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Sanjeev Degree College Commercial Geography

S K V S L Narasimha Raju

Unit – 1

The Earth

Q. Explain the internal structure of Earth and its sources to know the earth’s interior?

Ans. Our knowledge about interior of the earth is very limited because we do not have direct

Access to Conditions prevailing in the earth. The earths internal structure compressors of more

or less concentric layers laying one above the other.

The outermost layer is known as crust average thickness is about 33 km. It is the solid

layer of the Earth which is compressor of different types of rocks, below The crust is the Mantle

which extends up to a depth of 2,900 km. In between the Crust and the Mantle there is a

Mohorocivic discontinuity. Mantle is divided into two broad layers namely, the upper Mantle

and lower Mantle. Upper Mantle depth of 400 km is known as atmosphere transitional zone.

Below mental i.e., beyond the depth of 2,900 km there is a core of Earth. At the depth of 2,900

km there is another discontinuity which is known as Guthenburg discontinued. The core is

divided into outer Core and inner core

These two layers of the core separated from each other by transition zone which extends

from death of 4,600 to 5,151 km.

Sources to know the earth's interior

Efforts have been made to collect information about Earth's interior on the basis of the

indirect resources are

1. Density

2. Temperature

3. Pressure

4. Earthquake waves



1. Density

According to Newton's Law Of Gravity its density as a whole is 5.5 the sedimentary

rocks on the surface of the earth have an average density of 2.7. Below the sedimentary rocks

there are igneous rocks with average density of 3.0 to 3.5 means density inside the earth must be

method that the core of the earth has a density of 11 to 12. It may rise to 13 to 14 at the centre of

earth.

According to first opinion the increase in density with the increase in depth is due to

pressure of upper layers. According to second opinion the core itself is made up of like Nickel

and iron which have high density.

2. Temperature

Digging of mines revealed that there is a great temperature with the increase in depth

inside the earth. According to the latest estimates the rate of increase of temperature is 12℃ per

km at a depth of 100 km. It is 2℃ per km in the next 300 km and 1℃ per kilometre below it. By

this calculation the temperature should be nearly 2900℃ at the core of the earth.

3. Pressure

Like density and temperature pressure also increases with the increase in depth inside the

earth. This may be due to the overlaying layers or the presence of heavier metals at the core of

the earth.

4. Earthquake waves

The science of ethics is known as seismology evidences based on earthquake waves are

known as seismological evidences. Mohorovic used earthquake waves for the first time in 1909

to know about earth's interior.



Three Types of earthquake waves

Following three types of earthquake waves are normally recorded by a seismograph

1. P-Waves: These also known as primary waves. Their average velocity is 8 km per second

which is higher than any other waves. P-Waves can travel through all the mediums including

solids, liquids and gases.

2. S-Waves: These are known as secondary waves the average velocity is 4 km per

second. They can travel through solids only and disappears in liquids.

3. L-Waves: These are also known as Long waves. They travel along the surface of the earth

and are also referred as surface waves. L waves can affect only the surface of the earth. The

average velocity is just 3 km per second.

Behaviour of the earthquake waves

There is a change in course and velocity of the Waves on crossing the boundaries of

different zones inside the earth. Is the ground through which the Waves travel is a solid, they

behave in one way. If it is liquid, waves behave in different way. Their velocities in both cases

differ.

All the three P, S and L waves are recorded near the focus of the earthquake. They

follow a curved path in the interior of the earth which proves that density increases inside the

earth. P and S waves are recorded along the surface up to a distance of 11,000 km from the focus

of the earthquake. Velocity also increases with the increase in depth. But this process continuous

only up to a depth of 2,900 km. Beyond this death, S waves disappear and waves travel with

reduced velocity. this processor shows that the core of the earth behaves like solids while mantle



up to a depth of 2,900 km behaves like liquids on reaching the core s waves disappear and p

waves are refracted as a which there are no waves for a distance of 5,000 km beyond the 11,000

km mark. This area is known as shadow zone. Normally, shadow zone is found between and

143° degrees angle focus of the earthquake.

Q. What are latitudes and longitudes? Explain the relationship between longitude and

time?

Ans. Latitudes and longitudes

These are imaginary lines rather circles drawn on a globe or a map to know the exact

location of a specific point on the Earth's surface.

Latitude

The earth is supposed to be around an imaginary line running through its centre. This

imaginary line is called the axis of the earth. The north end of the axis is called the North Pole its

southern and is known as South Pole. From these two poles runs the central latitude known as

the equator. It divides the earth into equal parts known as hemispheres. Which lies to the north

of the equator is called the northern hemisphere. And that hemisphere to the south of the equator

is known as Southern hemisphere. This equator is the initial line indicating 0° latitude.

If a place located in the Northern hemisphere and marks an angle of 30° with equator as

measured from the centre of the Earth then the place will have a latitude of 30° north. The length

of the parallels goes on decreasing as we move from towards the poles still it is reduced to zero

at the two poles.



Some Important parallels

The earth axis is at an angle of 23.5°.Thus 23.5° of North and South latitudes have

special significance. The parallel of 23.5° North latitude is known as of cancer and 23.5° south

latitude is called the Tropic of Capricorn. All places between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of

Capricorn experience vertical rays of the sun twice a year. The Arctic and Antarctic circles are at

66.5° North and South latitudes respectively. These circles Polar Regions where there is

continuous day or night for more than 24 hours.

Meridians and longitude

Meridians also called as longitudes longitudes are drawn as semi circles on the globe

longitude passing through Royal battery at Greenwich near London Can be mentioned Prime

longitude for Greenwich Meridian and represents 0°. The exactly opposite to the Greenwich

Meridian is longitude of 180° and is known as International Date Line. The Prime Meridian

divides the earth into Eastern Western hemisphere slaying in the east of the Prime Meridian are

said to be the east longitude while those in the west of the Prime Meridian have West longitudes

Prime Meridian and international date line are common and or not east or West longitude.

Longitude

The longitude of a place is its angular distance measured in degrees east or West from the

Prime Meridian when we say that the longitude of Allahabad is 82 1/2° east, this means that

Allahabad is located in the east of Prime Meridian and makes an angle of 82 1/2° with the axis of

the earth with reference to the prime meridian.

Graticule

Graticule is the network of parallels and meridians drawn on a globe. These networks

help us in locating different places with reference to given latitude and longitudes.



Longitude and time

Hidden times are very closely related to each other this relationship is based on the

Earth's rotation on its axis. The earth completes one rotation on its axis in 24 hours process it

sleeps our 360° longitude. Thus for moving 1° longitude the Earth takes 4 minutes and in one

hour 15° of longitude get rotated. It implies that time difference of places located 15° longitude

apart will be one hour. When it is noon at Greenwich meridian it will be 6 p.m. at 90° East

longitude, and midnight at 180° longitude.

Local time

When the sun's altitude is highest at a place, the time is considered to be 12 noon at the

concerned place. The places located at a particular meridian i.e., north and south of each other, is

the same. However places located on different longitudes i.e., places located in the east and west

of each other have different local time. East and West of each other varies at the rate 4 minutes

per degree every 15° longitude.

Standard Time

The use of local time leads to utter confusion with respect to railway, and telegram, radio,

television air service etc. Because each longitude has its won time which is different from the

time of other longitudes. In order to solve this problem, each country uses some important

longitude as its standard longitude. The local time of the selected longitude is treated as standard

time for the entire country. The standard time of India is taken from 82 1/2° East attitude which

passes through Allahabad at the confluence of Ganga and Yamuna two most sacred rivers of the

country. Allahabad is treated as the state the entire country and is known as Indian standard time

IST this is 5 1/2 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time GMT.

World time zones

System of time zones was established by the Prime Meridian conference held at

Washington DC in 1884. After a long discussion, the Meridian running through Greenwich in

England was declared as the Prime Meridian and was taken as the reference Meridian for the



time zones of world. The Standard Meridians of time zones with their fix 15° longitude apart

from Greenwich, thereby differing from one another by amounts. In this way the whole world

was divided into 24 time zones.

Some countries or islands lie about Midway between 15° meridians. Under such

circumstances a Meridian lying halfway between the two meridians is chosen. Such meridians

are 71/2° longitude apart and represent a difference of half an hour. For example, India's standard

time is based on 821/2° longitude which is 75° + 71/2° east. Large countries have more than one

time zone. The continuous states of the USA have 5 time zones. The Russia had 11 standard time

zones. Australia has three time zones.

The International Date Line

International Date Line is that line of longitude which the of date when we cross

it. There is a difference of one day on either side of this line because the Greenwich Mean Time

180° longitudes differ by 24 hours. When we start moving eastward from Greenwich, we gain

time at the rate one hour for every 15°longitude and at 180° East Meridian the time is exactly 12

hours of the Greenwich time. On the other hand, moving westward from Greenwich time and at

180° West Meridian the time difference is 12 hours and this time is to behind. In Other words

different dates are found on either side of 180° meridian. Therefore, the calendar date is changed

by one day is crossed from the east to west and vice versa.



Q. Mention the three realms of earth?

Ans. Realms of the Earth

The earth has three called

1. Lithosphere

2. Hydrosphere

3. Atmosphere

Lithosphere

The term Lithosphere refers to the solid layer of the earth which consists of rocks of

various types. On the top of the mantle and contains sial and sima. All the continents on the

globe are parts of lithosphere. They contain all sorts of land forms including mountains and

planes. The northern hemisphere has more land area than the southern hemisphere. The main

continents are Asia, Europe, North America, South America, Africa, and Australia. The

Antarctic continent surrounds South Pole. Hence it is totally covered by permanent snow and ice

is almost entirely uninhabited. The total area of lithosphere is about 149.45 million square

kilometres.

Hydrosphere

Hydrosphere consists of the water components of the Earth which includes oceans, Seas,

Rivers and underground water. It is estimated that 71% of the total surface area of the Earth is

covered by water and the land area accounts only 29% of the total surface area earth. Earth is

often called a water planet or blue planet. A look at the world map indicates that about 71% of

the earth's surface is covered by oceans the main oceans of the world in decreasing order of area

and volume are Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian ocean, Southern ocean and Arctic Ocean.

Atmosphere

Atmosphere is the vast expanse of air which and has become an integral part of the earth

due to earth's gravitational force. We cannot feel presence of the air unless it blows as wind.

About 99% of the total mass of the atmosphere is within the height of 32 km from the Earth's

surface. There are differences in opinion regarding the thickness of the atmosphere. Previously it

was considered to be only 800 kilometres but latest discoveries hint at 32,000 kilometres thick

atmosphere surrounding the earth. It is no clear cut upper limit and it is gradually merges with

the outer space.

Composition of the atmosphere

The atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. Which nitrogen constitutes the major portion

is accounts for 78.03% of the total volume of the atmosphere. Next is Oxygen which is 20.99%

of the atmospheric volume. Thus nitrogen and oxygen together make up over 99% of the

atmospheric air by volume.



Q. Describe the evolution of earth and big bang theory?

Ans. Evolution of the earth

Nobody exactly knows as to how our earth has evolved. The origin of the earth

is mystery under no complete and comprehensive theory about the earth's origin has been

propounded till now. Majority of the theories believe that the earth got separated from the sun as

a hot gaseous mass which on cooling with the passage of time turned into a liquid and then into

solid sphere.

Some important theories

A large number of theories have been put forward to explain the origin of the earth. Some

of the outstanding hypotheses are briefly described here.

Gaseous hypothesis

Professor Imanuel Kant was German scholar who put forward his hypothesis in 1755.

According to him primordial matter was evenly distributed in the shape of small and cold

particles from which our earth and other planets of solar system where formed. Since this

hypothesis is based on gas, it is popularly known as gaseous hypothesis.

Nebular hypothesis

Laplace was a French mathematician who put forward the hypothesis of which of the

earth in 1796. According to Laplace, the primordial matter existed in the form of intensely hot

and rotating gaseous mass in the beginning. This hot and slowly rotating gaseous mass was

called nebula after which is called the nebular hypothesis. As the time passed, the gaseous mass

cooled, its volume decrease the and its speed of rotation increased. The increase in quotation

resulted in increase in centrifugal force. When the centrifugal force exceeded the gravitational

force, a ring moved away from the nebula and broke into many smaller rings. These rings, on

cooling become planets and satellites. The remaining central part of nebula is the present sun.

Planesimal hypothesis

In the year 1900, Chamberlain and Moulten put forward their Planesimal

Hypothesis according to which the wandering star approached the sun and accepted its

gravitational pull on the sun. As a result, a cigar shaped extension of material was separated from

the solid surface pandering star moved away from the sun the material separated from the solar

surface. As the wandering star moved away from the star, the material separated from the solar

surface started revolving around the sun and condensed into planets at a large stage.

Tidal hypothesis

Sir James Jeans, a British scientist, propounded tidal hypothesis in 1919 and another

British scientist, Harold Jeffreys suggested some modifications in this hypothesis in 1929.

According to the hypothesis, the sun was a gaseous mass in the beginning. Another



star,several times larger than the sun, accidentally came close to eat and pulled the gaseous

material away from the sun due to its gravitational pull. Giant tongues of matter came the planets

were formed.

Revised Nebular hypothesis

In 1915, Otto Schmidt of Russia and Carl Weizascar of Germany somewhat revised the

nebular hypothesis in their own different ways. Otto Schmidt in his hypothesis talked about large

quantities of gases and dust particles scattered in the universe while Carl Weizascar emphasizes

on the existence of cosmic dust surrounding the sun. The friction and collision of the dust

particles led to the formation of disc shaped cloud and the planets were formed through the

process of accretion.

Big Bang Theory

Also known as expanding Universe hypothesis, it can be credited to Edwin Hubble who

provided evidence of expanding universe in 1920. This theory was postulated in 1950 and 1960s

and validated in 1972. According to this theory, everything in the universe emerged from a point

known as singularity.

The galaxies moved apart as the space between them expanded. Obviously the universe

was much smaller in the beginning. As the universe expanded, the heart radiation in the original

firewall also expanded and cooled down. Misty clouds of matter already existed. All these clouds

collapsed upon themselves, they were pulled together by their own gravity and formed clusters

of galaxies, with the galaxies themselves breaking up into stars like those of the Milky Way. The

stars might have broken up to form their planets like those of our solar system.

Q. Define Environmental Pollution and discuss major air pollutants?

Ans. Environmental pollution

We have to understand some of the basic concepts regarding environment, pollution and

pollutants before we take about environmental pollution.

Environment

The word environment has been derived from the French word Environ which means to

surround. Thus environment refers to the sum total of conditions which surround man at a given

point of space and the time. In other words, environment is the totality of all physical, social and

biological factors as well as collectively that comprises the natural and manmade surroundings.

Environment may dividend into two broad types physical environment and biotic

environment. Physical environment is one solid to liquid three broad categories (i) solid, (ii)

liquid and (iii) gas. The biotic component of environment consists of plants and animals

including man as an important factor.



Pollution

The word pollution has been taken from the Latin word pollutionem, later on Oxford

English dictionary used the word pollute in 19 century. In the twentieth century the word

pollution was used with reference to contamination of water, soil and air.

R F Dushman in 1975 has defined pollution as "the accumulation of substances or forms

of energy, in the environment in the quantities, or at rates of flow, which exceed capacity of

ecosystems to either neutralize or disperse them to harm less level".

Pollutant

According to sir Frederick Warner, "A substance is normally considered to be a pollutant

if it is adversely alter the environment by changing the growth rate of species, interfaces with

the food chain, comfort, property values of the people". Pollutants maybe solids, liquids as well

as gases. The solid particulate pollutants industrial waste such as lead, Mercury etc. The liquid

pollutants are dissolved solids, Ammonia, urea, chlorides, carbonates, pesticides all in dissolved

form, oil and greases etc. The major gaseous pollutants are carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide,

nitrogen oxide etc.

Types of environmental pollution

As mentioned earlier, our earth has three main components like air,water and land. All

the three components are badly polluted in the present day due to large scale industrialisation and

urbanisation all over the world.

Air pollution

Air is the most essential for all types of life in the biosphere because it helps in breathing.

Man can live without food for a few weeks, without water for a few days but he cannot

live without even for a few minutes.

The atmospheric air is recognised as cleaned when there is no drastic variations in its

natural composition.

World Health Organisation (WHO) has defined air pollution as limited to situation

in which the outdoor ambient atmosphere contains materials in concentration which are harmful

to man and his surrounding environment. In simple words air-pollution refers to the injection

atmosphere of gases, liquids and solid particles detrimental to human health. Air pollution knows

no political boundaries, it's a global phenomenon.

Air pollutants

Air pollutants are classified as primary or secondary based on their characteristics. The

pollutants emitted into the atmospheric directly from the identifiable sources that remain

scattered in the atmosphere in the same chemical form also known as primary pollutants. The



pollutants which undergo chemical changes in the atmosphere as a result of reactions among two

or more pollutants are called secondary pollutants.

Normally speaking, urban areas more pollutant than rural air. The routine pollutants in

urban area include sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and suspended particulate matter. Besides

there is a severe threat from a range of other toxins such as carbon monoxide, small particulate

emissions, lead, Benzene, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and ozone. A brief description of

various air pollutants commonly found in the urban atmosphere is given below:

1) Sulphur dioxide is (SO2) critical pollutant

Sulphur dioxide is generated from the natural resources such as bacterial decomposition

of sulphurs in the soil. It has been estimated that about one third of the Sulphur dioxide

emissions in the atmosphere arise from the activities of man. Significant qualities of sulphur

dioxide are emitted by oil refineries, automobiles, acid plants etc.

2) Nitrogen oxides and (NO2) killer gas

Generally recognised as sum of nitric oxide and Nitrogen dioxide, it is a reddish brown

corrosive gas. The automobile exhaust is one of the largest sources of NO2 emission in the

ambient air. The significant concentration of Nitrogen oxides in gaseous emissions occurs from

the industrial emissions where nitric acid is produced or is used in chemical reactions. The

residence time of an NO2 in the atmosphere is about a few days and is scavenged from the

atmosphere.

3) Particulate matter

The particulate matter refers to the solid or liquid particles in its form of dust fumes, mist

or smoke and originated either by dispersion of particles from breakdown of solid bulk

material. The particle size is one of the most important physical characteristics of a air borne

particulate matter because it controls the residence time of particles in the ambient air. The size

of the particles may vary from 0.002 πm (micron) to 500 Micron. Particles larger than 50

Micron can be seen with naked eye. Following two types of particulates are recognised

depending upon their size.

i) Suspended Particle Matter(SPM)

Particles with size less than 100 micron are very small particles and tend to remain

suspended in the atmosphere for a long period of time. Hence, they are known as suspended

particulate matter. The main contributors of SPM in ambient air are dust from different sources

like action activities, open fields, stone crushers etc. And from industrial sources such as thermal

power plants.



ii) Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter(RSPM)

Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter are the particulates having diameter less than 10

mm. The sources of RSPM include road test, wind blow dust and the dust from agriculture,

construction.

The air quality and the air pollution level vary with the level of concentration of

particulate matter in the air. The Environment Pollution (Preventive and control) Authority -

EPCA and the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) have categorised the air pollution

depending on the concentration of particulate matter.

Delhi with PM 10 concentration of 268 microns is the most polluted city according to a

survey 168 Indian cities conducted by Greenpeace India in March, 2015.

4. Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Incomplete combustion of carbon results in the production of carbon monoxide. The

sources of carbon monoxide are motor vehicles, fuel oil combustion, industrial processes, solid

waste disposal and refuse burning. Carbon Monoxide emissions are increased due to the presence

of oxygen. In urban areas, carbon monoxide concentration follow depends on the traffic volume

and speed. Generally CO concentrations reach to a maximum in the early morning hours due to

peak early morning traffic and then fall to elevated level during the day. A second peak of CO

concentration observed corresponding to the late afternoon traffic period and decrease to low

levels during the night.

5. Photochemical Oxidants

These are mainly the result of secondary reactions in the atmosphere and are not directly

attributed to nature. Ozone is the main photochemical oxidant and its formation is normally

attributed to nitrogen dioxide photolytic cycle. The presence of reactive hydrocarbon allows

Ozone to accumulate at higher than steady levels.

6. Organic in Ambient Air

Hydrocarbons and polynuclear aromatic Hydrocarbons, benzene and volatile organic

compounds are the chief organics in ambient air.

(i) Hydrocarbons and Polynuclear - aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)

The major sources of Hydrocarbons are partially burned gasoline from vehicular sources

and interior emissions. Gasoline evaporation and solvent evaporation also accounts for admission

of hydrocarbons. Industrial sources of hydrocarbons include chemical manufacturing

facilities, petroleum refineries.

Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are homologs of benzene. The sources of

PAH’s heat generation using coal, motor cycle, industries such as steel and coke manufacturing.



ii)Benzene

Benzene is produced during the distillation of crude petroleum and forms a significant

component of gasoline. Transport vehicles comprise the major source of benzene emissions. The

urban areas have higher concentration of benzene.

iii) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)

The organic compounds which evaporate easily are recognised together as volatile

organic compounds. The volatile organic compounds are admitted to the atmosphere from

transport use of Industrial solvents and for domestic purposes. These compounds are scavengers

with along with water vapours. Some outstanding examples of organic are organic acids, alcohol

etc.

Q. What are the effects of air pollution on human health? Explain with examples?

Ans. Health effects associated with air pollutants

Air pollutants have serious effect on human health. People living in urban and industrial

areas face various types of diseases due to air pollution.

1. Health effects of Sulphur dioxide(SO2)

Human beings chronically exposed to SO2 have higher cough, shortness of breath, and

colds of long duration. Increased prevalence of cough in children with intermittent exposure to

SO2 levels of 1.0 PPM is observed.

2. Health effects of Nitrogen Dioxide(NO2)

The oxides of nitrogen are toxic gases which enter the human body during breathing. This

exposure can cause decrement in lung functions. Continuous exposure NO2 makes lung

dispensability and permanent changes in the lungs.

3. Health effects of Particulate Matter

The particles may influence the human body on setting and cause external effects such as

effects on skin. The effect of irritant particles depends upon the size of the particles. Fine

particles may cause irritation. As the presence of final particle size increases, percentage of

particles deposited in upper part of respiratory tract decreases. The symptoms are often recorded

into upper respiratory symptoms such as stuffy or running nose head cold a red eyes. The lower

respiratory symptoms include dry cough, shortness of breath, chest discomfort and pain. The

cough is the most frequently symptom due to continuous exposure in high particulate ambient

air.



4. Health effects of Carbon Monoxide(CO)

Carbon monoxide is absorbed from the lung tissue in blood stream. High dose exposure of

CO may affect lung tissue and acute decrement in lung functions. Increased concentration of

carbon monoxide also leads to stroke, head injury, hypertension etc. High CO concentration has

special effect on children and infants. There are strong evidences of reduction in birth weight,

behavioural development and sometimes even infant death syndrome. The influence of CO

include effects on lever, kidney, bone and immunity capacity.

5. Health effects of Ozone

Variations in a ozone levels in urban environment are the main causes of concern. Higher

elevation of ozone causes major problem of human health which includes eye, nose and throat

irritation, headache and airways lining of lungs. Acute exposure of ozone may cause lung

inflammation within few hours. Acute exposure to low ozone levels decrease activity pattern

may affect immune system leading to potential health risk.

6. Health effects of Benzene

Benzene is a hazardous air pollutant which accelerates human health risk from ambient air.

International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified benzene as main pollutant to

increase the frequency of cancer in human. Exposures to higher level of benzene cause cancer in

kidney, stomach, lung, and bladder. The other effects of benzene are disorder of blood, effect on

bone marrow, reduced ability of blood danger to clot, danger to immune system and

reproductive. It has been found that benzene is more respectable to women than men.

7. Health effects of Volatile Organic Compounds(VOC)

These compounds react with oxides of nitrogen in the presence of sun light and give rise to

photochemical smog. This smog is a dense haze which restricts visibility. Hazy fumes cause

irritation to eyes and lungs and damage plant life.

8. Health Effects of Lead

Lead particles from the ambient air can be inhaled; can settle down as dust in neighbouring

area, on vegetation and water bodies. Lead is pervasive environmental poison which effects

system in the body. It can damage the kidneys, the nervous system, the reproductive system and

cause high blood pressure. Children are more prone to lead pollution because they absorb lead

more rapidly than adults. It affects the development of brain of young children. Children exposed

to lead show lack of Intelligence, behavioural problems and decreased ability to concentrate.

Lead especially harmful to pregnant women and infants. Not to speak of ladies, infants and

children’s, even adult males are not spared by lead pollution in the air. Hypertension, headache,

confusion, irritability are problems faced by pollution caused by lead.



Q. Describe the sources of air pollution and suggest measures to control air pollution in

India?

Ans. Vehicular Pollution

Vehicular pollution has grown at an alarming rate due to growing urbanization in India.

The air pollution from vehicles in the urban areas, particularly in big cities has become a serious

problem. The pollution from vehicles has begun to symptoms like cough, headache, irritation of

eyes and divisibility problems.

The main pollutants emitted from the automobiles are hydrocarbons, benzene, carbon

monoxide, sulphur dioxide, Nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter. The main cause of vehicular

pollution is the rapidly growing number of vehicles. The other factors of vehicle pollution in the

urban areas are 2 stroke engines, poor road conditions, old vehicles, inadequate maintenance,

poor road condition and old automotive technologies and traffic management system. In India,

the number of vehicles increased from 0.3 million in 1951 to 58.3 million in 2001 and

2002. About half the vehicles are concentration concentrated in 39 metropolitan cities. The two

wheelers are the major contributors of vehicular air pollution followed by four wheelers.

Delhi is a typical example of air pollution by vehicles. Delhi's vehicular pollution

increased from an significant of 2.17 lakh in 1971 to 90 lakh in 2016. Over 1,400 vehicles are

registered each day in Delhi. Delhi has more vehicles than Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai put

together. Unfortunately, number of vehicles in Delhi outpaces the road length.

Share of vehicular pollution in Delhi has increased from 23 % in 1970-71 to 71% in

2013-14. In contract share of industrial pollution decreased from 56 % in 1970-71 to less than

20% in 2013-14.

Much of the vehicular air-pollution can be avoided by maintaining proper speed of the

vehicles. Vehicles standing on the road crossing for in traffic jams cause more pollution.

Industrial pollution

There has been phenomenal growth of industries in India, particularly after independence

Industries emit all sorts of pollutants in the air and result in the air pollution to great extent. The

major industrial air pollutants are suspended particulates, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide,

nitrogen oxides and many more.

In Delhi, besides big units there are 70,000 and uncontrolled small scale industries,

discharging into atmosphere gases, liquids and solid wastes producing health hazards. In

Mumbai belt between Chembur and Trombay is highly industrialized and has 3 to 6 times more

pollution than the remaining parts of the city.

The major pollutants are suspended particulates (560 tonnes), carbon monoxide (450

tonnes) Sulphur Dioxide (125 tonnes) hydrocarbons (102 tonnes) and nitrogen oxides(70 tonnes).

Surat is another example of air pollution. This industrial city has a very high average of



suspended particulate matter (SPM) amounting to about 267 microgram per cubic metre of area

per day. Ahmedabad has a large number of textile mills as well as other industries which are

contributing to air pollution.

The Bhopal Gas Tragedy

Air pollution is also caused by sudden gas leakage in industries. The Bhopal Gas

Tragedy, which occurred on the night of December 2-3 1984 from the Union Carbide Factory, is

a living example of one of the deadliest disasters caused by the human negligence. This is

considered to be the biggest tragedy so far in the industrial history of the world. According to the

official sources 2,500 human lives lost due to leakage of deadly Methyl Iso Vunte (MIC) gas but

the non-governmental sources put the death toll at 5,000 persons. More than 3,000 people fell

seriously ill. About 200 women deliver dead babies and about 400 babies died within a few

hours of their birth. Those who could survive, developed blue spots in their levers, suffered from

coughs and asthma and most of them lost their eye sight. About 47% of the pregnant women

suffered from instant abortion, where as some pregnant women opted for voluntary abortion.

According to the official figures 10,000 people have been rendered permanent disabled and

another 30,000 partially handicapped. About 1.5 Lakh persons have minor disability. It is,

therefore righty said that various whereas Industries, bring up economic prosperity, they cause

ill health and death also.

Thermal Power Plants

Thermal power plants comprise the second most dangerous source of air pollution. Next

only to vehicles. Most of the thermal power plants used large quantities of coal which produce

huge amount of smoke, ash and other pollutants. The coal used in thermal power in India is

really of good quality. The ash content of the inferior grade coal is 38% and in future may rise to

42%. As a result, emissions of SPM, SO2 and fly ash are of very high order. It has been reported

that more than half of the thermal power plants in the country are not complying with the

standards and are delivering out as much as 40 million tonnes of fly ash every year.

In Delhi, more than 40% of the suspended particulate matter is contributed by three

thermal plants at Rajghat, Indraprastha Badarpur. These three thermal power plants account for

about 15% of the total air pollution in Delhi.

Supply of the beneficiated coal- coal washed to lower ash content has emerged as a

serious policy issue in the last decade. Pollution control equipment can also function more

efficiently if ash load is reduced by using washroom coal.

Initiatives for control of air pollution

Various measures have been taken to control air pollution from vehicles and industries.

These measures are described as under:

Measures taken for control of air pollution from vehicles



1. Vehicular emission norms

Strict emission norms, particularly in metropolitan cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata,

Chennai etc have been introduced and enforced from time to time so that air pollution level is

controlled to the tolerable limits. Different phases of Euro and Bharat are worth mentioning in

this context. However, rapidly increasing number of vehicles in our cities and towns has more or

less multiplied the impact of vehicular emission norms with respect to air pollution.

Barely 20 Indian cities follows Euro IV emission standards for new vehicles, most follow

Euro III. Euro IV is seven years behind. European standards and Euro III is behind by12 years.

2. Fuel quality specifications

Diesel and Gasoline fuel quality with respect to environment related parameters had been

notified under Environment (Protection) Act during April 1996. The specifications include

low leaded gasoline, unleaded gasoline and low sulphur diesel.

(i) Unleaded Gasoline

With the progressive reduction of lead content in petrol, introduction of unleaded petrol for

new passenger cars from April 1995 and supply of only unleaded petrol for all vehicles from

September 1998. The lead content in the atmosphere near traffic and sections of Delhi has

reduced by more than 60% with the introduction of unleaded petrol.

(ii) Benzene reduction

The fear of increased emission of benzene and reduced performance of engines by the use of

unleaded petrol has also been falsified. The oil refineries were told to combine the benzene

content in the unleaded petrol up to 5% in 1996 and 3% from the year 2000. In addition to

phasing out of lead, it is considered necessary to reduce the benzene to 1% or lower and

aromatics in petrol not only for Delhi but also for other parts of the country.

(iii) Sulphur in diesel

Sulphur content in diesel supplied in Delhi was reduced to 0.5% in 1996 and it was further

reduced to 0.25% from April 1996 onward. The diesel with 0.25% sulphur has been made

available throughout the country by September 1999. Considering the fact that several countries

have introduced diesel with much lower sulphur content it is necessary to have low sulphur

diesel for meeting the emission norms.

3. Quality lubricants

A specification of 2T oil for engines with respect to smoke emission has been notified under

EPA (Environment Pollution Act) during September 1998 for implementation from 1.4.1999

throughout the country. Pre mix 2T oil dispenser has been installed at all petrol filling stations in



big cities so that excessive oil is not being used by the vehicle owners. Sale of loose 2T oil has

been banned from December 1998 in Delhi.

4. Alternative fuels

A very important factor in reducing vehicle pollution is the introduction of alternative fuels

such as CNG and LPG.

(i)Bio fuels mainly Ethanol and Biodiesel are the prospective options.

(ii)CNG (Compressed Natural Gas)

CNG is a better and clean fuel providing limited emissions of various toxic gases. All

Government vehicles were required to compulsorily fit CNG kit. CNG kits has been exempted

from customs duty for promotion of installation of CNG kits in vehicles. The total CNG vehicles

in the country touched 3.54 lakhs in 2012.

(iii)LPG

The uses of LPG as an alternative fuel in automobiles have been made automobile fuel.

Three wheelers have been ordered to switch over to LPG made from September, 2005.

(iv)Battery driven vehicles

Battery driven vehicles have been introduced in few corridors and in Delhi and in some

other big cities.

5. Phase out of Grossly Polluting Vehicles

(i)Registration of new auto rickshaw with conventional engine has been banned from may 1996

and registration of defence service under government auctioned vehicles have been banned from

1998 in Delhi.

(ii)Commercial vehicles more than 10 years old have been prohibited from major cities of the

country.

(iii) Registration on alteration of vehicles by replacing petrol engine with diesel has been banned.

6. Promotion of Comprehensive inspection and Certification

It has been possible to reduce 30 to 40% pollution loads generated by vehicles through

proper periodical inspection and maintenance of vehicles. Such inspection and maintenance of

vehicles is being carried on by State Pollution Boards, Pollution Control Committee and

Transport Directorates in different parts of the country.



7. Traffic management

(i)Restriction has been imposed on goods vehicles during daytime in several big cities.

(ii)Time clock has been installed in important red lights to enable the drivers to switch off their

vehicles depending on the time left in the time clocks.

(iii)More fly-over’s and subways have been constructed and T-Junctions have been closed for

better traffic floor.

(iv)Almost all big cities are busy with traffic jams on important roads. Standing vehicles cause

much air pollution steps should be taken to avoid traffic jams as far as possible.

8. Public Transport System

(i)Public transport system is monitored from time to time in various urban cities of the country.

The number of buses has been increased in big cities.

(ii)Private sector has been allowed to operate public transport buses to increase mobility.

(iii)Metro Rail Transport System is making Rapid progress in large number of cities and is likely

to reduce pressure on transport system of these cities.

9. Technology

(i)Two wheeler scooters with 4 stroke engines have been introduced in the market.

(ii)Registration of only rear engine auto rickshaw is being allowed.

(iii)Only four stock two wheelers are being registered.

10. Information Dissemination/ Mass Awareness

(i)Messages related to vehicular emissions are disseminated through newspapers, magazines,

television, radio, and internet and through workshops etc.

(ii)Display of ambient air quality data through Electronic Display System as well as

dissemination through newspapers, daily news and internet.

(iii)Publishing reports related to vehicle pollution control and dissemination to various

organisation.

(iv)Regular publication of air quality statistics regarding ambient air quality status in the country.

(v)Non-Government organisations (NGO's) working in the area of vehicular pollution control in

different parts of the country are being encouraged for creating mass awareness.



Measures taken for controlling air pollution from industries.

1. Emission standards have been notified under the Environment Protection Act 1986 to check

pollution.

2. Industries are been directed to install necessary pollution control equipment in a time bound

manner and legal action has been initiated against the defaulting units.

3. Critically polluted areas have been identified. Action plans have been formulated for

restoration of environmental quality in these areas.

4. Environmental guidelines have evolved for sitting industries.

5. Environmental clearance has been made compulsory for 29 categories of development projects

including public hearing NGO participation as an important component.

6. The process of environment auditing has been initiated in highly polluting

industries. Submission of environmental statement has been made mandatory.

7. Minimal National Standards have been presented for highly polluting Industries under The Air

(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and Environment (protection) Act 1986.

8. Coal based Power plants located beyond 1,000 kilometres from the pithead are required to use

low ash content coal. Power plants located in the sensitive areas are required to use low ash coal

in irrespective of their distance from the pit head.

9. It is estimated that about 40 million tonnes of fly ash is generated per annum from thermal

power plants.

10. Use of cleaner technologies is a new dimension for cleaner production and to increase

production efficiency.

Q. What do you mean by water pollution? What are the main causes of water pollution?

Ans. Water Pollution

Water is the most important element in the biosphere. The purity and quality of water is

of basic concern to mankind. Nature has given as plenty of water and even then we are feeling

the shortage of water for drinking, washing, irrigation and industrial purposes because we have

misused and polluted our water resources to a great extent. Water pollution may be defined as

alteration in the physical chemical and biological characteristics of water which may cause

harmful effects on human and aquatic life. Water pollution is now a day’s considered not only in

terms of public health but also natural beauty and resources.

Water resources are divided into two categories surface water and ground water. Surface

water is found in form of rivers, canals, lakes and ponds etc Rain water in the rocks under the



surface and is available as underground water. This is used through hand pumps, wells, tube

wells and springs.

Surface Water Pollution

According to a report 70% of the available water in India is polluted. Most of the rivers

that are carrying polluted water. We have been dumping all sorts of waste matter into the rivers.

These wastes are both solids as well as in dissolved form. Apart from polluting the river, they

decrease the depth of the river and raise the level of the river beds. Thus the river becomes a

garbage can, without depth and flow.

Main Causes of Water Quality Degradation

There are several causes of water pollution in India. The main causes are briefly

described as under:

1. Urbanisation

Rapid urbanisation in India during the recent decades has given rise to a number of

environmental problems such as water supply, wastewater generation and its collection,

treatment and disposal. Many towns and cities which come up on the banks of the rivers have not

given a proper thought to problem of waste water, sewage etc. In urban areas, water is tapped for

domestic and industrial use from rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, wells etc. Nearly 80% of the water

supplied for domestic use passes out as waste water. In most cases, this waste water is let out

untreated and causes large scale pollution of the surface water. A part of it percolates into the

ground and contaminates the groundwater. About 70% of the population of class I cities is

provided with sewerage facility. The Ganga river basin contributes about one third of the total

waste water of India.

As per the latest estimate, only 30% is treated before letting out, the rest is disposed

off untreated. The level of treatment available in cities with existing treatment plant varies from

2.5% to 89% of the sewage generated.

Municipal water treatment facilities in India, at present, do not remove traces of heavy

metals. Given the fact that heavily polluted waters are the major sources of municipal water for

most towns and cities along with courses, it is believed that every consumer has been, over the

years, exposed to unknown quantities of pollutants in water they have consumed. To add to this,

Indian towns and cities have grown in an unplanned manner due to rapid population growth.

Facilities for running water have been provided in many towns and even in some villages

during the last couple of decades. Resulted in the use of flush latrines and much larger use of

water in home for bathing, washing of clothes, and utensils etc generating large quantities of

waste water. According to estimates estimates made but the Central pollution board, only 22% of

the waste water from class 1 cities and 14% from class 2 cities is being collected through

severage.



Situation in big cities is worsened by migration of poor people from the surrounding rural

areas. These people migrate to the cities in search of livelihood. According to an estimate CPCB,

only about 40 to 50% of the pollution of the major cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai

and Bangalore are served by sewer systems. Even where the sewers exist, they often storm water

or other surface drains or percolate into the soil to reach groundwater. Very often uncollected

and untreated severage water reaches the streams thereby polluting their water.

2. Industries

Most Indian rivers and other sources of fresh water are polluted by industrial wastes. All

these Industries wastes are toxic to life forms that consume this water. Total wastewater

generated from all major industrial sources is 83,048 Mld includes 66,700 Mld of cooling water

generated from thermal power plants. Out of remaining 16,348 Mld of wastewater thermal power

plants generate another 7,275 Mld as boiler blow down water and power flow from ash ponds.

Engineering industries comprise the second largest generator of waste water in terms of volume.

Under this category the major polluting industries are electroplating units. Other significant

contributors of wastewater are paper mills, steel plants, and textile and sugar industries. The

major contributors of pollution in terms of organic load are digitalieries followed by paper mills.

Both large scale industries and small scale industries contribute their share of water pollution.

While many large scale industries claimed to have installed costly treatment and disposal

equipments, these are often not in proper working order.

Small scale and cottage industries cause no less water pollution then the large scale

industries. There are about 3 million small scale and cottage industrial units in India. These units

neither have, nor can they afford, appropriate sanitation and/or pollutant disposal systems, and

yet have not hesitated in adopting highly polluting production technologies such as chrome,

tanning of leather, and use of other refractory and toxic Chemicals etc.

3. Agricultural runoff and improper agricultural practices

Traces of fertilizers and pesticides are wasted into the nearest water bodies at the onset of

Monsoons. As the point of entry of such agriculture inputs is diffused throughout the river basin,

they are termed as non-point sources of pollution. Although irrigation has increased considerably

in the country, precious little has been done to tackle the problem of the high salinity return

water. According to the findings of CPCB, some of the seepage into the drain contain over

15,000 mg per litre of chlorides. Intensive and ever increasing use of chemical fertilizers,

pesticides, and other chemicals is adding a new dimension to such pollution.

Floodplain cultivation is another significant contributor to water pollution. Fertilizers and

pesticides used in these traits of land are bound to be washed into the rivers during the

monsoons.



4. Withdrawal of Water

Indian rivers, particularly the Himalayan Rivers, have plenty of water in their upper courses.

They are, however, starved of water they enter the plain area. Irrigation canals whisk away clean

water soon after the rivers reach the plains.

The Yamuna has almost no water at Tajewala in Haryana where the Eastern Yamuna canal

and western Yamuna Canal abstract all the water for irrigation. Similarly, the upper Ganga canal

and the lower Ganga Canal have left the Ganga downstream almost dry. When the Yamuna and

the Ganga flow past Delhi and Kanpur respectively, they are turned into stinking sewers.

Therefore, it is essential that a minimum level of flow of water must be maintained in the river.

