unit 1 uk pressure groups

8/13/2019 Unit 1 UK Pressure Groups

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Pressure Groups Definition and types of pressure group

Parties and pressure groups

How pressure groups attempt to influence government

Factors affecting pressure group success

Pressure groups and democracy

Study Guide questions are found at the end of each section

1. Definition and Classification

o Samuel Finer has defined pressure groups as organisations !which try" to influence the

policy of pu#lic #odies in their chosen direction$ though% unli&e political parties% never

themselves prepared to underta&e the direct government of the country..o Sectional and Promotional or Cause Groups - Richardson and Jordan outline the distinction

in the following terms, There is a basic distinction between self-interested groups pursuing

sectional, often economic, ends and those groups which see to promote a change in social

!alues or practices."o Sectional interests spea& in defence of their mem#ers and groups organising shared

attitudes see& topromotethe causes which reflect the attitudes of their mem#ers.

o Groups such as the #$% or the &ational 'nion of (ineworers )&'(* are sectional groups.

The #hild Po!ert+ ction Group )#PG* ser!es as an eample of a promotional )or cause*

group.

o nother approimate distinction is between groups of and groups for/ #PG might be for

the poor, but it is not necessaril+ an organisation of the poor.

o Sectional )or %nterest* groups are generall+ regarded as organisations or associations

lined to ones 0ob or occupation, which gi!e indi!iduals in them a set of common interests to

pursue. Good eamples are trade unions and professional associations

o Cause and promotional groups% #y way of contrast% usually come together on the

#asis of some principle or activity to which individuals are committed.o The difficult+ is that most of the acti!ities of pressure groups o!erlap at least a little.

1ence the distinction between interest and cause groups is not alwa+s clear. 'he (ational

)nion of 'eachers is an interest group but it often epresses the same concern for

educational 2ualit+ as some cause groups. 32uall+, some cause groups promote the interests

of those who find it difficult to form their own interest group, such as

o $oth sectional and cause groups can be sub-di!ided. sectional groups include/

*ndustrial pressure groups - the #$%, &F', The 3ngineering 3mplo+ers

Federation4

Commercial pressure groups - (otor gents ssociation, the #o-operati!e

(o!ement4

Financial pressure groups - the $an of 3nland, the $ritish %nsurancessociation4

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Professional pressure groups- the 5aw Societ+ and $(4

'rade )nionslie the &'R.

o 3amples of trade unions 6

)(*S+( )an amalgamation of &5G7, &'P3 and #71S3, all public ser!ice

unions* -membership 8,9::,;>8,9


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o The $( and 5aw Societ+ are insider groups. The basic assumption behind the concept is

that both go!ernment and groups benefit. %t is ob!iousl+ in a groups" interest to establish

confidential contact - whiche!er part+ is in power - so that the group is consulted whene!er

the go!ernment is contemplating measures which ma+ affect the group.o The implication is that the process of go!ernment in $ritain in!ol!es a process of

accommodation between go!ernments and well-organised,, responsible groups who arewilling to bargain and compromise in confidence and out of public !iew.

o Social 2ovements- The traditional role undertaen b+ pressure groups to promote political

change in the 'nited Dingdom has more recentl+ been supplemented b+ organisations termed

social mo!ements. These are associated with the leftwing of the political spectrum but

ha!e substituted the traditional (arist emphasis on the o!erthrow of capitalism with a

range of direct action tactics which see to transform societ+ b+ redefining social !alues.o The en!ironmental mo!ement is an eample of a contemporar+ social mo!ement. %t has

succeeded in bringing together a range of groups engaged in counter-cultural protest )such

as &ew ge Tra!ellers*. and those opposed to hunting, li!e animal eports, motorwa+

construction and pollution.o These seemingl+ disparate, single-issue bodies are united b+ a social !ision which resists the

culture of ad!anced capitalist societ+.

o The+ ha!e used tactics of protest and direct action to pro0ect an alternati!e !ision which

emphasises en!ironmental considerations rather than the pursuit of wealth and profit.o Single *ssue Groups 3 at the other end of the spectrum from social mo!ements are single

issue groups commonl+ based on (*2-4issues )not in m+ bac +ard*. for eample, groups

grow to protest against specific industrial de!elopments, or new airports or campaign for

special laws and then disappear once the campaign has been won or lost.o n eample is the campaign waged to introduce a !ersion of the 'S (egan"s 5aw" which

gi!es the public nowledge of the whereabouts of se offenders once the+ ha!e ser!ed

their sentence.

5uestions

,hat is a pressure group6

+utline 7 with e8amples 7 different types of pressure group.

9. Parties and Pressure Groups

o Pressure groups and parties are different/ Parties want to #ecome the government%

pressure groups only want to influence government. ction on Smoing and 1ealth )S1*,for eample, wants to influence a small part of go!ernment polic+, but does not want control.

Parties have #road policy interests% pressure groups have narrow policy

interests. The #ountr+side lliance is concerned with countr+ sports and

the countr+side, nothing else

Parties are primarily political% pressure groups are not. (an+ tr+ to a!oid

politics as much as possible. The Ramblersssociation becomes in!ol!ed in

politics onl+ when access, waling and the countr+side are in!ol!ed.

Parties fight elections% the vast ma:ority of pressure groups do not.

The $ritish (edical ssociation )$(* is a powerful pressure group in the

health sector, but it does not run candidates for political office.

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Parties are usually ideological #ased on sets of political ideals and a

philosophy% most pressure groups are pragmatic%designed to loo after

the interests of their members

o However% there is no very clear distinction #etween political parties and pressure

groups.

Some pressure groups ha!e a !er+ broad range of polic+ interests, foreample the Trades 'nion #ongress )T'#* and the #onfederation of $ritish

%ndustries )#$%*.

Some groups )eg Friends of the 3arth* are inetricabl+ bound up with

politics because of their aims.

#ertain groups do fight elections, lie the Green Part+.

(an+ cause groups are highl+ philosophical - lie the animal rights mo!ement.

Some parties" are much more lie pressure groups because the+ ha!e little

hope of controlling go!ernment, for eample, the 'D %ndependence Part+ and

the Referendum Part+.

5uestionsEistinguish between pressure groups and parties

=h+ is it difficult to mae a clear distinction

;. Pressure Group Channels of *nfluence

)a* =1%T3155

o ,hy ,hitehall is the most important channel/ The most significant channel of influence

emplo+ed b+ pressure groups is ,hitehall the departments of central government.

