Below is a table of the rest of Canadas ecozones (Pacific Maritime, Taiga Cordillera, Taiga Plains,

Hudson Plains, Northern Arctic, Taiga Shield, Southern Arctic, and Arctic Cordillera)

Name: Pacific

Maritime

Taiga

Cordillera

Taiga Plains Hudson

Plains

Northern

Arctic

Taiga Shield Southern

Arctic

Arctic

Cordillera

Landforms: Mountains

with small

areas of

coastal plains

Mountainous Interior

Plains and

some

foothills

Low-lying,

swampy

plains

Plains and

upland areas

Plains and

hills of

Canadian

Shield

Plains and

hills of

Canadian

Shield

Innuitian

Mountains

Climate: Mild winters

(3C); cool

summers

(15C);

precipitation

600

2000mm;

growing

season 200

260 days

Long, cold

winters (-

24C); short,

cool

summers

(13C); very

dry,

precipitation

250

400mm;

growingseason 90

130 days

Long, cold

winters (-

23C); short,

cool

summers

(12C); dry,

precipitation

200

400mm;

growing

season 80150 days

Moderately

long, cold

winters (-

17C);

moderately

short, cool

summers

(14C);

precipitation

400

700mm;growing

season 90

150 days

Long winters

(-30C); short

summers

(5C);

precipitation

200mm;

growing

season 50

days

Moderately

long, cold

winters (-

25C);

moderately

short, cool

summers

(12C);

precipitation

300

900mm;growing

season 100

140 days

Long winters

(-25C); short

summers

(10C), dry,

precipitation

200

300mm;

growing

season 80

days

Long winters

(-40C); short

summers

(0C);

precipitation

less than

200mm;

virtually no

growing

season

Vegetation: Varies with

elevation;

coniferous

trees

Tundra of all

types; areas

of scattered

forests

Open forests

to dense

forest

Ground-

hugging

tundra;

increasingly

dense forest

in South

Tundra;

ground-

hugging

plants

Black spruce,

jack pine,

paper birch,

trembling

aspen

Tundra,

including

shrubs

Mostly no

vegetation;

tundra

Soils: Wide variety

of mountain

soils

Variety of

poor quality

soils; bare

rock

Continuous

permafrost in

North;

scattered

permafrostfurther

South; wide

variety of

poor quality

soils

Scattered

permafrost

occurs;

poorly

developedorganic and

permafrost

soils

Permafrost;

tundra soils

Thin, highly-

leached soils;

bare rock

Permafrost

everywhere;

tundra soils,

bare rock

Permafrost,

tundra soils;

bare rock

Major Cities: Vancouver,

Victoria,

Prince Rupert

Old Crow Hay River,

Inuvik, Fort

Simpson

Moosonee,

Churchill,

Attawapiskat

Iqaluit,

Cambridge

Bay, Resolute

Yellowknife,

Uranium City,

Happy Valley-

Goose Bay

Rankin Inlet,

Tuktoyaktuk,

Povungnituk

Pond Inlet,

Clyde River,

Broughton

Island


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unit 2 - physical geography and natural systems - study guide

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