This is known as minimum flow of rivers. Minimum flow in the recipient river will be required

to maintain the desired water quantity. Further, the study has expressed the view that it is not

possible to fix the minimum flow of water in the entire course of the river because it depends on

the pollution discharged at the different points on the river. For example the existing minimum

flow in the Ganga at Kanpur in May is hardly 50 cubic metres per second where as the required

minimum in the same month is 350 cubic metres per second. In view of the increased demand of

water for irrigation, the minimum flow is likely to fall further in future.

The maintenance of minimum flow, to sustain river ecology through its course as well as its

confluences, is a recent awakening which requires a serious thought. This policy must be pursued

vigorously so that river pollution is kept at certain permissible limit.

5. Regional and social practices

Regional faith and social practices also add to pollution of our river waters. Waste of cattle and

other animals are disposed in the rivers. Dead bodies are cremated on the river banks. Partially

burnt bodies are also flung into the river. All this is done as a matter of religious faith and in

keeping with ancient rituals. These practices pollute the river water and adversely affect the

water quality. Mass bathing in river during religious festivals is another environmentally harmful

practice. Religious practices also demand that offerings from a pooja be emerged In a river.

Plastic bags are very dangerous and further add to the pollution load of the river.

Q. Explain the effects of water pollution on human health?

Ans. Effects Of water pollution

Water pollution adversely affects the health and life of man, animal and plants alike.

Polluted water is also harmful for agriculture as it is adversely affects the crops and the soil

fertility. Pollution of sea water damages the oceanic life.

1. Health effects of water quality

Consumption of polluted water is a major cause of ill health in India. Polluted water causes

some of the deadly diseases like cholera, diarrhoea, tuberculosis etc. About 80% of stomach

diseases in India are caused by polluted water. Water borne diseases are the single most



important factor responsible for nearly 80% of human morality in India. Children are most

affected, especially in rural areas and urban slums.

2. Effects of organic pollution on water quality

All organic materials can be broken down or decomposed by microbial and other biological

activity. Organic and some of the inorganic compounds exhibit a biochemical oxygen demand

because oxygen is used in the degradation process. Oxygen is a basic requirement of almost all

aquatic life. Typically sources of organic pollution are sewage from domestic and animal

sources, Industrial waste from food processing, paper mills, sugar and other agro based

industries.

3. Effects of nutrients on water quality

Water supports aquatic life because of the presence of nutrients in it. Here the primary

focus is on fertilizing chemicals such as nitrates and phosphates. Although these are

important of a plant growth, too much of nutrients enchorage the over-abundance of plant life

and can result in environmental damage.

4. Effects of high dissolved solids(HDS) in water quality

Water is the best solvent and can dissolve a large variety of substances which come in its

contact. The amount of dissolved solid is a very important consideration in determining its

suitability of drinking, irrigation and industrial uses. In general, waters with the total dissolved

solids of less than 500 mg/litre are most suitable for drinking purposes. Higher amount of

dissolved solids may lead to impairment of physiological processes in human body. Dissolved

solids are harmful for industrial also because they form scales, cause forming in boilers,

accelerate corrosion and interfere with the colour and taste of many finished products.

5. Effects of toxic pollutants on water quality

Toxic pollutants mainly consist of heavy metals, pesticides and other individual xenobiotic

pollutants. The ability of a water body to support aquatic life, as well as its suitability for other

uses depends on many trace elements. Some metals present in trace quantities are important for

life as they help and regulate many physiological functions of the body.

6. Effects of thermal discharge on water quality

The discharge of cooling water from industrial and commercial operations generally heats up

the aquatic environment. Organisms may become physiological stressed or may even be killed

when exposed to heated water. If water heating is supplemented by the summer heat, the impact

on aquatic environment can be disastrous. Thermal Pollution may increase their toxicity to the

aquatic life. Bioavailability of many pollutants may also increase due to thermal pollution, which

may ultimately adversely affect the aquatic life.



Groundwater quality

The term 'groundwater' is defined as the water that occurs below the surface of the earth.

In a country of monsoon climate like India, where rainfall is seasonal and undependable and

variable and where the surface water is always in short supply, ground water plays a vital role in

everyday life of the people. Most of the drought prone areas largely depend on groundwater.

Sources and types of groundwater contaminants

Groundwater contamination leads to several problems like taste, colour, hardness and

forming. Once polluted groundwater may remain unusable or even in hazardous condition for

decades or even centuries. It is often difficult to identify the nature and sources of groundwater

pollutants and water quality problems. Normally speaking, the quality of groundwater is affected

by waste disposal and land use. The disposal of fluids through wells and sinkholes directly into

aquifers’ also results in contamination of the groundwater. Infiltration of contaminated water

also causes groundwater contamination.

Q. Explain about Soil or Land pollution and its prevention and control?

Ans. Soil or land pollution

Soil is a very important environmental attribute because it supports all sorts of plant life

found on land. The main factors of soil pollution are the high state of soil erosion, excessive use

of chemical fertilizers, bio seeds, polluted liquids and solids from urban and industrial areas,

water-logging and droughts etc. Some of the micro-organisms and unwanted plants enter the soil

and result is soil pollution. Some of the air-borne pollutants from the industries are deposited on

the land surface and pollute the soil. Soil particles from mining areas pollute the neighbouring

land to a great extent rendering it unsuitable for agriculture. Soils near copper smelting units are

so polluted that no plant growth is possible there. Main sources of land pollution are briefly

described as under:

1. Chemical fertilizers and biocides

The accelerated use of chemical fertilizers and biocides in agriculture is the major cause of

soil pollution. They are used to increase the yields and to save the crops from insects, pests and

unwanted plant growth. When these are used in excess, their remnants are absorbed by soil

particles and contaminate crops grown in such soils. They are further transferred into

carnivorous through herbivorous and finally enter the human bodies in course of food chains.

They are responsible for several incurable diseases even cause death.

The use of biocides gained momentum in India with the commencement of Green Revolution

in 1966-67. The introduction of high yielding varieties (HYV) of seeds gave birth to heavy

doses of chemical fertilizers and biocides. The overall per hectare consumption of fertilisers rose

from a mere 0.55 kg in 1950-51 to 67 kg in 1992-93 and to 144. 33 kg in 2011-12.



2. Municipal solid waste

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is a heterogeneous mixture of various constituents. According

to Scavenging and Cleaning Act, Municipal solid waste includes:

• Dust, ashes, refuse and rubbish.

• Trade refuse.

• Carcasses of death animals and other matter.

• Sweeping, sandstones, leaves and other dead vegetarian.

• Wastes from shops and market areas including paper, straw and cardboard packing,

decaying fruits and vegetables and other described items.

• Other solid wastes generated from such as hospitals, schools, offices and small cottage

industries.

Depending upon the Municipal solid waste can be classified into two categories 'garbage' and

'rubbish'. the garbage is defined as a fraction of waste associated with preparation and

consumption of food. All other waste not classified as 'garbage' are designated as rubbish.

Municipal solid waste generation status in class-I cities

The quantity of municipal solid waste generated by a city depends upon a number of

factors of which size of pollution, standard of living, food habits, scale of commercial and

industrial activities etc are of primary importance. As such the per capita generation of solid

waste differs greatly from one city to another. It varies from 200 to 500 gram/person/day with an

average of 376 gram/person/day. Disposal of such large quantities of garbage is a difficult job.

The dumping grounds of such garbage are invariably polluted. It is estimated that about 25

human diseases are associated with solid wastes. Rats are carriers of insects and other bio

organisms and are responsible for spreading deadly diseases like cholera etc. Studies reveal that

an approximate of 70,000 flies can be produced one day cubic foot of garbage.

Management of municipal solid waste(MSW)

In India, recently solid waste management systems are assuming larger dimensions in

keeping Municipal Solid Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules 2000. Many of the

municipalities are taking appropriate action to improve various like collection of solid waste

from generation areas its transportation to processing and disposal site utilising the recycling

potential of solid waste and ultimately disposing of by land filling.

The urban solid waste management is an essential municipal service for protection of

environment and health of citizens. All the citizens, industries, hospitals and NGOs should co-

operate with the municipal authorities to ensure safe management of urban solid waste. Solid

waste should be collected from each house on a daily basis and transport to the disposal site.

Direct transfer of garbage from primary collection carts to covered transportation vehicles should

be encouraged.



Refuse from vegetable and fruit markets should be collected and transported to the

composting facilities. Large restaurants, hotels should be encouraged to develop their own site

treatment facilities.

According to the latest figures (2013) Delhi is generating about 9,500 metric tonnes of

garbage every day and is fast running out of landfill sites. It appears that garbage will soon

become the single most important issue for Delhi which requires immediate solution. It is felt

that unless a new technology is adopted, there will be no space left for garbage in the next few

years.

Hazardous Waste Generation

The term 'hazardous waste' is generally used for wastes, which are highly toxic and

hazardous in nature. According to hazardous waste rules notified in 1989, 'hazardous substance'

means any substance or preparation of which, by reason of its chemical or physicochemical

properties, or handling, is like to cause harm to human beings, other living creatures, plants,

micro-organisms, property or environment.

Prevention and control of soil pollution

Maximum soil pollution is done by use of bio seeds and chemical fertilizers. Farmers

should be properly educated to make judicious use of these chemicals. At the same time, efforts

should be made to develop less harmful and more useful chemicals for use in agriculture.

Urban and industrial clients can be used for irrigation after proper treatment.

Compostable organic substances such as vegetables, plant leaves and human wastes should be

properly composted, so that there is a proper disposal of the solid waste and it can also produce

organic manure. Today plastics are proving to be a big environmental hazard because they are

particularly indestructible. It takes hundreds of years for plastic to disintegrate, adding to soil

waste build-up, especially in urban and industrial areas. There is an urgent need to restrict the use

of plastics and to find out ways and means of recycling them.

Q. Explain noise pollution with its effects? And suggest ways to control noise pollution?

Noise pollution

Noise is unwanted sound and covers all sounds which can result in hearing impairment or

are harmful to health. According to K.E.Maxwell, "Noise is any sound that is not wanted. It is

one of the more common forms of atmospheric pollution". Now it become a major

environmental pollutant especially in urban areas. In 1972, the UN Environment Council at

Stockholm, noise pollution has been accepted as a problem, which needs proper control.

Measurement sound or noise and its intensity

The most popular measure of noise level is decibel measured by an instrument known as

decibel metre. A sound between 0 and 1 decibel is about the weakest that the average human can



hear. For testing purposes, 0 decibel is considered to be the threshold of hearing. A wishper is

about 20 decibel and an average speaking voice is about 60 decibels. The loudest that a person

can stand without discomfort is about 80 decibels. Automobile horns may reach 90 decibels and

a jet plane may have an intensity of about 140 decibels.

Actually, loudness alone is not the sole cause of noise problem, although this is the most

apparent characteristic of noise that creates environmental problems. The degree of noise is an

enclosed space or indoors is different from the level of outdoor noise.

Noise pollution in India

Noise pollution in India has increased considerably with the increase in urbanization and

industrialization. In most of the Indian cities, early morning tranquility is shattered by

automobiles, factory machines and loudspeakers from religious places. Television and radio sets

played at very high pitch, marriages and other festivals, cultural programs and a host of other

sources of noise add to the problem of noise pollution. Most of the big cities in India have noise

pollution much higher than the limit of 60-70 DB. Delhi 89 DB, Mumbai 85 DB , Chennai 82

dB, Madurai 75 DB and Nagpur 75 DB are some of the examples of cities suffering from noise

pollution.

Effects of noise pollution

Continuous and prolonged exposure to noise pollution leads to many disorders and

ailments. The most immediate and acute is the impairment of hearing. It also results in mental

tension, blood pressure, heart diseases and stomach trouble. Noise pollution also causes

annoyance, irritation and fatigue which results in low efficiency and high rate of errors. High and

sudden noise may lead to abortion in early stages of pregnancy. According to Kudesia, "It is

possible that due to disco dance and rock 'n' roll music we are raising a nation of teenagers who

will be hard of hearing before they reach age of 35 years. Those who listen songs from radio on

loud pitch fall in the same line". A study to measure the Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL)

among the factory workers in the textile, automobile, fertilizers and chemical industries in

Chennai, Coimbatore, Madurai, Kochi and Thiruvananthapuram revealed that about 25% of the



factory workers and 10% people such as traffic constables and pavement vendors suffer from

Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL).

Prevention and control of noise pollution

(i)Noise producing industries should be located away from residential areas.

(ii)The automobile horn should be designed in such a way that the noise it produces may not be

harmful.

(iii)Use of horn should be minimum and pressure horn should be banned as has been done in

many countries.

(iv)The noise created by railways can be checked by construction of ballast less rail tracks.

(v)Special arrangements be done to check noise air bases. Control of aircraft noise requires

several changes, which should be done.

(vi)The noise created by musical instruments, and other indoor equipments can be checked by

individuals in their own interest.

(vii)Effect of noise on the ear can be reduced by 40 to 50 dB by putting ear-plugs.

Q. What is meant by green house effect? Name the main green house gases?

Ans. Greenhouse effect

Literally speaking, greenhouse is the name given to a glass house which is used for

protecting delicate and rare plants that required warmth. The glass panels of the greenhouse

allow short wave heat radiations from the sun to pass through them into the greenhouse but

obstruct the long wave terrestrial radiations reflected from the earth's surface. This process

makes the house warmer and protects the plants from cold conditions. This phenomenon which

helps to grow even in cold conditions is known as greenhouse effect.

In this respect the atmosphere acts somewhat like the glass in a greenhouse or

automobile, letting through much of the incoming solar radiation but absorbing most of the

outgoing long wave radiation. This is called greenhouse effect.

Greenhouse effect can be used to grow summer vegetables in winter. This effect has been

gainfully used to grow vegetables in cold region at high altitude in Ladakh where normal

atmospheric temperature is exceptionally low.

The effect of greenhouse is that more heat enters the atmosphere then the amount of heat

which leaves it. Without natural "greenhouse effect" the earth would be as cool as the moon and

no life could be possible on the earth. The greenhouse gases present in the atmosphere act as a



blanket and if these gases are taken out of the atmosphere, the earth's climate would have been

33℃ cooler than what it is today.

Greenhouse gases

Carbon dioxide

Of all the greenhouse gases, the largest concentration is that of carbon dioxide. With

rapid industrialization and urbanization, the fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas are

used at an accelerated rate. Under the pre-industrial conditions of recent centuries i.e., 1780 the

atmosphere content of carbon dioxide was maintained at a reasonable low level. In 1880-1890

the carbon dioxide content was about to 290 parts per million (ppm). It rose to about 315 ppm in

1980,340 ppm in 1990 and 400 ppm in 2016.

Assuming that the annual rate of increase of fossil fuels is about 4%, the level of carbon

dioxide will be doubled by the year 2030. However doubling time can be delayed until about

2050 with fuel combustion rate reduced to half of the present value.

The above mentioned facts about increase in carbon dioxide in its atmosphere are only

rough estimates and different agencies have made different estimates. The figures given by

World Research Report are

Methane

There has been a considerable increase in methane concentration also. During the past

100 years the concentration of methane has more than doubled and carbon dioxide has increased

by 20%.

Global warming and environmental pollution takes place in several other ways.

According to some estimates, rice cultivation in the world is responsible for 20% methane being

added to atmosphere, and the coal mining accounts for 6% of methane. The deforestation is

responsible for 20% of the carbon dioxide gas being added to the atmosphere. Similarly,

industrialization is adding 25% of chlorofluorocarbon to the atmosphere. Consequently, global

temperature increased buy 1.5°C.



Chlorofluorocarbons

Chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs) are products of human activity. Ozone occurs in the

stratosphere where ultraviolet rays convert oxygen into ozone. Thus, ultraviolet rays do not

reach the earth's surface. The CFCs which drift into the stratosphere destroy the ozone. Large

depletion of ozone occurs over Antarctica. The depletion of ozone concentration in the

stratosphere is called the ozone hole. This allows the ultra-violet rays to pass through the

troposphere.

The overall rise in the atmospheric temperature is called global warming. In 1979, a

group of scientists convened by the National Academy of Sciences came to the conclusion that a

doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide will cause an average global warming of about 3℃ by

the middle of 21st century. The greatest warning of the 20th century was duri g the two periods,

1901-44 and 1977-99 these two periods, global temperatures rose by about 0.4℃. In between

there was a slight cooling, which was more marked in the northern hemisphere.

If the raising tend in the increase of temperature continues, it will have far reaching

effects on the global environment. Several glaciers will melt and rivers will be flooded. The

water of the snow melt will reach the sea and there will be rise in sea level up to 15 to 20 metres.

Most of the low lying coastal areas will be drowned and almost all the major ports of the world

would perish. Besides it will change the rainfall patterns, create new plant diseases and pose

problems and enlarge ozone hole.

Q. Explain Climate changes and Global warning with evidences of climate change, and

causes of this phenomenon?

Ans. Climate change and global warming

Climate changes

Climate changes have been occurring throughout the geological history of the earth.

Some of the natural causes responsible for such changes has been variation in solar irradiation,

sun spots, earth's changing relations with sun. Changing position of the continents, changes in

the composition of the atmosphere and changes in volcanic activity. But human induced changes

are more pronounce if we look at the recent changes in climate. Early man lived in jungles and

sustained on hunting and gathering. Man started altering the environment since he controlled

fire, domesticated animals and started agriculture. Agriculture revolution about 8,000-10,000

years ago resulted in deforestation. Industrial revolution in the late 18th century lead to large



scale industrialisation and urbanisation and men's quest for natural resources led to

environmental degradation. The proportion of unwanted gases like carbon dioxide, methane,

nitrous oxide etc has increased which is the main cause of climate change.

Global Warming

Global warming farming is this slow increase in world temperature caused by the

greenhouse effect. Global warming is taking place due to the presence of greenhouse gases

(GHGs) in the atmosphere. The main greenhouse gases that cause global warming are carbon

dioxide (CO2), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and ozone

(O3). Some other gases such as nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO) easily react with

GHGs and affect their concentration in the atmosphere.

Evidence for climate change

Following evidences are enough to prove that climate changed over the years.

• Temperature is rising.

• Mountain glaciers are melting.

• Antarctica's ice sheets are breaking.

• Sea Level is rising.

• Temperature of the ocean water is rising.

• Snow lines in the tropical and Sub-tropical Mountains are shifting upwards.

• Tawing of permafrost in the northern hemisphere.

• Arctic pack ice is thinning and retreating.

• Tree line in mountain ranges is moving upward.

• Limit of arable land in Eurasia and North America is shifting northward.

• Many tropical diseases are spreading toward the poles and to higher elevations in the

tropics.

• There is shifting in seasonal weather phenomena and change in precipitation patterns.

• Grass has appeared on some slopes of Antarctica.



Consequences of climate change

Although it is difficult to exactly assess the consequences of climate change, experts feel that

climate change can have far reaching consequences. The following consequences are worth

mentioning.

• Melting of earth's ice and shrinking of ice sheets.

• Floods and droughts.

• Sea level change.

• Atmospheric circulation and changes in the duration of ocean current.

• Spread of tropical diseases.

• Changes in animal life.

• Northward movement of Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

• Increase in tropical cyclones, cloud cover and storms.

• Northern hemisphere melting of permafrost.

• Change in patterns of precipitation.

• Change in natural vegetation and soil belts.

• Changing in cropping patterns and crop yields.

• Reduction in soil moisture.

• Expansion of desserts and more desertification.

• Effect of food supply.

• Effect on tourism.

• Effect on national parks and natural reserves.

• Impact on international trade.

• Climate change and geopolitics.

• Ozone depletion.



Unit - 2

India - Agriculture

Land use

As in all other countries, land in India is put to various uses. The utilisation of land

depends upon physical factors like topography, soil and climate as well as upon human factors

such as the density of population, duration of occupation of the area, land tenure and technical

levels of the people. India has total geographical area of about 328.73 million hectares but

statistics pertaining to land utilisation were available for about 305.94 hectares.

1.Net Sown Area

Cropped area in the year under consideration is called net sown area. This area has a

special significance in an agricultural country like India because agricultural production largely

depends upon this type of land. There is an urgent need to increase the net area sown for meeting

the food and other requirements of rapidly increasing population in India, However, it is

heartening to note that net area sown has increased from 118.7 million hectares in 1950-51 to

140.74 million hectares in 2012-13. The percentage of net sown area increased from 42 in 1950-

51 to 46.05 in 2012-13. Net sown area accounts for about 46% of the total reporting area of India

against the world average of about 32%. This is much higher than 40% in the USA, 25% in

Russia, 16% in Brazil and only 6% in Canada. But the per capita cultivated land gone down

drastically from 0.53 hectares in 1951 to 0.11 hectares in 2012-13. This is a serious trend and can

be checked only by population control.

2.Area sown more than once

As the name indicates, this area is used to grow more than one crop in a year. This

accounts over 34.78 percent of the net sown area and 15.99 percent of the total reporting area of

the country. This type of area comprises of land with rich fertile soils and regular water supply.