The basic fact of pressure group acti!it+ in $ritain is the inherent

strength reposed in an+ $ritish go!ernment, resulting from its etreme

centralism......." )Parr+, $ritish Go!ernment*.

Therefore pressure groups which achie!e most success aim to establish

confidential contact with the go!ernment, whiche!er part+ is in power, so

the group is consulted whene!er the go!ernment is contemplating measures

which ma+ affect the group )Parr+*. This is sometimes referred to as

insider status.

Groups want to influence go!ernment because go!ernment distributesenormous economic resources. 7nce it had been largel+ agreed b+ all parties

that go!ernmentH should collect and spend o!er one third of the national

income, tremendous pressures were bound to be brought to bear to influence

the distribution of burdens and benefits. )(cDenIie, Parties, Pressure

Groups and the $ritish Political Process, Political uarterl+, 8B*.

Go!ernment and groups need each other. %n such a situation, Groups needed

go!ernment in order to ensure that their members got the share of the

economic cae that the+ desired. #on!ersel+, go!ernment needed the

groups...... for ad!ice, for information and for co-operation. The relationship

became one of mutual dependence. )Philip &orton, The $ritish Polit+*.

o For governments there are many advantages

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The+ ha!e access to a range of ad!ice and information it needs to run a

modern societ+

go!ernment is more stable because go!ernment )through its permanent

officials - the ci!il ser!ice* negotiates with ma0or interests and

secures their co-operation through compromises and bargains

gets their help in implementing polic+ and mobilising consent among theirmembers.

#onflict is thus limited and controlled.o *t is common to tal& of policy communities- officials in go!ernment departments mae

polic+ together with a small number of client or insider, groups. 7thers - pressure groups

and other go!ernment departments )and parliament* are ecluded. Relationships are

regularised and perhaps institutionalised through an ad!isor+ committee. Pressure groups

are responsible and abide b+ the rules of the game - not criticising the go!ernment in public.

o 'he :s - is a classical eample. %n a

polic+ communit+ there is a high degree of agreement between officials and representati!es

of pressure groups and their relationship is one of bargaining and echange of information

or fa!ours. The classic polic+ communit+ was in agriculture between the 8B9:s and the mid

8B>:s. The threat of war placed the farmers in a strong position. The nnual Price

Re!iew was established in the 8B9:s to fi foodstuff prices. The (inistr+ of griculture

negotiated prices with the &F' - all other groups, for eample consumer or en!ironmental

groups were ecluded. This continued after 8B;< because of a world shortage of food.

There was agreement on the basic aim of polic+ - to increase $ritish production of food and

that farmers would recei!e a high le!el of state subsid+. This polic+ communit+ continued

unchallenged, into the 8B>:s.

o How groups co3operate with ,hitehall/

Pressure groups and =hitehall co-operate formall+ - b+ ser!ing together on

ad!isor+ and eecuti!e agencies and '&G:s. These bodies ha!e

increased. ,hat is significant is the num#er of such #odies and the

e8tent to which they are manned #y and would #e una#le to function

without mem#ers of affected interest groups )Philip &orton The $ritish

Polit+*.

Groups ma+ also be ased to ser!ice on Ro+al #ommissions of #ommittees of

%n2uir+ to ad!ise on specific issues.

The+ also operate informall+ - e.g. luncheons hosted b+ a (inister for a

foreign dignitar+ - salaried group leaders are often in!ited.

o Criticisms and Defence / 'he relationship #etween pressure groups and ,hitehall is

open to a range of criticisms most strongly made #y 2ar8ist theorists.

(arists stress the economic basis of politics conflicts tae place in a

societ+ where wealth is une!enl+ distributed between two classes, those who

own the means of production and those who sell their labour.

n article in The %ndependent in Eecember 8B>B, in arguing wh+ the !olume

of sugar in the $ritish diet is not seriousl+ in!estigated b+ the Eepartment

of 1ealth pointed out that the chairman of the (edical Research #ouncil - a

2uango responsible for allocating research fund - was 3arl Jellico, a director

of Tate and 5+le. ad!isor on the pri!atisation programme.

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'hese criticisms can #e partially countered #y the argument that policy

in many areas is not controlled #y such closed communities, and e!en in

some polic+ areas which once were dominated b+ such a relationship, the

polic+ communit+ can brea down.

Polic+ communities are sub0ect to challenges. Smith outlines a number of

reasons wh+ polic+-maing in closed communities ma+ brea down - becauseof changes in eternal relations )membership of the 3' has disturbed man+

polic+ communities in $ritain , particularl+ in agriculture*4 economic and social

change )new groups ha!e arisen interested in peace, racial and seual

e2ualit+, animal welfare* new problems arise )for eample, en!ironmental

issues*. The breadown of the agriculture polic+ communit+ illustrates these

points.

The e+ de!elopment was $ritainss membership of the 33#, the food

mountains and their cost to $ritain, #onser!ati!e (Ps were at the forefront

of criticisms of the #P. 3n!ironmentalists were becoming increasing

concerned with intensi!e farming methods4 medical eperts raised 2uestions

about the use of chemicals on the land4 the medias interest grew4 in

addition, there was pressure from the 'S, ustralia, &ew Kealand and

man+ third world countries for 3urope to cut production as surplus was off-

loaded cheapl+4 the 3' has become the largest eporter of food in the

world.

=#> P


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national and international issues much wider than the concerns of domestic

economic interests. Go!ernments must also face re-election.

t the same time, sectional interests cannot afford to be eclusi!el+ aligned

with one part+ - the+ must see to protect their interests whoe!er is in

power.

The #onser!ati!es after 8B?B followed an economic polic+ based on ideolog+,not the !iews of industr+ and business who often wished for more pragmatic

go!ernment polic+.

The association of man+ ma0or sectional groups under broad part+ umbrellas

is !er+ important but it is incorrect to suggest that pressure groups can

dictate polic+ to parties in fact, because the sectional interests would

generall+ prefer a specific go!ernment, the+ ha!e to be prepared to

moderate their demands on their part+ for the sae of electoral success.