This type of land is of special significance. Since almost all the arable land has already been

brought under plough, the only course left to increase the agricultural production is to increase

the density of cropping which can be done in increasing the area sown more than once. Large

tracts of the Indo-Ganga plain in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar and in coastal

regions have large Percentage of area sown more than once.



3.Forests

Forest area has increased considerably from 40.4 5 million hectares in 1950-51 to 70.01

million hectares in 2012-13. However, 22.88% of forest land to the total reporting area is not

sufficient for a tropical country like India where about 33% of the total land should be under

forests. This will require massive tree plantations and vigorous restrictions on the reckless felling

of trees. According to the expert committee recommendations, much of the area reclaimed from

the forest for agriculture should be retired from cultivation and brought back under forests to

save the land from the adverse effects of deforestation.

4.Land not available for cultivation.

This class consists of types of land viz. (i) land put to non agriculture uses and (ii) barren

and uncultivable waste. The area put to non-agricultural uses includes land occupied by villages,

towns, roads, railways or under water i.e. rivers, lakes, canals, tanks, ponds etc. The barren land

covers all barren and uncultivated land in mountains and hills soo, deserts and rocky areas. Land

not available for cultivation accounted for 14.3 percent of the total reported area present 2012-

13. The largest amount of land in this category is in Andhra Pradesh followed by Rajasthan,

Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

5.Permanent pastures and other grazing lands

A total area of 10.24 million hectares is devoted to permanent pastures and other grazing

lands. This amounts to about 3.35 % of the total reporting area of the country. Grazing takes

place mostly in forest and other uncultivated land wherever pasturage is available. About one

third of the reporting area in Himachal Pradesh is under pastures. The proportion varies from 4 to

10% in Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Orissa. It is less than

4% in the remaining parts of the country.

6.Land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves

Land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves includes all cultivable land which is not

included under net area sown, but is put to some agriculture use. Land under casuarina trees,

thatching grass, bamboo, bushes, other groves for fuel etc. which are classed under this category.

Land under this category declined sharply from 19.8 million hectares in 1950-51 to 3.16 million

hectares in 2012-13. Odisha has the largest area of 7.74 lakh hectares in this category followed

by Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Assam and Tamilnadu.



7.Cultivable waste

The "wasteland survey and reclamation committee" defines "cultivable waste" as the land

available for cultivation but not used for cultivation for one reason or the other. This land was

used in the past but has been abandoned for some reason. It is not being used at present due to

such constraints as lack of water, salinity, soil erosion or human neglect. The land under this

category has declined considerably from about 22.9 million hectares in 1950-51 to 12.58 million

hectare in 2012-13. The cultivable waste, if brought under cultivation can be an important factor

in augmenting the country's agriculture production. However, in the interest of long-term

conservation and maintenance of ecobalance, this land should be put under afforestation and not

under crop farming. National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) Hyderabad is making a valuable

contribution in mapping the waste land in India through satellite images.

8.Fallow lands

This category includes all that land which was used for cultivation is temporarily out of

cultivation. Fallow land is of two types viz., current fallow land and fallow other than current

fallow. Fallow of one year is called 'current fallow' while that is of 2 to 5 years is classified as

'fallow other than current fallow'. Fallow land is left uncultivated from 1 to 5 years to help soil

recoup its facility in the natural in upon the nature of the soil and the nature of farming. The

distribution of the current fallow on the other hand presents a slightly different picture. There is a

need to reduce the extent and frequency of fallow land in order to increase agricultural

production. This can be done by proper dose of fertilizers, providing irrigation facilities, crop

rotation and combination and several other similar form techniques.

Soils

Definition of soil

Soil is a layer of unconsolidated material at the surface of the earth which has been

derived from rocks and organic matter through agencies of decay and disintegration.

The soil formation is a slow process and soil has evolved over thousands of years.

Various agents of weathering and denudation have acted upon the parent rock material to

produce a thin layer of soil.

Importance of soil

Soil is very important natural resources of India because agricultural production is

basically dependent on the fertility of soil. The rich deep fertile soils of the Ganga plain,



especially its delta, and coastal plain of Kerala support high density of population through

agricultural prosperity. On the other hand, the shallow and soils of Telangana and Rajasthan

support only small population because the soils do not provide a base for prosperous agriculture.

Classifications of soils

On the basis of genesis, colour, composition and location, the soils of India have been

classified into

1.Alluvial soils

2.Black soils

3.Red and yellow soils

4.Laterite soils

5.Arid soils

6.Saline soils

7.Peaty soils

8.Forest soils

1.Alluvial soils

Alluvial soils are formed by the depositional work of rivers in the river valley,

floodPlains and deltas. The Sutlej-Ganga plain has the largest of Alluvial soils. These are very

fertile soils and this plain is considered to be one of the world's most fertile areas. The deltas of

the Mahanandi, the Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery also abound in alluvial soils. About 40%

area is covered by alluvial soils.

The physical properties of alluvial soils are determined by climate and vegetation. These

soils vary in nature from Sandy loam to clay. They are generally rich in potash but poor in

Phosphorus. In the upper and Middle Ganga plain, two different types of alluvial soils have

developed, viz. Khadar and Bhangar. Khadar is the new alluvium and is deposited by floods

annually, which enriches the soil by depositing fine silts. Bhangar represents a system of older

alluvium, deposited away from the flood plains.

Alluvial soils are very useful for growing a variety of crops especially cereals and pulses.

Besides some commercial crops like cotton, sugarcane and jute are also grown. As such these

soils are most intensively cultivated.



2.Black soils

These soils are also known as Regur soils or cotton soils as cotton is abundantly grown in

these soils. The black soils have been formed by the solidification of lava spread over large

areas during volcanic activities in Deccan plateau over thousands of years ago. At present, these

soils are found over an area of 5 lakh square kilometres including parts of Maharashtra. Western

Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu. In the lower

reaches of the Godavari and Krishna and the northern part of the Deccan Plateau, the black soil is

quite deep. Black soils cover about 30% of the total area of the country.

These are very fertile soils but they have lower fertility on the uplands as compared to the

lowlands. The black soils are very rich in mineral contents because they have seen formed due to

volcanic activities. Their chemical composition consists of lime, iron, magnesia and alumina.

They also contain Potash. But they lack in Phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter.

3.Red And yellow soils

These soils are reddish in colour due to wide diffusion of iron. Red soils are mainly found

in tropical and comparatively dry areas of the Peninsula India. These soils cover almost the

whole of Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, South Eastern Maharashtra,

Eastern parts of Madhya Pradesh. Such soils lack in nitro genius, organic and phosphoric acid

contents and are less fertile.

This is soil looks yellow when it occurs in hydrated form. The find grained red and

yellow soils are normally fertile, soils found in dry upland areas are poor in fertility.

4.Laterite soil

Laterite soils are formed as a result of leaching away of siliceous matter of the rocks due

to dry and wet conditions which take place in typical monsoon climate. Generally speaking, the

soils of higher attitudes are more acidic than those of lower attitudes. With rain lime and silica

are leached away, and soils rich in iron oxide and aluminium components are left behind. These

soils are poor in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and calcium, while iron oxide and potash

are in excess. Laterite soils are not much suitable for agriculture but grass, bushes and shrubs

grow abundantly in them. It becomes hard like a brick when it dries up.Thus, it is not useful for

agriculture but provides very good building material. Red laterite soils in Tamilnadu, Telangana,

Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for tree crops like cashew nut.



5.Arid soils

As the name indicates, arid soils are found in the arid areas of Rajasthan and adjoining

areas of Southwest Punjab and Southwest Haryana. The colour of these soils range from red to

brown. Most of the arid soils are sandy and saline. In some areas, the salt content is so high that

is obtained by evaporating the saline water. Accelerated evaporation in hot and dry climate leads

to lack of moisture and humus. Although phosphate content is normal, there is a deficiency of

nitrogen. Lower horizons of the soil are occupied by 'kankar' layers because of the increasing

calcium content downwards. The 'Kankar' layer formation in the bottom horizons restricts the

infiltration of water, and as much when irrigation is made available, the soil moisture is readily

available for sustainable plant growth.

6.Saline soils

Saline soils contain a higher proportion of sodium, potassium and magnesium. As such

these soils are infertile and have scarce vegetation. They contain more salt due to dry climate and

poor drainage. They are mostly sandy and loamy and lack in nitrogen and calcium. Saline soils

are mainly found in western Gujarat, deltas of Eastern Coast and in the Sundarban areas. In the

Rann of Kuch, the Southwest monsoon brings salt particles and deposits there as a crust. Sea

water intrusions in the deltas promote the occurrence of saline soils. Excessive irrigation with

dry climatic conditions promotes capillary action, which results in the deposition of salt on the

top layer of the soil. In such areas, especially in Punjab and Haryana, adequate dose of gypsum

can solve the problem of salinity in the soil.

7. Peaty soils

Peaty soils are found in areas of heavy rainfall and humidity and occur largely in Bihar,

Uttarakhand and coastal areas West Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu. They have good growth of

vegetarian and are rich in humus and organic content. Organic matter may account for as much

as 40 to 50% in these soils. Peaty soils are normally heavy and brown in colour but at several

places they are alkaline also.

8. Forest soils

These soils are found in forest areas where sufficient rainfall occurs and there is thick

forest growth. Most of the forest soils occur in the Himalayan region where the structure and

texture of the soils varies depending on the mountain environment. They are loamy and silty on

valley sides and coarse grained in the upper slopes. In the snow bound areas of the Himalayas,

they experience denudation, and are acidic with low humus content. The soils found in the lower

valleys are fertile.



Soil degradation

Definition

Soil degradation is defined as the decline in soil fertility, when the nutritional status

declines and depth of the soil goes down due to erosion and misuse. Soil degradation is the main

factor leading to the depleting soil resource base in India.

Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is the removal of soil by the forces of nature, particularly wind and water,

more rapidly than the various soil forming processes can replace it. Water and wind are the most

important factors which are simultaneously engaged in soil formation and soil erosion. Under

normal circumstances, there is a balance between solid forming and soil erosion processes. This

means that the rate of deposition of particles to soil layer is almost the same as the rate of erosion

and the soil remains intact. Soil erosion mainly takes place due to man's ill judged activities such

as deforestation, overgrazing and faulty methods of cultivation. With the increase in human

population, demand for land is increasing at a rapid pace and forest and other natural vegetation

is removed, exposing the soil to the forces of erosion.

Agents of soil erosion

Wind and water are the two main agents of soil erosion because of their ability to remove

and transport soil. Erosion by water is more significant in areas of heavy rainfall and step slope.

Soil erosion by water takes place in the form of sheet and fully erosion. Sheet erosion takes place

on level lands after a heavy shower and the soil removal is not easily noticeable. But it is harmful

since it removes the finer and more fertile topsoil. Gully erosion is common in steep slopes.

Gullies depend with rainfall, cut the agricultural land into small fragments and make them unfit

for cultivation.

Impact of soil erosion

It is estimated that over 80,000 hectares of cultivated land of India have already been lost

and a much larger area is rendered lesser productivity by soil erosion every year. Soil erosion is a

national problem for the Indian agriculture and its bad effects are seen in other spheres also.

Eroded materials are carried down to the rivers and they lower down their carrying capacity, and

cause frequent floods and damage to agricultural lands.



Causes of soil pollution

Large parts of soil are blown away by strong winds in dry sandy areas of Rajasthan and

adjoining areas. As a result of this, the top layer of the soil is eroded. This is an example of sheet

erosion. Floods caused extensive damage to our soils.

Another major cause of soil erosion is deforestation. Plants keep soils bound in locks of

roots and save soil from erosion. Leaves and twigs shed by the plants get mixed in soil and add

humus to the soil. Large scale soil erosion has been noticed in areas where forests have been

destroyed. Large structures of fertile land are affected by soil erosion due to over irrigation. Use

of chemical and fertilizers is also harmful to the soils. It is estimated that about half of the total

land of India is under some degree of degradation.

Soil conservation

Soil erosion has become a very serious and challenging problem in India. Under such

circumstances, soil conservation becomes very important. Following methods can be adopted to

check soil erosion and to conserve this valuable natural resource.

1. Afforestation

The best way to check soil erosion is afforestation. New trees are to be planted in areas of

soil erosion and old ones are to be protected. Deforestation is to be checked at all costs. Rows of

trees act as barriers to the passage of wind and reduce the velocity of the winds which erode the

soil cover.

2. Erecting dams and barriers

Many rivers cause heavy erosion to soil in rainy season due to swift flow of the water

current. This can be checked by erecting dams and barriers across the rivers.

3. Check on over grazing

Another effective method to check soil erosion is to avoid overgrazing. Seperate grazing

grounds should be earmarked and fodder crops should be grown. Animals move freely in the

fields for grazing and spoil the soil with their hoofs which leads to soil erosion.



4. Changes in agriculture practices.

We can check soil erosion to a great extent by bringing about some basic changes in our

agriculture practices. This includes crop rotation, terraced cultivation etc. Contour ploughing is a

very effective method of checking soil erosion. By contour ploughing method, the surface runoff

of rain and irrigation water is checked and soil is prevented from being washed away. Only those

crops should be grown for which the soil is best suited.

Gully erosion must be checked at all costs. Finger gullies and bigger gullies can be

reduced by terracing and constructing check dams. Integrated land use planning is the best

technique for soil conservation. Co-operation of the farmers is very essential for the success of

this plan.

Major crops

With varied types of relief, soils, climate and with plenty of sunshine and long growing

season, India is capable of growing almost each and every crop. Crops requiring tropical, sub-

tropical and temperate climate can easily be grown in one or the other part of India. Indian crops

can be divided into following categories.

1. Food crops

Rice, Wheat, Maize, Millets - Jowar, Ragi, Pulses - Gram,Tur.

2. Cash crops

Cotton, Jute, Tobacco, Oil seeds, Groundnut, Castorseed, Rapeseed, Mustard etc.

3. Platinum crops

Tea, Coffee, Spices, Cardamom, Chillies, Ginger, Turmeric, Coconut, Arecanut and

Rubber.

4. Horticulture

Fruits-Apple, Peach, Pear, Aprecot, Almond, Strawberry, Walnut, Mango, Banana, Citrus

fruits, Vegetables.



Food crops

Agriculture forms the backbone of Indian economy and food crops are the backbone of

the Indian agriculture. Food crops cover about three fourth of total cropped area in the country

and contribute to about half of the total value of agricultural production. No part of the country is

without food crops. They are grown in all parts of the country.

Rice

Rice is the most important food crop of India covering about one fourth of the area and

providing food to about half of the Indian population. This is the staple food of the people living

in the eastern and the parts of the country, particularly in the areas having over 150 cm rainfall.

There are about 10,000 varieties of rice in the world out of which about 4,000 are grown in India.

Conditions of growth

Rice is a tropical plant and requires high heat and high humidity for its successful growth.

The temperature should be fairly high at mean monthly of 24℃. It should 20°-22 °C at the time

of sowing, 23°-25 °C during growth and 25°-30 °C at the harvesting time. The fields must be

flooded under 10-12 cm deep water at the time of sowing and during early stages of growth.

Therefore, the fields must be level and have low mud walls to retain water. Rice grown in well

watered lowland plains areas is called wet or lowland rice. In hilly areas, the hill slopes are cut

into terraces for the cultivation of rice. Such cultivation is called terraced cultivation.

Rice can be grown on a variety of soils including silts, loams and gravels and can tolerate

acidic as well as alkaline soils. Such soil requirements make it dominantly a crop of river valleys,

floodplains, deltas and coastal plains and a dominant crop there.

Rice culture is not much suited to mechanisation and is called 'hoe-culture'. Most of the

work in preparing the seed bed, in broadcasting seeds, or in plantation of plants from nurseries to

the fields, harvesting is made by human hand. Thus it is a labour intensive cultivation and

requires a large supply of cheap labour for its successful cultivation.

Methods of rice cultivation

Following methods of the rice cultivation practised in India

1. Broadcasting method

Seeds are sown on broadcast by hand. This method is practised in those areas which are

comparatively dry and less fertile and do not have much labour to work in the fields. It is the

easiest method requiring minimum input but its yields are also minimum.



2. Drilling method

Ploughing of land and sowing of seeds is done by two persons. This method is mostly

confined to peninsular India.

3. Transplantation method

This method is practised in areas of fertile soil, abundant rainfall and plentiful supply of

labour. To begin with, seeds are sown in nursery and seedlings are prepared. After 4-5 weeks the

seedlings are uprooted and planted in the field which has already been prepared for the purpose.

The entire process is done by hand. It is, therefore, a very difficult method and requires heavy

inputs. But at the same time it gives some of the highest yields.

4. Japanese method

This method includes the use of high yielding varieties of seeds, sowing the seeds in a

raised nursery bed and transplanting the seedlings in rows so as to make weeding and fertilizing

easy. It also involves the use of a heavy dose of fertilizers so that very high yields are obtained.

The Japanese method of rice cultivation has been successfully adopted in the main rice

producing regions of India.

Rice cropping seasons

Rice is grown almost throughout the year in hot and humid regions of eastern and

southern parts of India were two to three crops in a year are not uncommon. But in the northern

and hilly parts of the country, the winters are too cold for rice cultivation and only one crop is

grown in those areas.

Production

India is the second largest producer and consumer of rice in the world after China and

accounts for 17.95% of the world’s total rice production.

In a span of about six and a half decades from 1950-51 to 2014-15, the area, production

and yield have increased. It is interesting to note that the rate of increase in production is much

higher than the rate of increase in area under rice cultivation. This is due to the increase in yields

as a result of better inputs and farm practices.



In spite of the spectacular progress, our yield of 2,390 kg per hectare (2014-15) is much

lower compared to 6,548 kg in China, 7,537 kg in USA, 6,511 kg in Japan and 6878 kg in

Republic of Korea. This means that there is still vast scope for increasing production.

Distribution

Rice is grown in varying degrees in almost all parts of the country excepting higher parts

of the Himalayan ranges 2,500 metres in altitude, due to various geographical constraints. The

premier rice producing areas include the lower and the middle Ganga plains, the east and the

west coastal Plains, the Brahmaputra valley and parts of Peninsular plateau.

It is clear that about half of the rice production in India is contributed by four states

namely West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Punjab.

Wheat

Next to rice, wheat is the second most important food grain of India and is the staple food

of millions of Indians, particularly in the Northern and north western parts of the country. It is

rich in proteins, vitamins and carbohydrates and provides balanced food. India is the fourth

largest producer of wheat in the world after Russia, USA and China and accounts for 8.7 % of

the world's total production of wheat.


Conditions of growth for wheat are more flexible than those of rice. Wheat is primarily a

crop of mid latitude grasslands and requires a cool climate with moderate rainfall. The

temperature should be low at the time of sowing but as the harvesting time approaches higher

temperatures are required. But the sudden rise in temperature at the time of maturity is harmful.

Wheat thrives well in receiving an annual rainfall of about 75 cm. Annual rainfall of 100

cm is the highest limit of wheat cultivation. In fact, wheat can be grown in areas with as little as

20-25 cm annual rainfall provided proper irrigation facilities are available.

Although wheat can be grown in a variety of soils, well drained fertile, loams are the best

suited soils for wheat cultivation. It also grows well in the black soil of the Deccan Plateau.

Wheat cultivation is the extensive type of farming which is highly mechanised and requires

comparatively less labour. It is mainly grown in the flat alluvial plains of north India.



Production

Wheat is grown on 13% of the cropped area of India. All the three aspects of the crop i.e.

production, area and yield have recorded a rapid growth particularly after the introduction of the

Green Revolution Strategy in 1967. The production had more than doubled from 109.97 lakh

tonnes in 1960-61 to 238.32 lakh tonnes in 1970-71. During the same period the area under

wheat had increased by over 41% and yield had increased by 53.6%. The development of new

varieties of seeds has brought about a real revolution in wheat production. Our yield of 2,872 kg

per hectare (2014-15) is still very low as compared to that of some other wheat producing

countries like Russia, USA, Australia and Canada. It is estimated that yield can be raised up to

4,000 kg/hectare in irrigated areas and up to 2,000 kg/hectare in un irrigated areas by using

appropriate location specific technology including better quality seeds, proper fertilizers and

control of weeds, pests and diseases. This can be done by timely harvest of the kharif crops and

by reducing the extent of fallow land. West Bengal has already started growing wheat in

sufficient quantity. By adopting these and some other positive measures, we can hope to increase

the production of wheat to a great extent.

Distribution

Wheat production is mainly confined to North West parts of the country. Uttar Pradesh,

Punjab, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana are the four prominent wheat producing states. These

States account for about 70% of the wheat area and produce about three fourth of the total wheat

production in India. In fact. Punjab, Haryana and the contiguous western parts of UP have earned

the distinction of being called the 'Granary of India'. The other major wheat producing states are

Rajasthan, Bihar, Gujarat and Maharashtra.

Maize

Maize is an inferior grain which is used both as food and fodder. Its grain provides food

and is used for obtaining starch and glucose. It stalk is fed to cattle.


Maize can be grown under varied climatic and soil conditions. Maize is mainly a rain fed

crop which is sown just before the onset of monsoon and is harvested after retreat of the

monsoon. It requires 50-100 cm of rainfall and it cannot be grown in areas more than 100 cm

rainfall. Long dry spell during the rainy season is harmful for maize. Sunshine after shower is

very useful for maize. Cool and dry weather helps in growing of the ripening of the grain. Frost

is injurious to maize and this crop is grown only in those areas where there are about four and a

half frost free months in a year. Fertile well drained alluvial or red loams free from coarse



materials are rich in nitrogen are the best soils for its successful growth. well drained plains are

best suited for its cultivation. The cultivation of maize in India is character by inter-culture i.e.

along with and in pulses, vegetables and oil seeds.

Production

Maize is an important cereal of India and is grown over 4% of the net area sown of the

country. There have been large variations in the production of maize in India since

Independence. It was only 1.7 million tonnes in 1950-51 which rose to 23.67 million tonnes in

2014-15. Andhra Pradesh including Telangana(17.89%), Karnataka (16.53%) and Maharashtra

(9.31%) are the main producers.

Bajra

Bajra serves as food for poor people and fodder for animals. It requires 25℃ to 30℃

temperature and 40 to 50 cm of annual rainfall for successful growth. It is generally grown on

poor light sandy soil. India produces 9.05 million tonnes of bajra in 2014-15 from 7.1 to million

hectares. The main producers of this crop are Rajasthan (49.64%), Uttar Pradesh (19.97%),

Gujarat (8.09%) and Haryana (7.4%).

Jowar

Jowar is both a kharif as well as a rabi crop in India. It requires temperature varying from

25℃ to 30℃ and annual rainfall of 45 cm for its successful growth. It can be grown in a variety

of soils including red, yellow, loamy and alluvial soils but black clayey loams of the peninsular

plateau are the best for its cultivation.

Jowar provides 10% of India's food. About 75% of India's Jowar is grown in the plateau

region of South India. India produced 5.65 million tonnes of Jowar from 5.3 million hectares of

land in 2014-15. Maharashtra is the largest producer accounting over 32% of India’s jowar.

Pulses

Pulses are the major source of protein in the diet of predominantly vegetarian population

of India. About 90% of the area under pulses is rain fed. These are grown in kharif as well as rabi

seasons. Arhar, moong, urad etc. are the kharif crops while gram, masur and urad are the rani

crops. The total area devoted to pulses was 23.10 million hectares and the total production of

pulses was 17.19 million tonnes. Madhya Pradesh was the largest producer attributing 27.36% of

the total production. Rajasthan (11.39%), Maharashtra (10.10%), Karnataka (8.66%), Uttar

Pradesh (8.42%), Andhra Pradesh including Telangana (6.72%) are other major producers.



Gram

Gram is the principal pulse crop in the country. India produced 7.17 million tonnes of

gram from 8.19 million hectares of land. The major gram producer is Madhya Pradesh accounts

for about 41.34 percent of total production. Rajasthan (12.69%), Maharashtra (11.56%),

Karnataka(10.73%), Andhra Pradesh including Telangana (6.43%) and Uttar Pradesh(5.31%) are

the other producers.

Oil seeds

Oilseeds constitute a very important group of commercial crops in India. The oils

extracted from oilseeds form an important item for our diet and are used as raw materials for

manufacturing a large number of items. The total production of oilseeds such as groundnut,

rapeseed, sunflower, and soybean and castor seed was 26.67 million tonnes in 2014-15. Madhya

Pradesh (28.96%), Rajasthan (19.94%), Gujarat (14.93%) and Maharashtra (10.62%) are main

producers. India does not produce oilseeds in sufficient quantities and has to import oil seeds in

large quantities to meet requirements.

Groundnut

India is the second largest producer of groundnut in the world and producers of about

17% of the world's groundnut. The total production of groundnut in 2014-15 was 65.6 million

tonnes. Gujarat(33.9%) is the largest producer. This is followed by Tamil Nadu(13.79%),

Andhra Pradesh (12.09%). Production of groundnut always falls short of consumption and

deficiency is meant by imports.

Rapeseed and mustard

Rapeseed and mustard comprise several oilseeds such as rai, saraina, toria and taramira.

The total production of rapeseed and mustard in 2014-15 was 6.31 million tonnes. Rajasthan

(45.89%), Madhya Pradesh (11.66%) and Haryana (11.08%) are three top producers.

Cotton

It is the tropical plant which grows well in areas having temperature ranging from 20℃ to

30℃ and rainfall varying from 65 to 85 cm. The 'black cotton soil' of the Deccan Plateau and

alluvial soil of the northern plain are best suited for cotton. A lot of human labour is required at

the time of picking.



Types of cotton

1. Long staple cotton

It has the longest fibre whose length varies from 24 to 27 mm. The fibre is long, fine and

shining. It is used for making fine and superior quality cloth. Obviously, it fetches the best price.

About half of the total cotton produced in India is long staple. It is largely grown in Punjab,

Haryana, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.

2. Medium Staple cotton

The length of its fibre is between 20 mm and 24 mm. About 44% of the total cotton

production in India is of medium staple. Rajasthan, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar

Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra its main producers.

3. Short staple cotton

This is inferior cotton with less than 20 mm long. It is used for manufacturing inferior

cloth and features less price. About 6% of the total production is of short staple cotton. Andhra

Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab are its main producers.

India is the fourth largest producer of cotton in World after China, USA and Pakistan and

produces about 8.3 % of the world's cotton. Haryana and Punjab are main producers in North

Western part of the country. In India, Madhya Pradesh is a main producer of cotton.

India exports inferior quality cotton and imports superior quality cotton for producing

better quality clothes.

Jute

Jute is the second important fibre crop after cotton. This crop provides cheap and strong

fibre which is used as a raw material by Jute industry.

Jute requires hot and humid climate with temperature between 24℃ and 35℃ and rainfall

over 150cms. The relative humidity should be nearly 90%. Well drained alluvial loamy soils,

which are frequently renewed by floods are best suited to the cultivation of jute.

India suffered a great setback in the production of jute as a result of the partition of the

country in 1947. Because about 75% of the jute producing areas went to Bangladesh.

Fortunately, most of the Jute mills remained in India. Many efforts were made to increase



production and area of jute, immediately after partition to feed our starving jute mills in the wake

of short supply of raw jute.

Over three fourth of jute is produced in West Bengal. The remaining jute is produced in

Bihar(13.10%), Assam(6.94%), Orissa(0.59%) and Andhra Pradesh(0.45%).

Sugar cane

India is claimed to be the homeland of sugarcane. It is the main source of sugar holds a

prominent position as a cash crop in India.

Sugarcane is the long duration crop maturing in 10 to 12 months. It requires hot and

humid climate with temperature ranging from 20℃ to 30℃ and rainfall ranging from 100 to

150cms. Dry weather is necessary at the harvesting season. It is a fertilizer intensive crop and

exhausts quickly. So, heavy dose of fertilizers is required.

India is the second largest sugarcane producing country of the world after Brazil. This

crop is grown both in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the country. The sugarcane area

extends right from Kanya kumari in the south to Punjab in the north. The main areas of tropical

sugarcane are located south of 15°N latitude and include Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra

Pradesh and Maharashtra. The subtropical regions growing sugarcane Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,

Haryana and Punjab.

Although climate conditions are more suitable for sugarcane in South India, it is not

common crop there due to following reasons.

(i)Coastal Plains of Kerala are climatically more suitable for sugarcane cultivation but land is

used for paddy and horticulture crops.

(ii)In the Godavari Krishna delta, irrigation and fertile alluvial soils are favourable to sugarcane,

cultivation, but frequent cyclones damage the crop.

(iii)Sugarcane is an irrigated crop, which is easier to grow and cheaper in northern plains than in

Peninsular India.

The total production of sugarcane was 359.33 million tonnes from 5.14 million hectares.

The main producing states are Uttar Pradesh (38.54%), Maharashtra (22.78%), Karnataka

(11.66%), Tamil Nadu (6.81%), Andhra Pradesh (3.66%).



Tea

Tea requires about 25℃ to 30℃ temperature and a well distributed rainfall of 200 to 250

cm. It grows well in the well drained deep friable loam or forest land rich in organic matter.

Stagnant water is harmful to the roots of the tea Bush and as such it is grown on Hill slopes it

requires plenty of cheap human labour at the time of women and children.

India is the world's largest producer of tea contributing about 28% of tea production of

the world Total production in 2011-12 was 1 million tonnes Assam 53% and West Bengal 22

are two largest producers about 16 percent India's tea is grown in Tamil Nadu mainly in Nilgiri

and anamalai Hills Kerala producers 8 percent of India's tea.

Coffee

Coffee is the second important beverage crop of India after tea. There are three varieties

of coffee i.e. arabica, robusta and liberica. Most of the coffee grown in India is of arabica variety.

Coffee plant requires hot and humid climate with 15° to 30℃ temperature and 150 to 200 cm

rainfall. Hill slopes 800-1600 metres above sea level, with rich well drained forests loams

provide ideal conditions for coffee growth. Coffee in India is highly localised in Karnataka,

Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Karnataka is the largest producer of coffee in India. This state accounts

part 58% of coffee area and 70% of coffee production of India. Kerala accounts for over 22% of

the coffee production in India.

Tobacco

It is a plant of tropical and sub tropical climates and can with stand a wide range of

temperatures varying from 16℃ to 35℃. It normally requires 100 cm of annual rainfall but it can

also be successfully grown in areas of 50 cm annually rainfall provided the rainfall is fairly

distributed.

Soil is more important than climate. Further it can be grown from low lying flat plains up

to a height of 1,800 metres. The production of tobacco increased from 28 lakh tonnes in 1950-51

to 73.5 lakh tonnes in 2013-14, Andhra Pradesh (37.55%), Gujarat (32.65%), Karnataka

(12.24%) and Uttar Pradesh (7.78%) are the chief producers.

Rubber

Rubber tree is a quick growing tall tree acquiring 20-30 metre height. It begins to yield

latex in 5-7 years after planting. It requires hot and humid climate with temperature of 25℃ to

36℃ and annual rainfall of over 200 cm. Daily rainfall followed by strong sun is very useful. Hill



slopes at 300 to 450 metres above sea level provide best conditions for its growth. Total

production in 2011-12 was 8 lakh tons. Kerala is the largest producer and accounts for about

92% of rubber production in India. Tamil Nadu is the second largest but produces only 4% of

Indian rubber.

Importance of agriculture in India

Agriculture is the most important economic activity. It forms the backbone of Indian

economy and has great cultural significance particularly among the rural masses. Following few

points highlight the importance of agriculture to the Indian masses.

1. Dependence of population

Over two thirds of Indian population lives in rural areas and is intimately associated with

agriculture, whether directly or indirectly. It is the principal source of livelihood for more than

55% of the population of the country. In addition, a large section of population gets indirect

employment through other activities associated with agriculture.

2. Contribution to gross domestic product (GDP)

For a pretty long term, agriculture has been the largest contributor of Gross National

Product. But the relative importance of agriculture as a major contributor of GDP has decreased

due to increase in secondary and tertiary activities like manufacturing, trade, transport commerce

and services. Currently, it provides about 14% of GDP.

4. Basic needs of man

Food, clothing and shelter are the basic needs of man and all the three necessities are met

by agricultural products to large extent. The food requirements of man are fulfilled by food

grains produced by farmers working in agricultural fields. Rice, Wheat, maize, Bajra etc are the

major food grains consumed by man. In addition, there are large varieties of fruits and vegetables

which serve as food items for man. Animals and birds which are rated as an important segment

of farming activity, provide milk, meat, eggs etc. which are important items of food for a number

of people. Cotton provides fibre for clothes,. Similarly, a large number of agricultural products

are used for building purposes, especially in rural areas.

4. Base for industries

Some of the industries depend on agricultural products and are known as agro based

industries. These Industries use agricultural products as their raw material. Cotton textile, jute



textile, sugar and vegetable oil are some of the examples of agro based industries. Concentration

of cotton textile industry in Maharashtra and Gujarat is due to cotton cultivation in these states

and that of jute industry in West Bengal is primarily due to availability of jute in the Ganga delta

region. Similarly, sugar industry has grown in sugarcane growing areas of North and South

India.

5. Contribution in foreign trade.

India is a net exporter of some of the agricultural products. The main items of export are

rice, spices, raw cotton, oil cakes, coffee, tea and mate, tobacco, meat and meat preparations,

fruit and vegetables etc. In the year 2014-15 India exported agricultural and allied products

worth 2,40,642 crore which was about 12.7% of the total Exports.

Problems of Indian agriculture

In spite of the phenomenal progress particularly since 1960s, Indian agriculture still

suffers from several serious problems. Although most of the problems are region specific, yet

some problems are common to all regions of the country and are briefly discuss below.

1. Dependence on erratic monsoon

Rainfall and temperature are the main environmental factors with reference to Indian

agriculture. Rainfall by Southwest monsoons is very erratic, both in time and space. Most parts

of India have sufficiently high temperature throughout the year. Under such circumstances, crops

can be grown all the year around if sufficient water is made available to crops on a regular basis.

Unfortunately, most parts of India receive in 3- 4 months of the rainy season and the rest of the

year is practically dry. More over there are wide seasonal and regional variations in the amount

of rainfall. Large parts of the country do not receive sufficient amount of rainfall and sub humid,

and arid climate. These areas suffer from frequent droughts. Several areas are flooded in rainy

season. Even dry lands of Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan have experienced flash floods in

the recent past. Droughts and floods continue to be twin menace in Indian agriculture.

2. Low productivity

Yields of almost all the crops in India are very low as compared to world yields. Yields

per hectare of major crops like rice, wheat, cotton and oilseed in India is much lower than USA,

Russia and Japan. High pressure of population results in low labour productivity. Rain fed areas

in dry lands mainly grow coarse crops and give very low yields.



3. Constraints of financial resources and indebtedness

Modern agriculture has become highly capital intensive and small and marginal farmers

find it difficult to manage financial resources to invest in agriculture. Many farmers take loan

from various Institutions and money lenders. Crop failures and low return from agriculture have

forced them to fall in the trap of indebtedness. A big package of rupees 60,000 crore loan waiver

for small and marginal farmers announced by the central government in 2008 temporally

improved the situation to some extent. However, it has not helped much in the long run.

4. Lack of Land Reforms

Indian peasantry had been exploited for a long time as there had been unusual distribution

of land. Among the three revenue systems operational during British period i.e. Mahalwari,

Ryotwari and Zamindari, the last one was most exploitative for the peasants. "Various reforms

have been initiated by the government but the lack of political will has been a great hindrance in

the proper implementation of reforms".

5. Small farm size and fragmentation of land Holdings

As the pressure of population on land increases, the land holdings are further subdivided

and fragmented. Small land holdings become uneconomical which is a major obstacle in the way

of modernization of agriculture. The number of marginal holdings and their percentage to total

number of holdings is constantly increasing. On the other hand, number of large holdings and

their percentage to total number of holdings is constantly decreasing. This is primarily due to

division of large holdings into small holdings.

Many serious efforts have not been made consolidate land holdings. There are some

states where consolidation of holdings has not been carried out even once. Even the states where

it has been carried out once, second consolidation is required as land holdings have fragmented

again in the process of division of land among the owners of next generations.

6. Lack of commercialization

A large part of Indian agriculture is still of subsistence type in which the farmers do not

have enough land and are unable to produce more than their own requirement. Foodgrains

produced by small and marginal farmers are just sufficient to meet the requirements of the family

members of the farmers and there is no surplus for sale. However, agriculture is commercialised

in irrigated areas.



7. Vast under employment

Agriculture is a seasonal process which provides employment only for a brief period and

seasonal unemployment prevails for 4 to 8 months in a year. People get employment mainly at

the time of sowing and harvesting. Under-employment is a more serious problem particularly in

un-irritated areas.

8. Degradation of cultivable land

Faulty agricultural practices and irrigation, particularly in canal irrigated areas, have

given rise to a number of serious problems such as degradation of land and depletion of soil

fertility.

Another serious problem is that of excessive use of insecticides and pesticides which are used to

save the crops from insects and pests. When used beyond a particular limit these chemicals lead

to higher concentration of toxic elements in the soil profile.

Leguminous crops are very useful to restore the fertility of soil when grown as part of

crop rotation. These crops are being replaced, particularly in irrigated areas. Soil erosion by wind

and water has occurred in rain fed areas primary due to unwanted activities of man.

Agricultural development in India

Agriculture is a very important sector of Indian economy. The importance of agricultural

sector in India can be gauged from the fact that about 46% of its land is devoted to crop

cultivation, whereas, in the world corresponding share is only about 12%. However, there is a

tremendous pressure on agricultural land due to rapid increase in population.

Strategy of development

Before independence, Indian agriculture was largely subsistence in nature in which the

farmers could grow crops only for their use and there was hardly any surplus for sale in the

market. This period frequently witnessed severe droughts and famines food shortage was a

common phenomenon. About one third of the irrigated area went to Pakistan as a part of

partition of the country. Immediately after independence the government took several steps to

increase the production of food grains. Following three strategies were adopted to achieve this

goal.

(i)Switching over from cash crops to food crops.



(ii)Intensification of cropping over already cultivated land.

(iii)Increasing cultivated area by bringing cultivable under fallow land under plough, initially,

this strategy helped in increasing food grains production.

However, Indian agriculture could not progress much and experienced stagnation during

late 1950s.

Indian agriculture experiences the beginning of technological changes in 1960s with the

introduction of modern inputs. High-yielding variety (HYV) of seeds, fertilizers, mechanization,

improved irrigation and credit, marketing facilities where some of the silent features of modern

technological changes. The Government of India introduced Intensive area development

programme (IADP) in 1960.Intensive agricultural area programme (IAAP) was also launched. It

aims at diffusing technical knowhow, credit and agricultural technology to set up agricultural

production. New high yielding varieties (HYV) of wheat and rice were brought to India. These

HYV seeds were developed in Mexico and Philippines respectively. Chemical fertilizers and

pesticides were introduced and irrigation facilities were expanded. All these inputs were the main

components of the what is known as Green Revolution.

Achievements of Green Revolution

The main achievements of Green revolution was the spectacular increase in the

production of food grains which increased from 72.35 million tonnes in 1965-66 to 252.68

million tonnes in 2014-15, Cereals and millets recorded the highest growth. However, pulses

could not keep pace with increasing trend. Thus, it is often said that from 1967 onwards the

Green Revolution aims at bringing about Grain Revolution. Even among cereals, wheat

registered more than eight fold increase (594%) in production, from 10.39 million tonnes in

1965-66 to 88.94 million tonnes in 2014-15. Rice, on the other hand, recorded about three and a

half fold increase (194%), from 30.59 million tonnes to 104.80 million tonnes. It is that wheat

has been the main beneficiary of the Green Revolution. As a result of increased home production

import of cereals and cereal preparations declined from 37.47 million tonnes in 1960-61 to 1.2

million tonnes in 2014-15. There was practically no import of food grains during the last few

years. On the contrary, India is in a position to export some of the food grains in the event of a

bumper crop.

Cost of Green Revolution

Although the Green Revolution has helped us in increasing the farm production and

solving the acute food problem in the country, we have achieved this goal at a heavy cost of

intensive use of irrigation, fertilizers, HYV seeds etc. The use of these inputs has created a large



number of problems such as soil Stalinisation, ground water pollution, nutrient imbalances,

emergence of new pests and diseases and environmental degradation.

In the beginning of 1980s the planning commission of India prepared plans to solve the

problems of agriculture in rain fed areas. In 1988 agro-climatic planning was initiated to reduce

regional imbalances. The commission also emphasised the need for diversification of agriculture

and harnessing of resources for development of dairy farming, poultry, horticulture, livestock

rearing and aquaculture.

Policy of liberalisation initiated in 1990s as well as free market economy have influenced

the Indian agriculture to a great extent.

Lack of development of rural infrastructure, withdrawal of subsidies and price support,

and impediments in availing of the rural credits may lead to inter-regional and inter-personal

disputes in rural areas.

Growth of agricultural output and Technology

Indian agriculture has witnessed a tremendous improvement in agricultural production

and associated technology during the last 50 years as is clear from the following points:

1. Production and yield of several crops such as rice, wheat, sugarcane, oil seeds, cotton etc. have

considerably. India ranks first in production of pulses, tea, jute, cattle and milk. It is the second

largest producer of rice, wheat, groundnut, sugarcane and vegetables.