'herefore% parties control pressure groups :ust as much as pressure

groups control parties.

o Party Funding /

Eespite the abo!e conclusion there remain ma0or concerns about part+

funding. The #onstitution 'nit reports that 0 @a#our came to power

with a commitment to #an political parties from receiving donations

from overseas and to o#lige them to reveal the source of their

income. *t also promised to as& the Committee on standards in Pu#lic

@ife to e8amine the regulation of party funding. 'he Committee

investigated party funding #etween Decem#er 1AAB and +cto#er

1AA. *ts final report included recommendations to/

increase in the level of state support for the parties in

parliament% enforce disclosure of donations over the value of E% =to

the national part of a party> or 1% =to a constituency>$

cap general election spending #y each party of 9m

esta#lish an ?lection Commission% to oversee the disclosure of

donations% caps on election spending and other tas&s imposed

#y the new regulations$

equal pu#lic funding for the main opposing campaign groups in

referendums$.

c Pressure Groups and ,estminister

o 'he potential of ,estminster/ pressure groups attempt to influence parliament for

three main reasons/

'o amend legislation

'o promote legislation

'o influence the general climate of opinion

The abilit+ of bacbenchers and peers to influence legislation is

restricted because of the nature of strong, part+ go!ernment. $ut

parties are not monoliths, leaders do not eercise un2uestioned lo+alt+ oftheir followers.

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The 1ouse of #ommons has witnessed significant rebellions of

bacbenchers since 8B?: and a much more effecti!e committee s+stem

was established in 8B?B. The 5ords has become much more independent

since 8B?B.

%n additional, there are se!eral circumstances when legislation can be

more open to pressure group influence when the go!ernment ma0orit+ is small )e.g. 8BC;-CC, 8B?;-C,

after 8BBA - for eample the #onser!ati!es dropped post office

pri!atisation in 8BB;, 1eseltine said, because B Tor+ (Ps had

told him the+ could not support the measure* or noneistent,

)8B?C-?B*4

when there is a free !ote in Parliament )e.g. #apital Punishment*4

when bacbench (.Ps ha!e the opportunit+ to introduce Pri!ate

(embers 5egislation )e.g. Ea!id Steels bortion $ill 8BCB and

attempts to amend it in 8B>> b+ Ea!id lton*4

when general elections are on the horiIon.

o ,ho uses parliament 6

Parliament tends to be the ma0or channel for man+ promotional groups

which lac insider status. So groups such as the 5eague gainst #ruel

Sports, the Ramblers ssociation, and the #onsumers ssociation direct

considerable effort towards parliamentar+ pressure.

Such promotional groups depend on demonstrating that public opinion

supports them hence the+ must publiciIe their case - get it presented in

Parliament, attempt to educate the public and win support. This is wh+

such groups will usuall+ mount general campaigns to support the

parliamentar+ channel - issuing material to the press, appearing on radioand tele!ision.

o ,hy do 2inisters give way to pressure groups 6

(inisters will sometimes gi!e concessions and Finer, in non+mous

3mpire, identified some broad reasons. (inisters and ci!il ser!ants are

not infallible - the+ ma+ concede to limit the political dangers if the+

mae mistaes - e.g. the units fine s+s+tem was 2uicl+ withdrawn in

8BB94 the #S was reformed in 8BB


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mounted its campaign to end solicitors con!e+ancing monopol+ in these

terms.

o How pressure groups wor& through parliament/ Pressure groups use a number of methods

when woring through parliament. 'he mass lo##y at the House of Commons- the traditional demonstration

of mass support was once commonl+ emplo+ed during protracted industrial

disputes or during intense public debate, for eample in 8B>> during an

attempt to amend abortion regulations.

+verlapping mem#ership and paid consultancies3man+ (Ps and peers are

members of pressure groups or are generall+ s+mpathetic to the cause.

Groups ma+ tr+ to recruit (Ps and list them as supporters on their

literature e.g. Ees =ilson managed to persuade 8?< (Ps and


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(Ps assist a pressure group b+ pulling strings - an en2uir+ to a (inister is more

liel+ to recei!e a 2uic repl+ if it comes from an (. P. - or through horse

trading - (. Ps engage in horse-trading behind the scenes so that a promise to

support another groups interest will ensure their support in return.

The+ ma+ as 2uestions and spea in debates - the &F' ha!e often emplo+ed

uestion Time to help mobiliIe support and ha!e supplied (.Ps with 2uestionsto as the (inister. This is often done in collusion with the (inister himself

who prefers there to be seen to be a groundswell of parliamentar+ support

before taing action.

(.Ps ma+ often spea in debates from briefs supplied b+ pressure groups in

their constituencies, e.g. the Scottish =his+ ssociation.

Parliamentar+ Procedure - putting down amendments to completel+ irrele!ant

legislation to pre!ent a bill which is considered harmful, e.g. in June 8B>8, Sir

nthon+ Dershaw tabled A? out of 8C; tri!ial amendments to the Koo 5icensing

$ill - this pre!ented the net item being debated. %t happened to be a bill to

eliminate tobacco sponsorship in sport and the arts. Dershaw was a paid

representati!e of $ritish merican Tobacco. ltons attempt to reform

abortion law in 8B>> was similarl+ defeated.

Pri!ate (embers 5egislation ma+ be used - Ea!id Steels bortion $ill of 8BC? is

an eample of an (.P woring closel+ with a pressure group , which acted as a

research bod+ pro!iding epertise. The &O5 and #onsumers ssociation ha!e

had success with bills concerning !ideo censorship and solicitors con!e+ancing

monopol+. $ut if there is a well-organiIed counter campaign success is unliel+,

e.g. between 8BC? and 8B?? there were 8C unsuccessful attempts to prohibit

stag-hunting and hare-coursing because opponents used procedure to bloc the

bills. %ndustr+ and business ma+ retain (Ps as directors or ad!isors.

o Dangers/

There are dangers in the process of influencing (Ps as well as the ad!antages

such as (Ps gaining status, resources and information from their relationship

with pressure groups.

7nl+ the wealth+ and well-organiIed can eploit the full potential of this

channel - b+ hiring (Ps or special agencies.

The tactics of influencing (Ps b+ monetar+ or other rewards, the procedural

methods often used to bloc proposals and the operation of special agencies -

bring democratic politics into disrepute.

d. Courtso There is not the same tradition of using the courts as in the 'S - this is largel+ because

there is no written constitution in $ritain and $ritish courts do not ha!e the same powers as

the merican Supreme #ourt. 1owe!er, with the passing of the 1uman Rights ct this is

set to change 6 perhaps dramaticall+.o 'he Human ights


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o %n 7ctober A:::, the 1uman Rights ct came into effect, incorporating the 3#1R into 'D

law. This has great potential for maing the courts a ma0or target for pressure group

campaigns. The 5abour Go!ernment"s incorporation of the 3#1R into $ritish law re2uires a

different balance between a $ill of Rights interpreted b+ 0udges and the power of elected

politicians.