2. Irrigation facilities have expanded to a great extent. This has helped in using modern

agricultural technology like high yielding varieties of seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and

farm machinery. The net irrigated area in the country has increased from 20.85 to 66.10 million

hectares over the period 1950-51 to 2012-13. Over these years, area irrigated more than once in

an agricultural year has increased from 1.71 to 26.47 million hectares.

3. Modern agricultural technology has spread to different parts of the country at a rapid pace.

Consumption of chemical fertilizers increased from mere 292 thousand tonnes in 1960-61 to

25,576 thousand tonnes in 2014-15. The average consumption of chemical fertilizers increased

from 92.33 kg per hectare in 2001-02 to 128 kg/hectare in 2014-15. It is much higher in irrigated

areas of Punjab and Haryana. Along with fertilizers, consumption of pesticides has also

increased since 1960s because highly yielding varieties are highly susceptible to pests and

diseases.



Unit - 3

India - Forestry

Introduction and definition

The word forest is derived from latin 'fores' meaning outside, In general, a forest is

defined as an area set aside for the production of timber and other forest produce or maintained

under woody vegetation for certain benefits which it provides. Ecologically, a forest is a plant

community, predominantly of trees and other woody vegetation, usually with a closed canopy.

Types of forests

Varied geographical conditions in different parts of country have given birth to a large

variedly of forests in India. Depending on common features such as predominant vegetation type

and climatic regions, Indian forests can be divided into the following groups.

1. Tropical evergreen and semi evergreen forests

2. Tropical deciduous forests

3. Tropical thorn forest

4. Mountain forests

5. Littoral and swampy forests

1. Tropical evergreen and semi evergreen forest

These forests are found in hot and humid areas of India. The average annual rainfall in These

areas is above 200 cm and the relative humidity is more than 70%. The average temperature is in

the vicinity of 22℃. These areas are characterized by tall trees whose height varies from 45 to 60

meters and dense forest due to high heat and humidity. Different trees germinate, grow and

wither at different times enabling the entire vegetation look as evergreen forest. The important

trees of these forests are rubber, mahogany, ebony, coconut, canes, Palms , bamboos, lianes,

ferns, iron wood. Due to thick growth, the sun's rays do not reach the surface of the earth and

there is a darkness below the trees. under these circumstances ,the trees rise high competing with

one another for sunlight. These forests are spread over 4.6 million hectares in Andaman nicobar

islands.

The semi evergreen forests are found in the less rainy parts of these regions. Such forests

have a mixture of Evergreen and moist deciduous trees. The under growing climbers provide an

evergreen character to these forest. Main species are white cedar, hollock and kail.



2. Tropical deciduous forests

These are also called the monsoon forest. Tropical deciduous forests are found in areas

receiving 70 to 200 cm of annual rainfall. Monsoon forests grow over the Western Ghats the

North Eastern parts of the Peninsula, middle and lower Ganga valley, and along the foothills of

Himalayas.

Sandalwood, khair, etc. are important trees. Provide useful wood and are economically very

important. The shed their leaves in the beginning of summer season in the face of water

shortage and are called deciduous forests. They are 30 to 45 metres tall and cover about 20% of

our forest area.

On the basis of the availability of water, these forests are further divided into moist and dry

deciduous.

Moist deciduous forests

The moist deciduous forests grow well in areas receiving annual rainfall between 100-

200 cm. These forests dominate the foothills of the himalayas, eastern slopes and the Western

Ghats and Orissa. Taek, Amla, sandalwood, etc. are the main species of these forests.

Dry Deciduous forests

The dry deciduous forests are found in areas receiving rainfall between 70-100 cm.

These forests represent in a transition between wet deciduous forests on one hand and Thorn

forests on the other. The dry deciduous forests are mainly found in rainier areas of the Peninsula

and in the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. These forests have a parkland landscape with open

structures in which teak and other trees interspread with patches of grass are common. The trees

shed their leaves completely in dry season and the forest appears like a vast grassland with naked

trees all around.

3. Tropical Thorn Forests

These forests are found in areas receiving less than 50 cm of annual rainfall. Such ares

include Rajasthan and adjoining parts of Southwest Punjab, Southwest Haryana and some parts

of Gujarat. This vegetation includes small size Kikar, wild date Palm, neem, palas and some

thorny bushes and scrubs. They have small leaves, thick roots which enable them to face the dry

climatic conditions. Their wood is generally used as fuel.



4. Mountain forests

As their name indicates, these forests are found in the mountain ares of India.

Geographically, they can be divided into northern, i.e., Himalayan forest and Southern, i.e.,

Peninsular forest.

a) Northern Himalayan forests

These forests are found on the southern slopes of the Himalayan ranges. In their altitude, the

Himalayan ranges show a succession of vegetation from the tropical to the Alpine. The following

brief account justifies it.

i) At the foothills, are belts of deciduous types. The wet temperature type a belt of high and

dense forests to the east of 88°E longitudes between 1,000 metre and 2,000 metre attitude. The

cover mostly the hill ranges of north east India and the Himalayan parts of West Bengal, Bihar

and Uttarakhand. Pine forests are well developed between 1,500 metres and 1,750 metres.

Higher parts of this zone are covered with temperature grasslands in the main ranges as well as

in the Shillong (Meghalaya) plateau.

ii) Between 2,000 metres and 3,000 metres elevation, the southern slopes of the Himalayas are

covered with moist temperature forests. Under parts of this zone are covered with pines, silver

firs, and deodar. Deodar provides fine durable wood for construction and railway slippers.

iii) About 3,000 metres elevation, there is transition to Alpine forests and pastures. These fairly

dense forests are found between 3,000 to 4,000 metres altitude. But they get progressively

stunted and gnarled as they approach the snowline. Alpine pastures, with signed conifers below

and snow fields above, occur at an altitude of about 2,250 to 2,750m these covering the higher

slopes almost below the permanent snow cover in ranges like the Por Panjal. There is no

vegetation above the snowline.

b) Vegetation of Peninsular Hills

The vegetation of the Peninsula Hills is characterized by rolling down interspersed with

stand rainforests, shrubs, mosses and ferns. This type vegetation covers the Western Ghats, the

vindhyas and the Nilgiris and the Abu hills. The vegetation is tropical in lower regions and

temperature in higher regions.



c) Littoral swamp forest

India has a large variety of wetland habitats. The total area of wetlands is about 3.9 million

hectares of which 70% is under paddy cultivation.

India's wetlands have been grouped into 8 categories

i) The reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in the south together with lagoons and other wetlands of

the with the Southern West Coast.

ii) The vast saline expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Gulf of Kutch.

iii) Freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards towards Rajasthan and Madhya

Pradesh.

iv) The Delta wetlands and lagoons of India's east coast

v) The freshwater marshes of the Gangetic pictures.

vi) The flood plains of the Brahmaputra the marshes and swamps in the hills of northwest India

and the Himalayan foothills.

vii) The lakes and rivers of the mountain region of Kashmir and Ladakh.

viii) The mangrove forest and other wetlands of the island arcs of the Andaman and Nicobar

Islands. Mangrove forest grow along with salt marshes, tidak creeks and mud flats. That have a

large number of salt tolerant species of plants. These forests provide shelter to veried types of

birds

Mangrove forests of India cover an area of 6,740 sq km about 7% of the world's

mangrove forests. The main areas of mangrove forests are Andaman and Nicobar Islands and

Sunderbans of the Ganga delta in West Bengal. Other areas of significance of the Mahanandi,

the Krishna and Godavari deltas. These forest too, are being encroached upon, and hence, need

conservation.

Forest cover in India

According to official records, about to 22.88 % of total area of the country is treated as

forest area. However, it may be mentioned that forest area is different from the actual forest

cover. The forest area is the area notified and recorded as the forest land irrespective of the



existence of trees, while the actual forest cover is the area occupied by forests with canopy. The

former is based on the records of the State Revenue Department, while the latter based on aerial

photographs and satellite imageries. In 2001, the actual forest cover was only 20.55%. Of the

forest cover, the share of dense and open forests was 12.60% and 7.87% respectively.

There are large scale variations in the forest area as well as in forest cover at the state and

union territory level. Most of the states with less than 10% of the forest area lie in the

northwestern part of the country. The North Eastern states have more than 40% of the land under

forest. Hilly topography and heavy rainfall are good for the forest growth.

It is estimated that there are 9 States where the forest cover is more than one third of the

total area, which is standard requirement for maintaining ecological balance. There are 4 states

percentage is reasonably good, while in remaining states the condition is either unsatisfactory or

critical.

On the basis of the percentage of the actual forest cover the states have been grouped into

four regions.

(a) The region of high concentration.

(b) The region of medium concentration.

(c) The region of low concentration.

(d) The region of very low concentration.

(a) The region of high concentration

This region includes the states where percentage cover of the forest more than 40. All the

Eastern states except Assam come fall in this category. Favourable climate, specially rainfall

and temperature, is responsible for the high concentration of forests. There are, however,

variations in forest cover in the region. In the states of Mizoram, Nagaland and Arunachal

Pradesh and in the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands forests occupy more than

80% of the geographical area. Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, Sikkim and Dadra and Nagar

Haveli have percentage of forest between 40 and 80.

(b) The region of moderate concentration

It includes the states of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Goa, Kerala, Assam and Himachal Pradesh.

Goa has the highest(33.79%) percentage of actual forest, followed by Odisha and Assam. Rest of

the states have less than 30% of their area under forest.



(c) The Region of low concentration

This region is also not contiguous. The states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra

Pradesh and Tamil Nadu form peninsula sub region while those of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar from

the northern sub region.

(d) The reason of very low concentration

The northwestern part of India falls in this category. The states included are Rajasthan,

Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Chandigarh and Delhi. West Bengal in the east also comes under this

region. Physical and human factors have been responsible for a very low concentration of forests

in these States.

Status of forests in Andhra Pradesh

The forest department of undivided Andhra Pradesh, in its state of forest report 2013 had

mentioned that the state had a forest cover of 63,814 sq km which was 23.2 % of the total

geographical area. However, the the forest department of successor Andhra Pradesh stated in

2014 that it had 22% of the total geographical area (36,914.69 sq km) under forest cover.

Forest conservation act, 1980

This is an act to provide conservation of forests. Amendment in made in 1988. It strictly

restricts and regulate the de-reservation of forests or use of forest under non forest purposes

without prior approval of the central government. This act lays down the pre-requisites for

diversion of forest land and non forest purposes. It Lays down guidelines for afforestation in lieu

of forest land diverted to some of the activities like mining, stategic defence purposes, for

creation of critical public utility infrastructure by government departments involving not more

than 5 hectares of forest land.

Compensatory afforestation fund bill 2015

It seeks to establish settings up of a National Compensatory aAforestation Fund and also

a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund. According to the bill, "wherever people's participation

is there, and wherever people's livelihood is connected to forest, they just don't allow illegal

destruction of forest". It is way to make for forest land that was diverted to non forest purposes.

Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management Authority was constituted by a direction of the

Supreme Court dated October 30, 2002, asking the government to create a fund where all the

payments received towards compensatory afforestation, additional compensatory afforestation,

panel compensatory afforestation and net present value of the diverted forest land will be



deposited. The net present value is the amount that someone has to pay for directing forest land

to non forest purposes. The amount will be determined by an expect committee appointed by the

centre. The bill further states that all money received from "additional compensatory

afforestation" and "catchment area treatment plan" may be used for site specific scheme

submitted by the state.

Following are some of the difficulties with regard to the bill:

(i) The Comptroller and Auditor General(CAG) found tbat only 61% of the fund released by the

ad-hoc CAMPA has been utilised.

(ii) There is a lack of efforts by the government in promoting compensatory afforestation and the

rampant unauthorised useage of land for mining purposes instead of afforestation.

(iii) The ministry of environment and forests was unable to monitor and unauthorised activities

and there were hardly any penalties imposed by it.

(iv) Parliamentary standing committee, in its 277th report, had stated that there might be a

situation where not enough land may be available for afforestation purposes. To address this

contingency, it was recommended a specific provision in the "for increasing densification and

revitalization of available forest closest to areas where deforestation is considered unavoidable

on account of critically important national projects".

CAMPA largestly comprises members of forest departments and there is not adequate

representation of the tribal people, environmentalists, subject experts and academics.

(v) The bill does not consider the provisions of the Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional forest

Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.

Key issues and analysis

The bill establishes the funds for compensatory afforestation and forest conservation.

However, there are several factors which affect compensatory afforestation and forest

conservation. These factors are mentioned below:

A 2013 CAG report noted that state forest departments lack the planning and

implementation capacity to carry out compensatory afforestation and forest conservation. With

share of finds transferred to states increasing from 10 % to 90%, effective utilisation of these

funds will depend on capacity state forest departments.



Procuring land for compensatory afforestation is difficult as land is a limited resource and

is required for multiple purposes such as agriculture, industry etc

A high level committee on environment laws observed that quality of forest cover has

declined between 1951 and 2014 with poor quality of compensatory afforestation plantations

being one of the reasons behind the decline.

Forest Rights Act, 2006

The scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers(Recognition of forest rights)

Act 2006 is a result of protracted struggle by the marginal and tribal communities of our country

to assert their rights over the forest land over which they were traditionally dependent. The act

passed on 18th February 2006 is also known as tribal rights act, the tribal bill, tribal land act.

This act is crucial to rights of millions of tribals and other forest dwellers in different parts of our

country as it provides for restruction of deprived forest rights across India, including both

individual rights to cultivate land in forest land and community rights over common property

resources. Millions of people live in the near India's forest lands, but have no legal rights to their

homes, lands and livelihoods. A few government officials have all power over forest dwellers.

The result is that both forest and people die. The act recognizers forest dwellers rights and makes

conservation more accountable. The act basically does following two things:

(a) Grants Legal recognition to the rights of traditional forest dwelling communities, partially

correcting the injustice caused by the forest laws.

(b) Make a beginning towards giving communities and public a voice in forest and wildlife

conservation.

The Law recognises three types of rights:

1. Land rights

No one gets rights to any land that they have not been cultivating prior to December 3, 2005 and

that they are not cultivating now. Those who are cultivating land but don't have document can

claim up to four hectares, as long as they are cultivating land themselves for a livelihood. Those

who have a patta or a government lease, but whose land has been illegally taken by the forest

department, or whose land is subject to a dispute between forest and Revenue Department, can

climb those lands



2. Use rates

The law secondly provides for rights to use and collect the following:

a) Minor forest produced things like Herbs, medical plants, etc that has been traditionally

collected. This does not include timber.

b) Grazing grounds and water bodies.

c) Traditional areas of use by nomadic pastoral communities i.e communities that move

with their herbs.

3. Right to protect and conserve

Through the forest is supposed to belong to all of us, till date no one accept the forest

department had a right to protect it. If the forest department should decide to destroy it or to hand

it over to someone who would, stopping them was a criminal offence.

Opposition

The Law has been opposed on the following grounds:

i) Some people see the law as a land distribution scheme that will lead to handing over

of some land to tribes and forest dwellers.

ii) People concerned with wildlife conservation fear that the law will make it impossible

to create "invoilate species" or areas free of human presence for the purpose of

wildlife conservation. Tiger conservation in particular the object of concern.

Need for protection of forestry (forest conservation)

Forests comprise a unique gift of nature to man and constitute one of the priced assets of

a nation. They play a significant role in the national economy of a primary agriculture and a

developing country like India. The agriculture and industrial progress of the country is not only

stabilized but accelerated by a proper conservation and utilisation of forest resource. The use of

forests, both direct and indirect, are so large that they are aptly termed as an index of prosperity

of a nation. Keeping in view the benefits which we derive from the forests, it is of utmost

importance that strong steps should be taken to conserve forests.



Forest conservation does not mean the denial of use, but rather the proper use without

causing any adverse effect on our economy or environment. But any scheme of conservation of

forests on a piecemeal basis will not solve the problem. Conservation of forests is a national

problem and should be tackled as such. There should be perfect coordination between the forest

department and other departments for an effective conservation of forests. People's participation

in any forest conservation is of vital importance. Van Mahotsav was launched in 1950 to make

people aware of the importance of planting trees. Chipko movement is a living example of

general public awareness about forests.

Chipko Movement was started by Sh Sunderlal Bahuguna in Theri Garhwal district of

Uttarakhand in 1973 against ruthless feeling of trees and destruction of forest by contractors. The

name 'Chipko movement' comes from the word embrace as villagers hugged the trees and

prevented contactors from felling them.

Forest have to be developed and worked for obtaining various raw materials and for

providing and effective means of flood control, soil erosion, for regulating the flow of water in

streams and for conserving moisture in the soil. Therefore, a carefully coordinated scientific

policy for conservation of forest should be the first step in any scheme of national planning of

the country.

While contribution of forests to the nation's economy, apart from their vital role in

environment, can never be underestimated, the investment in forestry sector has been rather low.

At present the total investment in Forestry is about 800 crore against the required investment of

about 3000 crore. This is too small and investment and unless it is increased, it will not be

possible to ensure sustainable supply of goods and services for the huge sector of population

dependent on forests.

We have failed to realise the fact that destruction of forests is an irreversible process. The

rate of afforestation has been barely crawled to the 2 million hectarr mark, falling short to the

target set by the National Wasteland Development Board of at least 3.5 million hectare mark

every year till 2010.

The forest (conservation) act 1980 enacted to check i discriminate deforestation or

diversion of forest lands was amended in 1988 to make it more stringent by proscribing

punishment for violations. Guidelines have been prepared for working plans. Some silent

features are

i) Working plans should be up to date and stress conservation.

ii) Preliminary working plan should be multi disciplinary approach.



iii) Tribal rights and concessions should be highlighted along with control mechanism.

iv) Grazing should be studied in detail and specific prescriptions should cover fodder

propagation.

v) Shifting cultivation and encroachments need to be controlled.

vi) Clear feeling with artificial regeneration should be avoided as far as possible and

clear feeling blocks should not exceed 10 hectares in hills and 25 actors areas in

planes.

vii) Banning all felling about 1000 metre altitude a few years should be considered to

allow those areas to recover.

The further welfare and prosperity of India would very much depend upon our ability, effort

and success in conserving, developing and proper utilisation of our forest resources. It is,

therefore, high time that the nation as a whole awakens to this burning problem for the sake of a

better future.

Steps to conserve forests

Based on the forest Conservation Policy the following steps were initiated

1. Social forestry

The term social forestry was used for the first time, by the national commission on

agriculture in 1976, to denote tree raising programmes to supply firewood, small timber and

minor forest produce to rural population.

2. Urban forestry

Urban forestry is concerned with the raising and management of trees on public and privately

owned lands in and around urban centres such as green belts, etc.

3. Rural forestry

Rural Forestry lays emphasis on promotion of agro forestry and community forestry.



4. Agro-forestry

Agro forestry is the raising of trees and agricultural crops on the same land of the waste

patches. It combined forestry with the agriculture, thus altering the simultaneous production of

food, fodder, fuel, Timber and fruit. This involves the raising of trees on public or community

land touches such as the village pasture and temple, roadside , canal bank, strips along railway

lines, and schools etc

5.Community Forestry program

It aims at providing benefits to the community as a whole. Community Forestry provides

a mean under which the people of landless classes can associate themselves in tree racing and

thus, get those benefits which otherwise are restricted for landowners.

5. Farm forestry

Under farm forestry farmers grow trees for commercial and non commercial purposes of

their farm lands.

Forest departments of various States distribute seedling of trees free of cost to small and

medium farmers. Several lands such as the margins of agricultural fields, grasslands and

pastures, land around homes and cow sheds may be used for raising trees under non commercial

farm forestry.



Unit - 4

India - Minerals and Mining

Mineral

A mineral is a natural substance of organic or inorganic origin with definite chemical and

physical properties.

The occurrence of minerals

The extraction of minerals from the ground is a complex and costly process. It involves a

great deal of technological knowledge and proper understanding of the nature and mode of

occurrence of various mineral areas. Coal is found in form of coal seams and while petroleum is

also available in the liquid state below the surface of the earth. Metallic minerals may occur in

native or almost pure form in veins, or may be mixed with other materials in which case the

metals as a whole is called an ore.

Minerals and mining

Minerals are closely associated with mining. Mining and quarrying covers underground

and surface mines, quarries and wells and includes extraction of minerals and also all

supplemental activities such as dressing and beneficiation of ores and other crude materials, like

crushing, screening, washing, cleaning, grading and several other preparations carried out at the

mine site, which are needed to render material marketable. Open cast mining and underground

mining are two chief mining methods of mining practiced in India.

1. Open cast mining

This is the easiest and the cheapest way of mining those minerals which occur close to the

surface. This simply involves the removal of the overburden, that is the earth or other rock bands

laying above the mineral bearing strata, and extraction of the ore in successive layers and until

the mineral content becomes too small or the pit becomes too deep for economic mining. The

overhead costs, such as safety, precautions and equipment are relatively low in this type of

mining and output is both large and rapid. It is also used for quarrying rocks such as limestone,

gravels, rocks and clay for bricks.