5abour"s $ill maes it unlawful for public bodies )including go!ernmentdepartments, agencies, the police, prison officers, pri!atised utilities and

the armed forces* to eercise their powers in wa+s which are incompatible

with the 3#1R.

#itiIens will be able to appeal to the principles enshrined in the 3#1R in an+

court in $ritain. #ourts will be able to 2uash actions of public bodies and to

grant compensation to !ictims of abuse of power.

cts are to be interpreted in wa+s which are compatible with the 3#1R )ie if

there is ambiguit+ or !agueness, the 3#1R will be used to interpret an ct in

wa+s which mae it fit the principles of the con!ention*.

%f parliament passes legislation which the higher courts belie!e is not

compatible with the 3#1R, the+ can issue a formal declaration to that

effect.

The courts will not ha!e the power to !eto such an act as unlawful, but the

5abour =hite Paper states that such a declaration will almost certainl+"

prompt a go!ernment to change the law.

So, as en!isaged b+ the current go!ernment, parliamentar+ so!ereignt+ will

remain intact but the 3#1R will ha!e both legal and moral force in

restricting the actions of parliament and go!ernment.

#hallenges to deportation orders for as+lum seeers, more famil+ friendl+

conditions for prisoners and an end to postcode rationing of &1S drugs are

0ust some of the potential conse2uences of the 1uman Rights ct. Prisoners located hundreds of miles from their homes, or denied con0ugal

!isits or artificial insemination, or those in mother and bab+ units e!entuall+

separated from their children, might claim an infringement of their right to

famil+ life. ction against the &1S is also epected. 'nder article two, the right to life, the

state must not onl+ refrain from taing life but has to safeguard it. Thus patients

could challenge the postcode rationing of certain lifesa!ing drugs if a particular drugwere a!ailable on the &1S in 7ford but not in &ewcastle.

o @egal reform / nother factor in the increasing use of courts as a political forum is that

there has been a wa!e of go!ernment sponsored legal reforms in the last twent+ +ears, for

eample, limiting the right of silence and more recentl+, suggesting that the principle ofdouble 0eopard+ be ended.

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#herie $ooth is a founding member, argued on behalf of the Fawcett Societ+, that fi!e

male 0udges cannot be an impartial court in deciding where the balance lies between the

right of male defendants to a fair trial and the rights of their female accusers to pri!ac+

and dignit+. The lords must decide whether a rape shield law which came into force in

Eecember, maing e!idence of a womans seual past inadmissible in deciding whether she

consented, !iolates a defendants right to a fair trial. The Fawcett Societ+ is calling on thelaw lords to ensure that two women sit on the fi!e-strong panel for the case.

e. 'he 2ediao =+n Grant has outlined se!eral wa+s pressure groups tr+ to use the media to eert

le!erage on politicians,

isi#ilityrefers to the use of the media to establish a presence, and to

recruit and retain members. For eample, a tele!ision programme called The

nimals Film was an important moment in the growth of public awareness of

animal eploitation )Porritt and =inner 8B>>, p.


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direct action demonstations on man+ occasions since 8BB?. ?ducational and image3

#uilding techniques are employed as a matter of course #y a wide variety of sectional

and promotional groups.

o $ut some promotional groups rel+ almost eclusi!el+ on public pressure. =+n Grant calls

these ideological outsider groups- the+ do not want to become too closel+ entangled with

the political s+stem because the+ wish to radicall+ challenge authorit+ or accepted polic+.#&E and en!ironmental lie 5F are eamples. lso single issue groups for a b+-pass, or

against a power station, or for a =elsh TO channel or ta discs - generall+ must mobilise

mass public support before the+ can epert success.

o The (a+ Ea+ anti-capitalism rallies are good eamples of direct action.

o To be successful such groups must con!ince the go!ernment that there has been a sea-

change in public opinion. There are eamples of such groups, for eample S1, in

con0unction with the $(.

o 'he campaign to &eep -arts Hospital open/ public campaign in the earl+ 8BB:s, notable

for its silful handling of the media, eploitation of contacts and presentation of a reasoned

alternati!e course of action is the campaign to sa!e St $artholomews 1ospital in 5ondon,

which was threatened with closure b+ a Eepartment of 1ealth re!iew.

o $arts is more than 0ust a ma0or 5ondon hospital catering for some ;::,::: local residents

and se!eral hundred thousand more commuters. %t is also a national referral centre. 1eart

patients tra!el from as far as =ales. The childrens cancer ser!ices, built up o!er A:

+ears, are internationall+ renowned. The hospital is also nationall+ respected for

gastroenterolog+, diabetes and the treatment of hormone disorders.

o $ut the #onser!ati!e go!ernment was determined to rationalise specialties in 5ondon, to cut

unneeded beds and release more mone+ to impro!e the capitals dilapidated primar+ health

care ser!ices. $arts, on the doorstep of Fleet Street, is not short of media connections

and the+ were 2uicl+ eploited. Jane Eacre, a $arts consultant, alerted her husband

&igel, who is editor of %T&, and her brother-in-law Paul, editor of the Eail+ (ail. nthon+#lare, a former professor of ps+chiatr+ at the hospital taled to $$# colleagues. Jane

nderson, a senior lecturer in ids and wife of the tele!ision presenter #li!e nderson,

spread the word among her colleagues.o 'he media was #om#arded with argument- an+ bit of information that might help the

cause, such as the fact that the time Tomlinson had spent at the hospital was not more than

fi!e hours. !ital figure in the campaign was the popular Professor 5esle+ Rees, dean of the

$arts medical school. She immediatel+ harnessed the lo+alt+ of $arts medical students

and as a member of the Press #omplaints #ommission was able to use her contacts with

editors. %t was not so much that we wanted to tell people what to write, she sa+s. =e

wanted them to now !er+ 2uicl+ what could happen. The idea of closing $arts to balance

the health care boos seemed to reflect a general malaise in this countr+. ualit+ of careand +ears of lo+alt+ were left out of the e2uation. %t was lie sa+ing =estminster bbe+

should be demolished to build offices.

o The final political breathrough ma+ well ha!e been the debacle o!er the mines. %t is

reconed that the Go!ernment was loath to ris a similarl+ epensi!e one o!er 5ondon

hospitals. %n the end, Oirginia $ottomle+ 6 the minister - decided to gi!e $arts a partial

reprie!e, confining it to specialised treatment and research. The site of the hospital close

to the le!ers of power and influence was !ital to the success of the campaign. That success

is a dramatic demonstration of the powers that can be unleashed when the professional

classes eploit their considerable networ of contacts and lobb+ing sills". )Eail+ Telegraph,

89 Februar+ 8BB9*

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5uestions3plain the different methods pressure groups use to tr+ to influence go!ernment.

. Factors which influence pressure group successa. &ature and scope of membership

o pressure group which/

has a monopol+ on representing a section of societ+

represents an easil+ organisable economic interest

concentrates its efforts on the political defence of those interests

has considerable potential political influence.

o The power of a group depends to a considerable etent on both the coverage and the

cohesion of its mem#ership. %f a group has a clear identit+ and purpose and if it managesto attract into its membership a high proportion of those eligible to 0oin, it can be said to

ha!e a good co!erage and is liel+ to be effecti!e in defence of its members interests.

This has been borne out b+ the -ritish 2edical : per cent of all practising doctors in membershipo 7n the other hand, if a group sees to represent a wide range of interests, it is liel+ to

ha!e little natural cohesion and to be rather ineffecti!e in defence of its members

interests. For eample, neither the ')C, which sees to represent ?9 affiliated trade

unions and C.C million indi!idual trade unionists, nor the C-*%which sees to do the same for

more than A9 #onser!ati!e Go!ernment and succeeded onl+ in

splitting his union in 8B>;->< when he persuaded his 3ecuti!e to launch an all-out strie

against threatened pit closures without first securing the support of his members in a union

ballot.

o 7ther groups are not eas+ to organise. For eample, railwaymen are split into grades and

engine dri!ers ha!e their own elite" union which aims to protect the pri!ileges of its

14


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members from those in lower grades as well as deal with the management. %t is e!en more

difficult to organise di!erse groups lie consumers to, for eample, bo+cott particular

goods, shops or manufacturers.

o -usiness% professional and commercial enterprisesfind it easier to organise and agree on

policies, for eample airlines ma+ agree on fare tariffs, oil producers on prices and so on

because rele!ant decision-maers can easil+ communicate.

c. Political le!erageo The power of pressure groups also depends on the degree of political leveragewhich the+

can eert. %n 8B>B the brewing industr+ showed its abilit+ to swa+ the then #onser!ati!e

Go!ernment, partl+ through its abilit+ to eploit a cle!er and hard-hitting ad!ertising

campaign, partl+ through an adroit use of political contacts, and partl+ because man+

#onser!ati!e bacbenchers realised the significant part which it pla+ed in providing

financial support for the party.

o Such le!erage can tae the form of an abilit+ to deny to therest of society the provision

of goodsor ser!ices which the communit+ cannot easil+ do without and which others arenot able to suppl+. For eample, power station wor&ers or air traffic controllers can be in

such a position, as can computer operators in the #i!il Ser!ice or safet+ worers in the

water industr+.

o Some groups ha!e used campaigns of civil diso#edienceas a wa+ to tr+ and achie!e their

aims. The Suffragettes were an earl+ eample. (ore recentl+ there has been/

the wide-scale campaign for the non-pa+ment of the Poll Ta4

the port demonstrations co-ordinated b+ #%=F )#ompassion in =orld

Farming* against the li!e animal eport trade in 8BB;-B4 the acti!it+ of E& )Eisabled Peoples Eirect ction &etwor* which has

fought hard in recent +ears to change the face of disabilit+ acti!ism - such

as l+ing on the pa!ement outside Eowning Street in pools of blood-red paint.

7ther groups ha!e become in!ol!ed - some intentionall+, others

unintentionall+ - in direct action which has in!ol!ed !iolence. 3amples of

this are/ the inner cit+ riots of the earl+ 8B>:s, the Poll Ta riot in

Trafalgar S2uare in 8BB:, and the riot against the #riminal Justice and

Public 7rder $ill in 8BB;4 the actions of the nimal 5iberation Front in!ol!ing

arson attacs in the earl+ 8BB:s4 some of the ecesses witnessed at the

direct action campaigns against the &ewbur+ b+pass, the 3eter-1oniton

9: etension scheme, the Tw+ford Eown cutting and the (anchesterirport etension in the mid-to-late 8BB:s.

o ctions which harm other members of the public are often counter-producti!e lie tube

stries or teacher or doctor ations which hit parents and patients.

d. 3pertise and #i!il Ser!ice contacts

o The strength and fre2uenc+ of contacts with the #i!il Ser!ice is another aspect of the

power and influence of groups. +n the whole% esta#lished groups prefer to have a

continuous% quiet influence on the process of Government rather than an intermittent

and noisy impact #ased on the use of media pu#licity and the staging of pu#lic

demonstrations.

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o The+ use their reliable and fre2uent contacts with =hitehall and the epertise of their own

professional staff to influence (inisterial decisions and the detailed content of legislation.

%n such cases resorting to widel+ publicised campaigns is almost an admission of failure.

o number of groups secure official representation on ad!isor+ committees established

within the orbits of =hitehall Eepartments and in this wa+ are able to support and monitor

the detailed aspects of polic+ implementation. This gi!es them/

etra status and recognition in =hitehall

rights of access to (inisters when the need arises

and opportunities for consultation and influence not a!ailable to

others outside the charmed circle of customar+ consultati!e

arrangements in central Go!ernment.

o The classic case has probabl+ been the relationship between the Road Transport

Federation, the principal lobb+ group for the road freight interest, and the Eepartment of

Transport which, until a shift of polic+ in 8BB;, had consistentl+ pushed ahead with the road

building programme seemingl+ in defiance of the Treasur+, the competing railwa+ lobb+ and

the general en!ironmental interest. nother eample would be the Prison Reform Trust,

which has established a niche role despite ha!ing neither a large membership nor significant

financial resources4 the 1ome 7ffice alwa+s consults the Trust when considering polic+ on

prisons.

e. Publicit+ !alueo The publicit+ traditionall+ secured b+ the #hild Po!ert+ ction Group for poor families with

children or b+ Shelter for the homeless was beneficial to those particular sections of

societ+, at an+ rate as long as (inisters were either s+mpathetic to their arguments orembarrassed into action

o %n the earl+ 8B>:s the #ampaign for 5ead-Free ir )#53R* was able to mae considerable

headwa+ towards achie!ing its goal as a result of the publicit+ arising first from the leaing

of a letter from the Go!ernments #hief (edical 7fficer to the effect that lead in petrol

was permanentl+ reducing the % of man+ children, and then from the report of the Ro+al

#ommission on 3n!ironmental Pollution which confirmed the dangers to children and called

for the banning of lead in petrol.

o %n 8BB> the #ountr+side lliance not least !ia a march through 5ondon which drew an

estimated A


17/26

horrified, as (obil had legitimatel+ approached 1amilton without thought of pa+ment.