2. Underground mining

This method is used for those minerals which are found at greater depth below the earth's

surface, because in such a situation, the overburden is too thick to be removed by mechanical

shovels. This is a much costly and cumbersome method and is used only for those minerals

which are capable of providing good returns.

Types of minerals

Normally two types of minerals are recognized

1. Metallic minerals

2. Non metallic minerals

Minerals

Metallic Mineral Non – Metallic Mineral

Ferrous Non-Ferrous Inorganic or Organic or

(E.g. Iron, (E.g. Copper, other Non-Metallic Fuel Mineral

Manganese etc) Bauxite etc) (E.g. Mica, Limestone (E.g.Coal, Petroleum

Graphite etc.) Natural gas etc)

1. Metallic minerals

These minerals contain metal, iron ore, copper, manganese, nickel etc are important

examples of metallic minerals.

Metallic minerals are further subdivided into ferrous and nonferrous minerals

A) Ferrous minerals

These minerals have iron content. Iron ore, manganese, tungsten, nickel, cobalt etc are

important examples of minerals.



B) Non ferrous minerals

These minerals do not have iron content. gold, silver, copper, lead, bauxite, tin,

magnesium etc are important examples of non ferrous minerals.

2. Non metallic minerals

These minerals do not contain metal. These minerals can either be organic or inorganic.

A) Organic minerals

These minerals contain organic matter. Fossil fuels also known as mineral fuels are

derived from the buried animal and plant life such as coal and petroleum.

B) Inorganic minerals

They do not contain organic matter. Mica, limestone, graphite, gypsum etc are examples

of inorganic minerals.

Distinction between metallic and non-metallic minerals

Metallic minerals Non-Metallic minerals

i)The metallic minerals are those which

provide metals on melting, e.g., iron, Bauxite,

Tin, Manganese, Copper etc.

i)Non – metallic minerals are minerals which

do not contain metals

ii)They are usually hard and have shine ii)They have lustre of their own.

iii)They are generally found in igneous rocks. iii)They are mostly found in sedimentary

rocks.

iv)When hit, they do not break. iv)When hit, they get broken in to pieces.

v)They are ductile and malleable. v)They are not ductile and malleable.

Distinction between Ferrous and non-ferrous minerals

Ferrous Minerals Non - Ferrous Minerals

i)Minerals have iron contents and used in iron

and steel industry are called ferrous minerals.

i)Minerals having no iron content like gold,

copper, nickel, lead, etc., are called non-ferrous

minerals.

ii)They are greyish in colour and form basis of

machinery.

ii)They have different colours and are

important for economic growth.

iii)They are ductile and malleable. iii)They are found in all types of rocks.



Characteristics of minerals

Minerals have following three distinct characteristics

i) Minerals are unevenly distributed over space

ii) There is inverse relationship in quality and quantity of minerals minerals i.e. good quality

minerals are less in quantity as compared to low quality minerals.

iii) Minerals are exhaustible resources i.e. once used they are lost for ever. These take long time

to develop geologically and they cannot be replenished immediately at the time of need. Thus,

they have to be conserved and not misused as they do not have the second crop.

Mining a robbery industry

Unlike agriculture, forestry, fishing etc. where the natural resource are renewable can be

used again and again, mining is a robber industry, and they are lost forever and can never be

replenished. Man may apply the latest techniques of mining at greater depths and may extract

every bit of valuable ore, or may continually prospect new areas to find hitherto unexploited

minerals, but he can never increase or replace minerals that are mined. The process of mineral

formation is extremely slow and does not have much relevance to the speed of mineral

extraction. Thus, all the minerals are finite and are declining resources. A day may come when

the whole of mineral resources are exhausted and the entire mankind maybe deprived of any

mineral.

Mineral wealth of India

India is endowed with a rich variety of minerals. Large size and diverse geological

formations have flavored India in providing a wide variety of minerals. According to Meher D

N Wadia, "the mineral wealth of India, though by no means inexhaustible, is varied enough to

provide for second economic and industrial development of the country but has at the same time,

certain importance deficiencies. It has been estimated that nearly 100 minerals are known to be

produced or worked in India, of which nearly 30 may be considered more important including

several which although comparatively unimportant in quantity today are capable of material

development in future with expansion of industries. The country has fairly abundant reserves of

coal, iron and mica, adequate supplies of manganese ore, titanium and aluminium, raw materials

for refractories and limestone, but there is a deficiency inverse ores of copper, lead and zinc.

There are workable deposits on tin and nickel. "Indian earns a lot of foreign exchange by

exporting a large variety of minerals such as iron ore, titanium, manganese, bauxite, granite and

a host of other minerals. At the same time India has to depend upon imports to meet her



requirements of some another minerals such as copper, silver, nickel, cobalt, zinc, lead, tin,

mercury, limestone, platinum, granite and so many other minerals.

There are 3,108 mines in India, out of which 570 are fuel (coal and lignite) mines, 563

metallic mineral mines and 1,957 non-metallic mineral mines. The mineral sector employs over

eight lakh persons and accounts for 11.5% of country's industrial output and nearly three percent

of the gross domestic product (GDP). It is the mining sector that provides the muscle for the

industrial development of a country. Though mining and mineral extraction had been in vogue

for several centuries in India, the real development occurred after independence only. The

liberalisation policy of the government in 1991 gave importance to mining, along with other

economic activities. Then new national mineral policy, announced in 1993 has conceded the of

the demands of the private sector.

Distribution of minerals and mineral belts

The most striking feature of the Indian minerals is their uneven distribution. Some areas

are very rich in minerals where some others are completely divoid of this valuable asset. This has

resulted in the emergence of different mineral belts which are briefly described as under

1. The north eastern peninsular belt

This belt comprising of Chota Nagpur Plateau and Orissa plateau in the state of

Jharkhand, West Bengal and Orissa is the richest mineral belt of India. It contains large

quantities of coal, iron ore, manganese, mica, bauxite, copper, kyanite, chromite, apatite and

many more minerals. In fact for any major minerals of India and you will find it in this belt.

Thus, it is a mineral region par excellence. The chota Nagar plateau is known as the mineral

heartland of India. According to Kadia, this region processes India's 100% kyanite, 93% iron ore,

84% coal, 70% chromite, 70% of mica, 50% fireclay, 45% asbestos, 45% china clay, 20%

limestone and 10% manganese. However, many changes have taken place in the recent years.

2. Central belt

This belt encompassing parts of Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and

Maharashtra is the second largest mineral belt of India. Large deposits of manganese, bauxite,

limestone, marble, coal, gems, mica, iron ore, graphite etc are available here. A comprehensive

geological survey is still needed to know about the mineral wealth of this belt.



3. The southern belt

It covers mostly the Karnataka plateau but extends over the contiguous Tamilnadu

upland. It is more or less similar to the north eastern Peninsular belt, as far as deposits of ferrous

minerals and bauxite are concerned but it lacks coal deposits excepting lignite at Neyveli. It also

does not have mica and copper deposits. Therefore, its mineral diversity is not as pronounced as

that of the north eastern Peninsula belt.

4. The South Western belt

Southern Karnataka and Goa are included in the belt. It has deposits of iron ore, granite

and clay.

5. The North Western belt

The belt extends along the aravallis in Rajasthan and in adjoining parts of Gujarat. This

belt has developed recently and is gradually becoming a productive region, holding great

promise for mining of non ferrous metals(copper, lead, zinc), uranium, mica, stellite, beryllium

and precious stones(aquamarine and emerald). Gujarat is fast becoming an important producer of

petroleum, besides producing gypsum, manganese, salt,bauxite etc.

Other side the main belts described above, minerals in some other parts of the country are

scattered here and there, Assam has reserves of petroleum and lignite. The Himalayan region has

some deposits of coal, bauxite, copper, slate etc. Mumbai high and Godavari basin has reserves

of oil and natural gas.

With the advancement of technology, even the sea bed is being exploited for minerals.

These are great possibilities of obtaining large quantities of oil and natural gas, uranium,

manganese, copper, zinc, lead and so many other minerals from the sea bed.

Use of minerals

Man has been using minerals since Pre-historic times. In fact mining is one of the oldest

occupations of man. The importance of minerals in human civilization is reflected from the fact

that many stages in the history of economic development are named after minerals used in those

days. The first mineral used by man was stone to make tools and weapons. This is known as

'stone age'. Soon man learnt technique of smelting metals and the first mineral smelt was bronze.

This brought about 'bronze age' and 'copper age'. Then came to 'Iron Age'. This was followed by

coal, petroleum and nuclear age. These are major sources of energy in the present day world.



Use of minerals has increased considerably all over the world with the passage of time.

The industrial revolution which took place in England, mainly in years 1780 to 1820 , soon

spread all over the world and enhanced the utility of minerals. The technical advancement,

population explosion and man's increasing needs with rise in living standards have enabled man

to use minerals more extensively and effectively. It is estimated that the use of minerals

increased 13 times in the 20th century and the rate of increase in use of minerals has accelerated

in the 21st century.

Today, minerals from a valuable asset in the natural resources of any country. The

richness and standard of living of the people of the country is measured by the amount of

richness of its mineral resources and the style in which these minerals are utilised by the people.

Minerals form the backbone of industrial development of a country. Most of the industrially

developed countries have plenty of minerals resources and their disposal. Some of the countries

do not have enough minerals but they have advanced Industries. Japan is one such nation. This

country heavily depend on imports of large number of minerals to feed its Industries. Even

within a country like India, minerals have to be transported to factory site from the mines so that

industrial run smoothly. For example, Tata Iron and Steel company (TISCO) at Jamshedpur in

Jharkhand gets iron from Gurumahisani mines of Mayurbhanj in Orissa, coal from Jharia and

Raniganj, manganese from jode mines of Kendujhar district in odisha and dolomite, limestone

and fireclay from Sundargarh district of Odisha.

Not only Industries, other activities of man are also dependent on minerals. For example,

agricultural makes use of fertilizer and pesticides which depend on minerals like potassium,

nitrogen, phosphate etc. Most of the form implements are made of iron which is based on iron

ore and several other minerals.

Transport and communication also use a large variety of implements, most of which

depend on mineral based industries.

Main minerals of India

Nature has blessed India with a large variety of minerals, some of which are essential for

the economic growth of the country. Important minerals are briefly described below.

Iron ore

Iron ore is the backbone of modern civilization. It is the foundation of our basic industry.

Today, iron ore is used all over the world. The standard of living of the people of a country is

judged by the consumption of iron. Iron is taken out from the mines in the form of iron-ore



which contains varying percentage of iron. Accordingly, there are different varieties of iron ore.

Four major varieties of iron ore are briefly described below:

1. Magnetite

This is the best quality of ore and contains 72% pure iron. It possesses magnetic property

and it is called magnetite. It is found in Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Goa, Kerala, Tamilnadu and

Karnataka.

2. Haematite

It contains 60% or 70% pure iron and is found in Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Orissa,

Chhattisgarh Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Rajasthan.

3. Limonate

It contains 40% to 60% pure iron. It is of yellow or light brown colour.

4. Siderite

It is inferior ore and contains many impurities. It has just 40 to 50% pure iron.

Production and distribution

The total recoverable reserves of hematite iron ore in India about 17,882 million tonnes

of haematite. Hematite Ore mainly occurs in Odisha 5,930 million tonnes (33%), Jharkand 4,597

million tonnes (26%), Chhattisgarh 3,292 million tonnes (18%),Karnataka 2,159 million

tonnes(12%) and Goa 927 million tonnes(5%). The balance resources of haematite are spread in

Andhra pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, Rajasthan and Uttar

Pradesh.

Reserves of magnetite iron ore estimated at 10,644 million tonnes.India's 97% magnetite

reserves are located in four states Karnataka 7,802 million tonnes(73%), followed by Andhra

Pradesh 1464 million tonnes(14%), Rajasthan 527 million tonnes and Tamilnadu 507 million

tonnes (5% each). Assam, Bihar, Goa Jharkhand, Kerala, Maharashtra, Meghalaya and nagaland

together account for the remaining 3% resources.

India produced about 1,67,289 thousand tonnes of iron ore in 2015-16. Orissa is the

largest producer accounting for over 40% of the total production.



Manganese

It is an important mineral which is used for making iron and steel and it acts as a basic

raw material for manufacturing its alloy. Nearly 10 kilograms of manganese is required to

manufacturing one tonne of steel. It is also used for the manufacture of bleaching powder,

insecticides, paints, batteries and china clay.

The total resources of manganese ore are placed at 430 million tonnes. Statewise, Odisha

tops the total resources with 44% share followed by Karnataka 22%, Madhya Pradesh 13%,

Maharashtra 8%, Andhra Pradesh 4% and Jharkhand and Goa 3 % each. Rajasthan, Gujarat and

West Bengal together share the remaining about 3% resources.

Mica

Mica has been used in India since ancient times as a medical in Ayurveda and is known

as 'abhrak' . With the development of electrical industry, mica found new vistas of use. Its

insulating properties have made it is a valuable mineral in electrical and electronic industry. It

can withstand high voltage and has low power loss factor. The three major types of Mica found

in India are muscovite, phlogopite and biotite.

The total reserves of mica in India are estimated to be 5,32,237 tonnes Andhra Pradesh

leads with 41% share of country's total resources followed by Rajasthan 21%, Odisha 15%,

Bihar 2% and balance less than 1% in Jharkhand.

India has monopoly in the production of mica, producing about 60% of the world's Total

production. Earlier, there was no substitute for Mica. Now materials like plastics and synthetic

have been developed which can be used as substitute for mica.

Bauxite

Bauxite is the raw material for making aluminium. It is not a specific mineral but a rock

consisting mainly of hydrated aluminium oxides. It is clay like substance which is pinkish,

whitish or reddish in colour depending on the amount of iron content.

Total resources of bauxite are placed at 3,480 million tonnes. Odisha alone accounts for

52% of country's resources. This is followed by Andhra Pradesh 18%, Gujarat 7%, Chhattisgarh

and Maharashtra 5% each. Major bauxite resources are concentrated in the east coast bauxite

deposits in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.



Power resources

Power or energy is the primary input in the production of goods and services. The Wheels

of progress move with the flow of energy. One of the critical elements in raising the standard of

living of a country's population is the provision of affordable and reliable energy services in

sufficient quantity. More regular and ample is the availability of energy, more even will be the

path to economic prosperity. The role of energy has significantly increased with the increase in

industrialization and urbanization in the present day society. From its early role, which was

confined to kitchen as a fuel for household cooking, energy is now a major input in sectors such

as industry, commerce, transport and telecommunications, besides the wide range of services

required in household sector.

Depending upon its source and utilisation, energy can be divided into two broad classes:

1. Non renewable energy

2. Renewable energy

1. Non renewable energy resources

Non renewable are those energy resources which once used cannot be easily replenished.

They are exhausted quickly and are also known as exhaustable energy sources. But their

formation takes place millions of years. Coal, Petroleum and natural gas are good examples of

non renewable energy resources.

2. Renewable energy resources

Renewable energy resources are those resources which can be renewed or replenished by

physical, mechanical or chemical processes. They are known as inexhaustable energy resources.

Solar energy, wind energy, wave energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy, hydroelectricity etc

are some of the outstanding examples of renewable energy resources.

Energy may also be classified as conventional and non-conventional depending upon its

nature. Coal, petroleum, natura gas and electricity are the main sources of conventional energy.

While solar, wind, tidal, , geothermal energy and biogas etc. are some of the outstanding

examples of non-conventional energy.



Conventional sources of energy

As mentioned Coal, Petroleum, natural gas and electricity are conventional sources of

energy. A brief description of their production, distribution and consumption is as below

Coal

Coal is an inflammable organic substance, composed mainly of hydrocarbons, found in

the form of sedimentary rocks and capable of being used as fuel to supply heat or light or both. It

also contains volatile matter, moisture and ash in varying proportions.Combustible matter in coal

consists of carbon and hydrogen.

Coal was, is and will continue to be the mainstay of power generation in india. It

constitutes about 60% of total commercial energy consumed in the country. The power sector

and industries account for 94% of total consumption. Manufacturing of iron and steel and a

variety of chemicals largely depend upon the availability of coal. Due to its high utility as a

source of energy and as a raw material for a large number of industries, it is often called 'black

gold'. A recent study conducted by energy experts shows that the world coal reserves are six

times the known reserves of oil and coal has been described as the bridge into the future.

Origin of coal

Coal has originated from the organic matter wood. Large tracts of forest lands were

buried under the sediment in the geological past i.e. carboniferous age. Wood was burnt and

decomposed due to the heat from below and brothers from above. During the process of

decomposition of wood, the hydrogen originates in the form of methane and water, the oxygen in

the form of carbon dioxide and water. During the process of change from wood to coal, the

amount of oxygen and nitrogen decreases and the proportion of carbon increases. The capacity of

coal to give energy depends upon the percentage of carbon contained in it. The percentage of

carbon in coal depends upon the duration and intensity of heat and pressure on wood.

Varieties of coal

Depending upon its grade from highest to lowest, following four varieties of coal are

generally recognized.

1. Anthracite coal

This is the best quality of coal and contains over 80% carbon. It is very hard, compact, Jet

black coal having semi metallic lustre. It lignites slowly and burns with a nice short blue flame.



It has the highest heating value and is the most prized among all the varieties of coal. In India, it

is found only in Jammu and Kashmir and that too in small quantity.

2. Bituminous coal

This is the most widely used coal and contains 60 to 80% carbon. It is dense, compact,

brittle and is usually of black colour. A good bituminous coal is composed of alternate dull and

bright bands. It does not have traces of original vegetable material from which it has been

formed. Its calorific value is very high due to high proportion of carbon and low moisture

content. By virtue of this quality, bituminous coal is used not only for steam raising and heating

purposes but also for production of coke and gas. Most of this bituminous coal is found in

Jharkhand, odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh.

3. Lignite

Also known as brown coal, ligmite it is a lower grade coal and contains about 60%

carbon. It represents the intermediate stage in the alteration of woody matter into coal. It's colour

varies from dark to black brown. It is friable and pyritious and contains a good deal of moisture

and less of combustible matter. These qualities make it liable to disintegrate on exposure and

even to spontaneous combusion. It is found in Palna of Rajasthan, Neveli of Tamilnadu,

lakhimpur of Assam and Karewa of Jammu and Kashmir.

4. Peat

This is the first stage of transformation of wood into coal and contains 50 to 60% carbon.

It is a seldom sufficiently compact to make a good fuel without compressing into bricks. Left to

itself, it burns like wood gives less heat, emits more smoke and leaves a lot of ash after burning.

Occurrence of coal in India

The coal bearing strata of India are geologically classified into two main categories

Gondwana coal fields and Tertiary coal fields.

a) Gondwana coal

The Gondwana coal contributes overwhelming large proportion of both the reserves and

production of coal, accounting for 98% of the total reserves and 99% of the production of coal in

India. They are the store house of India metallurgical as well as superior quality of coal. The

Gondwana coal deposits occur down in the vallys of certain rivers the Damodar (Jharkhand-

West Bengal) ,the Mahanandi (Chhattisgar-Odisha) the Son(Madhya Pradesh-Bihar) the



Godavari and Wardha (Maharashtra-Andhra Pradesh) the indravati, the narmada, the panch and

many more.The Gondwana coal is said to be about 250 millions years ago.

b) Tertiary coal

The territory rock system bears coals of younger age from 15 to 60 million years and are

mainly confined to the extra Peninsula. This coal generally has low carbon and high percentage

of moisture and sulphur. Important areas of tertiary coal include parts of Assam, Meghalaya,

Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Himalayan foot Hills of Darjeeling in West Bengal, Jammu and

Kashmir, Rajasthan, Kerala Tamilnadu and the union territory of Pondicherry.

Production and distribution

As a result of exploration carried out down to death of 1200 metres by the geological

survey of India and other agencies, a cumulative total of 301.56 billion tonnes of coal reserves

have been estimated in the country as on 1 April, 2014 out of which nearly one third are in and

one fourth are in Orissa infact Jharkhand and one fourth are in Orissa. In fact Jarigindi, Odisha,

West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh account for over 90% of India's coal reserves.

There are been considerable increase in the production of coal in India since

Independence. The total production of coal in 1950-51 was 350 lakh tonnes which increased to

63,025 lakh tonnes in 2015-16.

Chhattisgarh (21%), Jharkhand (20%), Orissa (19%), Madhya Pradesh (13%), Andhra

Pradesh and Telangana (10%), Maharashtra (7%), West Bengal (4%) and Uttar Pradesh (3%) are

the main producers.