&e!ertheless, the firm suggested the pa+ment be in!oiced as a consulting fee, though The

realit+ was that we were bu+ing off (r 1amilton for what he had done, in connection with

this ta issue.o %n what must be the most stunning - and unreported - statement of the trial, (obils

barrister informed its eecuti!e that 'his was the normal course of things for some2Ps who did as& for payment.Reall+ =hich other (Ps nd how much nd which other

companies recei!ed bills from Parliamentarians-R-'s (ost important, is this still business

as usual

o Euring the long period of #onser!ati!e rule from 8B?B until 8BB?, critics of the Go!ernment

argued that its health polic+ was undermined b+ the financial and political power of the

to#acco industrywhich successfull+ resisted pressures for a complete ban on all tobacco

ad!ertising.

g. Ooting power

o 'rade unioninfluence on the 5abour Part+ stems from the fact that the creation of the5abour Part+ at the end of the nineteenth centur+ was largel+ the wor of the trade unions

and e!er since then trade union influence within the wider mo!ement was often significant

and occasionall+ decisi!e. 1owe!er, in the 8BB:s the lins between the 5abour Part+ and the

trade unions became the focus of considerable debate, and there was e!en some tal of a

friendl+ di!orce. &onetheless, the connection is one of the defining lins in $ritish

politics, and although it has changed and ma+ change further, it is doubtful that it will be

ended. The 5abour Part+ therefore has to eep in mind this relationship and its commitment

to the minimum wage reflects this connection.

o Groups lie senior citiIens6 now with their own union 6 ha!e considerable !oting part+ as

was shown in Gordon $rown"s A::8 budget.

h. 1istorical #ircumstances and the Part+ in Power'he Conservatives

o fter 8B?B #onser!ati!e ministers did not see cooperation of trade unions for an incomes

polic+ and pri!atised man+ go!ernment-owned industries. fter 8B?B there was more

conflict between interest groups, largel+ in the public sector, and the #onser!ati!e

go!ernment than at an+ other period in the post-war era. Three factors ma+ eplain this/

The Thatcher go!ernment made no secret of its wish to change the direction

of polic+ in much of the public sector. Groups which ha!e an interest in the

status 2uo were therefore liel+ to be offended.

(inisters wished to constrain the growth of public spending on man+ser!ices and to reduce state subsidies4 again, it is not surprising that

interests dependent on such ependiture, notabl+ on health, social welfare,

education, and local go!ernment, complained.

(inisters, finall+, too seriousl+ claims that the authorit+ of an elected

go!ernment should not be compromised b+ bargains with sectional interests,

particularl+ the trade unions. School teachers found that a core curriculum,

national testing of pupils, and a contract of ser!ice was imposed on them. %n

8B>B the doctors had new contracts imposed on them b+ the (inistr+ of

1ealth. These limit their budgets and lin a greater part of their pa+ to the

number of patients the+ treat. %n 8B>B the 5ord #hancellor proposed

changes to the legal profession, notabl+ ending the barristers eclusi!e

17


18/26

rights of audience in the higher courts and the solicitors monopol+

con!e+ancing ser!ices.

(ew @a#our and pressure groups

o &ew 5abour relationships with the unionspromised to be less close than under pre!ious5abour dministrations but also closer than those of the pre!ious #onser!ati!e

Go!ernments. &ew 5abour made manifesto promises attracti!e to the unions including a

statutor+ minimum wage, the signing of the 3uropean Social #hapter and the promise of

union recognition where the ma0orit+ of the wor force !ote for a union to represent them.

(oreo!er, despite the reduction of their role, the unions influence within the part+

remained considerable and the+ contributed L88 million to the part+s election campaign. -y

early 1AA% the @a#our Government had pleased the unions #y signing the Social

Chapter% removing the #an on unions at GCH5% and setting up a @ow Pay Commission to

e8amine the minimum wage

o

&ew 5abour made a determined pre-election effort to reassure #usiness and wherepossible to gain its acti!e support with promises of a low-ta, low-inflation regime

committed to maintaining #onser!ati!e public spending le!els for two +ears. %t promised

fleible labour marets and help for small businesses. %t sought and reputedl+ recei!ed

large financial support from business, together with the political bacing of some chairmen

of leading companies and substantial support in a poll of businessmen. fter the election,

5abours pro-business s+mpathies were further demonstrated b+ its appointment of leading

businessmen Geoffre+ Robinson, formerl+ head of Jaguar cars, and Sir Ea!id Simon, the

former chairman of $P, to leading posts in the go!ernment. %ts decision to 0oin the

3uropean single currenc+ found fa!our with the #$% which also epressed concern about the

#onser!ati!es mo!e to hardline opposition to it.

o The ad!ent of the &ew 5abour Go!ernment shifted the #alance of advantage amongcauses and interests as indicated b+ the fierce conflicts generated o!er its manifesto

promises of a ban on tobacco ad!ertising, greater freedom for people to eplore the

countr+side and a free !ote on a ban on fo hunting.

5uestion=hat factors contribute to pressure group success

E. Pressure Groups are alua#le to Democracy / Pluralism

a. The Pluralist Perspecti!ePluralist theor+ is the onl+ model to suggest unambiguosl+ that pressure groups do enhance

democrac+ because the+ complement representati!e institutions lie elections and parliaments.

Pluralism 6 groups are a product of freedom of association, which is a

fundamental principle of liberal democrac+ its ob!erse is autocratic or

t+rannical suppression of interests. Freel+ operating pressure groups are

essential to the effecti!e functioning of liberal democrac+ in three main

wa+s/

o the+ ser!e as !ital intermediar+ institutions between

go!ernment and societ+

o the+ assist in the dispersal of political power4

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19/26

o and the+ pro!ide important counterweights to undue

concentration of power.

*ndividuals on their own are not particularly significant in politics, and

elections and part+ politics ha!e limited impact in securing go!ernment

responsi!eness to citiIens )because, for eample, elections occur onl+ e!er+

; or < +ears and parties ha!e !er+ broad lines of polic+*. Therefore theinterests of indi!iduals are primaril+ represented b+ organised groups.

Democratic societies are 0open - made up of man+ competing groups which

can freel+ form. n+ one indi!idual belongs to man+ groups so interests

cross-cut" and groups ha!e o!erlapping memberships. indi!iduals are

therefore not totall+ committed to one group - those who wor for a large

multi-national compan+ are also motorists, houseowners, football fans, people

with an interest in clean air and water etc.

Societ+ is not dominated b+ one group but t+pified b+ man+ conflicting and

co-operating groups )hence pluralism*. &o interests are left permanentl+

outside the polic+ process.

Political power is fragmented because resources are widel+ dispersed4

mone+ and wealth is onl+ one source of influence4 numbers in a group is

another - and go!ernment cannot ignore the claims of !oters4 some groups

ha!e moral claims - the disabled or the aged. 3!en the most disad!antaged

ha!e influence, because all go!ernments wish to maintain political stabilit+

and therefore cannot tolerate a large disenchanted underclass.

Pluralists #elieve that the politics is a#out #argaining- group action can

press an issue on to the go!ernment so that it must deal )respond* to the

demands of groups. Politics itself is fluid and e!er changing and the polic+

process is best characterised as one in!ol!ing bidding, bargaining,

negotiation, accommodation. compromise and checs and balances. 'he system of government is not permanently #iased to specific groups4

the go!ernment acts more as a refereebetween the competing groups and

restores a balance if one group gains too much power. The influence of

business is limited b+ di!isions within the business communit+ and b+ the

priorit+ parties ha!e to win elections.

The outcome of the competition between groups is that government is

sta#le because e!er+one can participate e!er+ones interests are weighed

on the scales.

b. Pluralist Oiews on the Oalue of Pressure Groups to Eemocrac+o To pluralists pressure groups are an in!aluable aspect of democrac+ woring alongside

representati!e institutions lie political parties, elections and parliament. Specificall+/

Pressure groups have sym#olic value- groups embod+ principles of limited

go!ernment and go!ernment b+ consent - a free societ+ spawns a !ariet+ of

groups.

The also add to political sta#ilityb+ relie!ing frustration because if the

onl+ wa+ to influence political bodies was to wor through political parties,

minorities would become embittered, defeated, crushed and frustrated.

)=ilson*

Pressure groups are also representative - parties cannot be the sole

transmission belts of interests and opinions4 (Ps do not operate in a!acuum between elections. Ooters insist on their right to ad!ise, ca0ole, and

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warn..... the pressure group s+stem ..... is an indispensable concomitant of the

part+ s+stem. %t pro!ides an in!aluable set of multiple channels through

which the mass of citiIenr+ can influence the decision-maing process at the

highest le!el.)(cDenIie Political uarterl+ 8B*. =ithout pressure

groups democrac+ would be a rigid and stupid bureaucrac+ )Finer*4 and %n

the age of bigness and technolog+. the lobb+ tempers the s+stem b+Hpromoting continuous interchange between go!ernors and go!erned. )Finer*.

Pressure groups help all Governments to develop and implement their

policies b+ entering into detailed consultations on proposals for

administrati!e action or legislation and subse2uentl+ b+ deli!ering a measure

of public consent to the output of the polic+ and decision maing process.

For eample, Shelter has had considerable influence on housing legislation

o!er the +ears, the #hild Po!ert+ ction Group has consistentl+ pressed for

impro!ements to help the poor and especiall+ families with children, and the

(agistrates ssociation is regularl+ consulted about the de!elopment of

the criminal law b+ the 1ome 7ffice and the 5ord #hancellors Eepartment."

)Forman and $aldwin*

Pressure groups also improve the surveillance of government especiall+

since in $ritain (Ps are so badl+ e2uipped. Pressure groups act as unofficial

researchers and briefers to (Ps, therefore the+ fulfil another democratic

right - to obtain redress of grie!ances. %n doing this pressure groups often

combat the ad!antages of high !ested interests eercising influence through

sheer mone+ and corrupti!e power )=ilson*. The+ act as opponents and

critics of Go!ernment, especiall+ when the interests of those whom the+

claim to represent are threatened b+ Go!ernment polic+. For eample, the

$ritish (edical ssociation was in the forefront of the campaign to resist

the #onser!ati!e Go!ernments reforms of the &ational 1ealth Ser!ice inthe late 8B>:s and earl+ 8BB:s.

Pressure groups give causes stamina. The+ act as publicists and pur!e+ors

of information in order to promote a particular point of !iew or defend a

particular standpoint. For eample, Shelter was etremel+ important in the

8BC:s in re!ealing the widespread eistence of appalling housing conditions.

Pressure groups help efficient government.The+ ha!e acted as etensions

or agents of Go!ernment. This is a role which has grown in importance

whene!er the tendenc+ towards corporatism has grown in $ritish societ+.

For eample the 5aw Societ+ is responsible for administering the s+stem of

state-financed legal aid. .... %n addition, there are occasions when the

Go!ernment maes grants to a pressure group so that it can pro!ide aparticular ser!ice. For eample, Relate, the national marriage guidance

organisation, has been the recipient of grants for the ad!ice centres it runs.

Social progress/ groups enable new concerns and issues to reach the

political agenda, thereb+ facilitating social progress and pre!enting social

stagnation e.g. the womens and en!ironmentalist mo!ements.

Pluralists argue that pressure groups have #ecome much more significant

in the political process since 1AE. 7!er half of the groups in eistence

now ha!e been formed since 8BC:. There has also been growth in the !ariet+

of groups, including the formation of en!ironmental groups, groups

ad!ocating the cause of the disad!antaged lie Shelter, and the #hild

Po!ert+ ction Group - and the politiciIation of groups such as teachers,

doctors and nurses. Pressure groups are increasingl+ well organiIed to

20


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influence go!ernment and this has been fostered b+ technological changes -

it is much easier to contact and mobilise large numbers of people. The

growth has been eplained b+ the concept ofpost3affluent politics - a

phrase used to describe a whole range of social de!elopments since 8B;< and

first used.b+ %nglehart in The Silent Re!olution )8B?8*. The argument is

that, freed from the need to worr+ about ph+sical sur!i!al, citiIens becameless interested in material 2uestions and more concerned with issues

affecting the 2ualit+ of life. This helps eplain the growth of

en!ironmental groups,, peace groups,, moral issue groups, cultural groups.

ffluence includes factors lie greater education, greater information

through tele!ision, the breadown of pre!ious cultural snonns )e.g. seual

moralit+ and the relationship between the +oung and the rest of societ+*

and a generall+ less deferential societ+, one in which authorit+ is more liel+

to be challenged. nother factor ma+ be the decline of class politics -

between the 8BA:s and 8BC:s Peoples political lo+alties were shaped b+

class. Their political demands were articulated b+ class-based parties.

)(ichael (oran The #hanging =orld of $ritish Pressure Groups*. The two

ma0or parties ha!e lost o!er A million members o!er the last 9:-+ears - some

of this has been channelled into the pressure group.

c. ?8amples of Pluralism in


22/26

3mails containing ad!erts for tobacco that are sent in the course of

business will be outlawed, but it is belie!ed that ad!ertising on a website

where tobacco products are offered for sale would not be an offence. nti-

smoing pressure group


23/26

discrimination, to freedom from detention without trial, to trial b+

0ur+, to pri!ac+ and to freedom of epression.

Sub0ect 3ecuti!e powers and prerogati!es, b+ whomsoe!er

eercised, to the rule of law. 3stablish freedom of information and

opengo!ernment. #reate a fair electoral s+stem of proportional

representation. Reform the 'pper 1ouse to establish a democratic, non-hereditar+

Second #hamber.

Place the 3ecuti!e under the power of a democraticall+ renewed

Parliament and all agencies of the state under the rule of law.

3nsure the independence of a reformed 0udiciar+.

Pro!ide legal remedies for all abuses of power b+ the state and b+

officials of central and local go!ernment.

Guarantee an e2uitable distribution of power between the nations of

the 'nited Dingdom and between local, regional and central

go!ernment.

Eraw up a written constitution anchored in the ideal of uni!ersal

citiIenship, that incorporates these reforms. The inscription of laws

does not guarantee their realisation. 7nl+ people themsel!es can

ensure freedom, democrac+ and e2ualit+ before the law.

&onetheless, such ends are far better demanded, and more

effecti!el+ obtained and guarded, once the+ belong to e!er+one b+

inalienable right.

5uestion

=h+ do pluralists argue that pressure groups are !aluable to democrac+

J. 'he 2ar8ist Perspective / Pressure Groups serve the

interests of the wealthy and undermine democracy

o (arists oppose pluralism at all points Sectionalism and selfishness/ pressure groups impro!e participation, but une2uall+,

benefiting the well-organised but disad!antaging the weal+-organised. %n this sense,

the+ wor against - not in fa!our of - the public interest. For eample, profits are

protected against consumer interests in cheap prices or safe ser!ices. (arists stress the economic #asis of politics- conflicts tae place in a societ+ where

wealth is unevenly distri#uted between two classes, those who own the means of

production and those who sell their labour. (arists argue that the state is dominated

b+ capitalist interests - rather than groups checing each other, -some groups

dominate%for eample business groups are much more powerful than unions.

The state is notneutral - government is #iased towards the interests of the wealthy-

for eample, (arists point to the re!ol!ing door s+ndrome and the contacts (Ps ha!e

with companies.

(iliband argues that, %n terms of social origin, education and class situation, the men

who ha!e manned all the command positions in the state s+stem ha!e largel+ ... beendrawn from the world of business or propert+ or from the professional middle classes.

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The group s+stem onl+ apparentl+ functions on a le!el pla+ing field - in practice, it

reinforces the eisting class and power structure.

Political leaders accept policies that favour #usiness, partl+ because of the power

business wealth confers and partl+ because of the power of business to influence ideas

through control of the press which is dependent on ad!ertising re!enue.

(arists stress the corruption which is widespread in modern states which callthemsel!es democratic and highlight how parties lie the #onser!ati!es are financed b+

business interests.

'he poor and the unemployed are outside the pressure group worldand this is best

eplained b+ the crushing significance of ideas in societ+ which tell us that to be poor is

an indi!iduals own fault and that unemplo+ment can be sol!ed if indi!iduals get on their

bies and loo for wor.

(arists suggest that there are groups outside of the mainstream, such as blac +outh,

who do not organise to press their !iews on the state. This is because the+ are mindful

of their own powerlessness to change things through political acti!it+.Simpl+

epressed, there is no point in organising to tal politics to the powerful if +ou are

powerless and cannot force those in go!ernment to listen and act on what +ou ha!e to

sa+.)Eearlo!e @ Saunders*


25/26

$iwater - and the allocation of aid. Sir #olin #handler - chief eecuti!e of Oicers and

former head of sales at the (7E, was a member of the go!ernment uango - The $ritish

7!erseas id $oard - which allocates o!erseas aid. %ts chairman was Sir llen #ocshaw,

head of (3#. ll the other companies had a representati!e on the board.

c. ssessmento (arism pro!ides a powerful criti2ue of modern democracies - its attacs on pluralism ha!e

considerable force in that li#eral democratic systems are mar&ed #y inequalities of

economic power which have a crucial impact on the political sphere and which ha!e

implications for the idea of citiIen e2ualit+ and participation celebrated b+ the liberal

state.

o #riticism of the pressure group s+stem are not confined to (arists. For eample, (rs

Thatcher was !er+ suspicious of pressure groups sa+ing that the+ limited democrac+ and led

go!ernments to spend more and more to bribe" pressure groups.

o 1owe!er, (arism also has serious weanesses.

%t assumes a static political situation and sees societ+ di!ided intomonolithic power blocs, based on class.

This means that 2ar8ism cannot e8plain occasions when the interests of

#usiness lose. (arists tend to assume that business is a united interest,

whereas pluralists correctl+ point out that there is no single capitalist

interest.

The biggest problem with (arism is that it sees no real possi#ilty of

improvement until the entire #asis of the society is changed from one

based on pri!ate ownership to state control.

This would necssitate a massive central state and concentration of power.

The collapse of the 3astem #ommunist bloc and the mo!e awa+ from socialist

planning b+ western 3uropean socialist parties has destro+ed the (aristlogic.

5uestion=hat are the main arguments that suggest pressure groups are a danger to democrac+

?. 3!aluation / Pressure Groups and Eemocrac+

There is no simple answer to the 2uestion of pressure group contribution to democrac+

because politics is a dynamic process6 the influence of pressure groups !aries from issueto issue, state to state, time to time, circumstance to circumstance.

There are case studies which support pluralist optimism

There are case studies which support (arist pessimism

(ore often than not the realit+ falls somewhere between the two etremes and each issue,

each case stud+ of pressure group influence, reflects a different conclusion.

Paradoicall+,

democracy would #e a hollow shell without pressure group activitybut at

the same time

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the general tendency of the pressure group system is to give much

greater power to the wealthy 0producer interests and therefore to

undermine the equality of the #allot #o8. 'his is particularly acute in

the )S

unit 1 uk pressure groups

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