Singareni coal mines

Singareni is a village located in Khammam district of Telangana. The area surrounding

this village has huge coal reserves and is known as Singareni Coal Mines. These coal mines have

the largest coal reserves in South India. These coal fields are shared by Telangana and Andhra

Pradesh because some parts of Singareni Coal Mines fall in Andhra Pradesh. Singareni

Collieries Co Limited. plans to invest 10,360 crores in 12th plan period(2012-17) to increase coal

production, open new mines and build a 1200 megawatt (MW) coal based power plant in

Telangana Adilabad district. The Singareni Colleries Company Limited was founded in 1920

with its headquarters at kothagudam in Telangana. One of the public sector undertakings, the

company is owned by the Telangana Government (51%) and the union government (49%). The

Singareni Coal Company which is involved in coal extraction in Telangana, in the Pranahita-

Godavari Valley region, which has significant coal reserves with proven geological reserves



estimated at 8,791 million tonnes. Ramagundam is one of the important operating areas of

Singareni collieries. Sigareni Collieries Company Limited (SCCL) achieved a total coal

production of 52.53 million tonnes in 2014-15 an increase of 4% over 2013-14 production.

Singareni supply coal to thermal power plants for supplying power to power starved state of

Telangana. The company will spend 5,276 crore to expand its coal mining business.

Barytes

Barytes is white or colourless mineral which is the main source barium. It is compound of

Barium Sulfate. The high specific gravity of barite makes it suitable for a wide range of

industrial, medical and manufacturing user. It often occurs as concretions and viod feelings

crystals in sediments and sedimentary rocks. It is especially common as concretions and vein

feeling in limestone and dolostone. Where these carbonate rock units have been heavily

weathered, large accumulations of barite are sometimes found at the soil bedrock contact. Barite

is also found as concretions in sand and sandstone. These concentration grow as barite

crystallizers within the interstitial spaces between sand grains. Sometimes crystals of barite

grow into interesting shapes within the sand. These structures are known as 'brite roses'.

Occasionally barite is also abundant in a sandstone that it serves as the 'cement' for the rock. It is

also common mineral in hydrothermal veins and is a gangue mineral associated with sulfide ore

veins. It is found in association with ores of antimony, cobalt, copper, lead manganese and silver.

In a few locations barite is deposited as a sinter at hot springs.

Use of barite

Barite is the main ore of the element barium. It is also important in manufacturing paper

and rubber. Barite is also used in Radiology in X rays of the digestive system. When crushed, it

is added to mud to form barium mud which is poured into oil wells during drilling. The oil and

gas industry is the primary user of barite worldwide. About 80% worldwide is used as a

weighing agent for the drilling fluids in oil and gas exploration. Other uses include electronics,

TV screens, rubber, glass, ceramics, paint industry, radiation shielding and medical applications.

Mangampet Barties

Mangampeta is a village in Cuddapah district of Andhra Pradesh. It is famous all over

India for its rich deposits of Barites. With about 74 million tonnes of deposits, it is considered to

be the largest deposit. It accounts for 98% of the known Indian reserves and 25% of the known

world reserves. Andhra Pradesh Mineral Development Corporation Limited (APMDC) is the

sole producer in public sector, which accounts for about 98% of the total production. The total

production of barytes was 1,739 thousand tonnes in 2012-13, most of which come from

Mangampeta Barytes. Very nominal production was reported from Rajasthan.



Unit - 5

India - Water Resources

Rivers of India

India is blessed with hundred of large and small rivers which drain the length and breadth

of the country. The rivers constitute and Important natural resource and from the lifelines of the

Indian masses. The drainage pattern of India is influenced by the relief of land.

The drainage systems of India

On the basis of origin, two broad drainage systems of India at generally recognised

1.The Himalayan rivers

2.The peninsular rivers

1. The Himalayan rivers

The rivers originating from the Himalayas consists of the following three system:

i)The Indus drainage system

ii)The Ganga drainage system

iii)The Brahmaputra drainage system

iv)Indus drainage system

This system comprises of the Indus river and its five main tributaries of the Jhelum, the

Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Sutluj.

The Indus

The Indus river in Tibet at an altitude of 5,180 metres near Manasarowar lake. It flows

west and north-westwards and enters Indian territory in Jammu and Kashmir. The river forming

a speculator gorge is this reach pierces the Kailash range several times. It flows through Ladakh,

Baltistan and Gilgit to finally emerge out of the hills at Attock. The Indus flows south-westwards



across Pakistan to reach Arabian Sea East to Karachi. With a total length of 2,880 kilometres, the

Indus is considered as one of the largest rivers of the world. It has a catchment area of 11,65,000

square kilometres of which is as much as 3,21,290 square kilometres lies within India. India can,

however utilise only a total 4,195 million cubic metres (only 20%) out of its total discharge

under the regulations of the Indus water Treaty signed with Pakistan.

The Jhelum

It rises in a spring at Vrrinag situated in the South-eastern part of the valley of Kashmir.

It flows northwards from its source of Wular lake and further down South-west wards until it

enters a gorge cut by this river in the Pir Panjal range. It turns to the northwest below Uri and to

the south below Muzaffarabad and continues until Mangla is reached. Between Muzaffarabad

and Mangla, it runs roughly along the Indo-Pakistan border. It joins the Chenab near Jhang in

Pakistan.

The Chenab

The Chenab of Jammu and Kashmir state is known as Chandrabhaga in Himachal

Pradesh. Chandrabhaga flows north westwards and runs parallel to the Pir Panjal range for some

distance. Near Kishtwar, it cuts a deep gorge in the Pir Panjal range and turns Southwestwards

and flows in this direction for short distance. Further down, it turns to the west and enters the

plain area near Akhnur.

The Ravi

The sourse of this river lies near the Rohtang pass. It flows to the Northwest from its

place of origin and drains the area lying between the south eastern part of the Pir Panjal range

and the Dhaoladhar range. Some distance below Chamba, it turns to the Southwest cuts a gorge

in the Dhauladhar range and enters the Punjab plain near Madhopur. It brings a part of Indo

Pakistan boundry, the river has some strategic significance. It joins the Chenab near Multan in

Pakistan. It total length is 720 km.

The Beas

It originates from a place known as Beas Kund, near the Rohtang Pass. In its early stage,

it runs from north to south pass Manali and Kulu where it valley is popularly known as the Kulu

Valley. It crosses the Dhaoladhar range through a deep gorge. Further down, it turns to the west

and enters the Punjab plain near Talwara. After entering the plain, it turns to the south-west and

joins the Satluj near Harika after flowing for distance of 615km.



The Satluj

It originates from Rakas lake which is situated at an altitude of 4,630 metres in Tibet.

This lake is connected with Manasarowar Lake by a stream. It follows nouthwest wards and

enters Himachal Pradesh at the Shipki La Pass. Further down, it flows towards westwards. It cuts

deep gorged where it pierces the Himalayan ranges. Before entering the Punjab Plains, it cuts a

deep gorge where Bhakhra Dam has been constructed. Below Roopnagar, it takes to the west.

Beas, its right bank tributary, joins it at Batike. Its length 1,440 kms. During its onward journey

it receives the collective water of the Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum rivers and joins the Indus a few

kilometres above Mithankot in Pakistan.

ii)The Ganga drainage system

This river system includes the Ganga and its tributaries like the Yamuna, the Gomti, the

Ghaghara, the Gandak, the Ram Ganga, the Mahaganga and the Kosi etc. All these rivers

originate in the Himalayas.

The Ganga

The Ganga rises in Garhwal Himalayas in Uttarakhand at an altitude of 6,600 metres. The

river acquires its name after the head stramms-Alakananda and Bhagirathi unite at Devaprayag.

Flowing west south westwards the Ganga debouches from the hills near Haridwar. The total

length of the Ganga is 2,525 kms, out of 2,415 kms in India. Rest of the Ganga measuring 110

km is in Bangladesh. The total area of Ganga basin in India alone 8,61,404 square kilometres.

Beyond Farakka, it flows east south east ward into Bangladesh where it is known as

Padma. Before falling into Bay of Bengal, the Padma, receives the Brahmaputra which is known

as Jamuna and Maghna here.

The Yamuna

It is the right bank tributary of the Ganga and it takes its rise at the Yamunotri Glacier at

3,965 m. After cutting in deep gorge across the Lesser Himalaya, it flows towards the southwest

and enters the Ganga plain near Tajewala. It flows towards the south up to Agra and further

down in the south east direction till it joins the Ganga at Allahabad. The length of Yamuna from

its source to Allahabad is about 1,375 kms.



The Ghaghara

The Ghaghara's head water is the Karnali. It is of trans Himalayan origin and crosses the

western part of the Nepal Himalayas through deep and narrow gorges. It joins the Ganga near

Chhapra. It often shifts its courses.

The Gandak

It rises near Sino Nepal boundary and drains the central part of Nepal. After entering

Champaran district of Bihar, it turns to the south east and joints the left bank of the Ganga at

Sonpur. Like the Ghaghara it often changes its course and it notorious for its floods.

The Kosi

It drains eastern Nepal and enters Saharsa district of Bihar in numerous channels. The

river is notorious for shifting its courses, depositing silt and causing floods. It joins the left bank

of the Ganga at Karagola.

iii) The Brahmaputra drainage system

It originates from chemayungdung Glacier located about 100 kms Southeast of

Manasarovar Lake. It runs for about a distance of about 1,250 kilometres in the north of

Himalayas in a direction parallel to it. It is known as Tsang PO in Tibet. It takes a southward turn

near Namcha Barwa and enter Arunachal Pradesh as the Dihang river. It flows in a westerly

direction up to Dhubri. After this, it takes a southern turn and enters Bangladesh. There it joins

with Ganga and forms the world largest delta. Like the Indus, it is an example of antecedent

drainage. Its total length is 2,900 kms. Several tributaries join this river. Important right bank

tributaries are Sabansiri, Bharti, Manas and left hand tributaries are Dibang, Luhit, Buri Dihing

and Dhansiri. These tributaries bring a large quantity of water and the Brahmaputra channel

becomes 8 kilometre wide during rainy season. it causes frequent floods.

2.The peninsular rivers

The main rivers of the Peninsular plateau originate from the Western Ghats and flow in a

west east direction to join the Bay of Bengal. The important rivers are Mahanandi, the Godavari,

the Krishna and the Cauveri. The Narmada and thr Tapti are two exceptions which flow in rift

valleys in east west direction to join Gulf of Khambhat.



Rivers flowing in the Bay of Bengal

The Mahanandi

The Mahanandi has its source in the northern foothills of Dandakaranya near Sihawa in

Raipur district of Chhattisgarh and flows through Orissa to the Bay of Bengal. The drinage basin,

extending over 1,41,600 square kilometres is shared by Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,

Bihar and Maharashtra. The total length of the river is 857 kilometres. The Seonath, Hasdo,

Mand, and the Ib join the Mahanandi on the left Bank of the Jonk, Ung and Tel join it on the

right bank.

The Godavari

The Godavari is the largest of the peninsular rivers. It rises in the Nashik district of

Maharashtra and joins the Bay of Bengal in Andhra Pradesh. Its total length is 1,465 kilometres.

The drainage basin extends over 3,12,812 square kilometres. About 50% of its drainage basin

lies in Maharashtra. The remaining basin of this river is shared by Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka

and Andhra Pradesh. The Godavari is often referred to as Vridha Ganga or Dakshina Ganga

because of its large size and extent. Its principal tributaries include the Pravara, Purna, Manjra ,

Penganga,Wainganga, Wardha, Pranahita, Indravati, Maner and Sabari. Among them, the

Manjra, Penganga and the Wainganga are the largest and together account for 1,15,832

kilometres of the drainage basin.

The Krishna

The Krishna rises from a spring near Mahabaleshwar. Its total length is 1,400

kilometres. This is shared by Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Along with its main

tributaries, such as Koyana, Ghatapritha, Malapratha, Bhima, Tungabhadra, Musi and Muneru,

the Krishna drains an area of 2,58,948 square kilometres.

The Cauvery

Rising in the Brahmagir range of the Western Ghats, the Cauveri flows for 800

kilometres to join the Bay of Bengal near Kaveripatnam. It's drainage area of 87,900 square

kilometre is shared by Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The Cauvery river is distinctly

different from other peninsular rivers in the sense that it receives water throughout the year. In,

summer it receives water from the south-west monsoons from the Arabian sea and in winter, it

receives water from the retreating north-east monsoon. Thus it is perennial river. This river is

joined by the Lakshmanatirtha, Kabini, Suvarnavati, Bhawani and the Amaravati on the right

bank, and Herangi, Hemavathi, Shimsha and the Arkavati on the left bank.



The Subarnarekha and the Brahmani

The subarnarekha and the Brahmani, interposed between the Ganga and the Mahanadi

deltas, drain and area of 19,300 square kilometres and 39,033 square kilometres respectively.

The drainage basins of these streams are shared by Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal and

Chhattisgarh. The Brahmani is known as South Koel in its upper reaches in Jharkhand.

Rivers flowing in the Arabian Sea

The Narmada

It rises near Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh, flows westwards for a distance of 1,300

kms to finally empty itself in Arabian Sea below Broach. The drainage basin extends over

98,796 kilometres and is confined mostly to Madhya Pradesh. Only one tenth of the basin area

lies in Gujarat. The picturesque gorge of the Narmada in the marble rocks near Jabalpur in

Madhya Pradesh is quite well known. Another feature of the Narmada basin is the lack of

development of tributary streams.

The Tapi

The Tapi, rising in the Betul of Madhya Pradesh, flows westwards for 724 kilometres in a

trough basin more or less parallel to the Narmada. It is however, much smaller both in terms of

channel length and the catchment area. The basin area of the Tapi extends over 65,145 square

kilometres in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat. The Tapi is joined by the Purna,

Veghar, Girna, Bori and the Panjhra on the left bank and by Aner on the right bank.

The Sabarmati and the Mahi

The north western flank of the plateau is drained by the Sabarmati and the Mahi. The

Sabarmati rises in the Aravali Hills and flows south south west wards for a distance of 300 km to

the Arabian Sea. The Sabarmati basin extends over an area of 21,674 square kilometres in

Rajasthan and Gujarat. The Mahi rises in the east of Udaipur and drains an area of 34,842 square

kilometres lying in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. It flows south-west wards for a

distance of 533 km before it falls into the Gulf of Khambhat.

The Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa, the Ken and the Son

These rivers originate from the northern flank of the peninsular plateau and join the

Ganga river system in the northern plain.



The Chambal

Chambal rises near Mhow in the Vindhya range and flows towards the north generally in

a gorge upto Kota. Below Kota it turns to the north east direction and, after reaches Pinahat, it

turns to the east and runs nearly parallel to the Yamuna, before joining it in the southern part of

the Etawah district in Uttar Pradesh. The river flows much below its banks due to severe erosion

because of poor rainfall and numerous deep ravines have been formed in the Chambal valley

giving rise to badlands or badland topography. The term badland is applied to any such erosion

landscape, where a maze of ravines and valleys dissects plateau surfaces. It is 1,050 km long.

The Sind, the Betwa and the Ken flowing towards the north, have also cut deep gorges at

some places and like Chambal have carved out numerous ravines in the alluvial plain of the

Ganga.

The Son originates from Amarkantak plateau. After flowing for some distance to the

north, it meets the Kaimur range which turns its course towards the northeast. Almost all of its

tributaries join it on its right bank. It merges into the Ganga near Ramnagar. It is 780 kilometres

long.

Differences between the Himalayan and the Peninsular River Systems

The himalayan rivers are quite different from the rivers of the Peninsular India from the

point of view of the drainage features and hydrological characteristics. A brief account of the

differences between the Himalayan rivers and the Peninsular rivers is given below:

The Himalayan River Systems The Peninsular River Systems

1.Some of the longest rivers belong to the

Himalayan river system.

1.Peninsular rivers are not as long as the

Himalayan rivers.

2.The catchment areas and basins of the

Himalayan rivers are very large.

2.The catchment areas and basins of the

Peninsular rivers are of comparatively smaller

size.

3.Himalayan rivers are large in number. 3.Peninsular rivers are smaller in number.

4.The Himalayan rivers originate from the

snow covered areas and receive water from

rainfall as well from snow melt. Therefore

they are perennial.

4.The Peninsular rivers depend entirely upon

rain water and are seasonal.

5.The Himalayan rivers form deep gorges. 5.The Peninsular rivers flow in shallow

valleys.



6.The Himalayan rivers form river meanders

and often change their course.

6.The Peninsular rivers follow more or less

straight course and do not change their course.

7.These rivers are useful for irrigation and

navigation.

7.These rivers are not much suited for

irrigation and navigation.

8.These rivers flow across the young fold

mountains and are still in a youthful stage.

8.These rivers have been flowing in one of the

oldest plateaus of the world and have reached

maturity.

9.These rivers flow represent antecedent

drainage.

9.These rivers represent consequent drainage.

10.The Himalayan rivers form big delta's. The

Ganga-Brahmaputra delta is the largest in the

world.

10.The Peninsular rivers form comparatively

small delta's. Narmada and Tapi form

esturaries.

Water as an important natural resource

Water is an invaluable natural resource for us. It sustains life on the earth. There could be

no life had there been no water on the earth. In fact, earth is the only planet in the entire solar

system which supports life because it contains water. However, it is more useful. About 71

percent of the earth's surface is covered with oceanic water but fresh water constitutes only 3

percent of the total water. It is basic natural resource for human well being. We make use of

water for agriculture and industries. Water stored in reservoirs behind dams in supplied to

villages and cities. It is also used for irrigation and for production of hydroelectricity.

Navigation is another important use of water.

Demand for water is increasing rapidly with increase of population. As against this, the

supply of usable water is limited. Some areas have surplus water while other areas suffer from

shortage of water. The increasing shortage of water is creating tension and causing disputes

among nations, states, communities and regions, further, there are seasonal variations in the

availability of water. We receive plenty of water in the short rainy season and the remaining part

of the year particularly remains dry. Under such conditions, coordination between demand and

supply as well as between different sources of water resources is imperative.

Water resources of India

India occupies only 2.45 % of world's surface area is the home of about 17.5% of world's

population. As against this, India has only 4% of world's water resources. The total water

available from precipitation in the country in a year is about 4,000 cubic kilometres. The

availability from surface water and replenishable groundwater is 1,869 cubic kilometres. Out of



this, only 60% can be put two beneficial uses. Thus, the total utilisable water resource in the

country is only 1,122 cubic kilometres.

Surface water

Surface water is available to us in the form of rivers, lakes, tanks, ponds and other water

bodies. Rivers obtain water from rainfall or from snow melt. Rivers constitute the most

important source of surface water in India. Three major rivers of North India namely the Indus,

the Ganga and the Brahmaputra carry nearly 60% of the total surface water in India. It is worth

mentioning that the Brahmaputra and the Ganga are world's 8th and 10th largest rivers

respectively. The total flow of all rivers of India is about 6% of the discharge of all rivers in the

world.

The effective storage capacity built or under construction in India increased from an

insignificant 18 billion cubic metres at the time of independence to the current level of 147

billion cubic metres. It is 8.47 % of the total flow in this river basins.

Groundwater

As mentioned earlier, a part of rain water percolates in the ground through joints and

cracks in the rocks and is known as ground water. About 60% of the groundwater is confined to

the upper layers of the soil and is very useful for agriculture crops. The remaining water goes

deeper into the ground. This water is taken out by digging wells. The replenishable groundwater

potential in India is estimated at 433.9 billion cubic metres.

The distribution of groundwater is very uneven in India. It is affected by the structure of

rock, surface configuration and the amount of rainfall. The soft and permeable rocks of the

northern plain of India allow large quantities of water to percolate into the ground. Therefore,

this area is bestowed with vast groundwater resources. The entire land stretching from Punjab in

the west to the Brahmaputra valley in the east has large quantities of groundwater. The whole

plains so formed by depositional work of rivers originating in the Himalayan region and has soft

sediment and porous rocks. More than 42% of the potential is confined to states of the great

plains of North India. Uttar Pradesh alone accounts for 19 % of the estimated groundwater

potential.

The main use of groundwater is for irrigation which consumes about three fourths of the

total groundwater. The remaining one fourth is used for domestic, industrial related purposes.

There are large variations in development of groundwater at the state level mainly due to

climatic conditions. States and territories with less amount of rainfall and high rainfall



variability experiencing scarcity of surface water have developed their groundwater resources on

large scale.

Lagoons and backwaters

India has a very long coastline stretching over more than 6,000 kilometres. This coast is

very indented in some states like Kerala, Orissa and West Bengal where a large number of

lagoons and lakes have been formed. These lagoons and lakes provide vast surface water

resources. Although, water is generally brackish in these water bodies, it is used for fishing and

irrigating certain varieties of paddy, crops, coconut etc.

Water Demand and utilisation

India is basically an agricultural country where nearly two third of the total population

depends on agriculture. In order to increase agricultural production, we have to improve our

irrigation system. Therefore, high priority has been given to irrigation in Five Year Plans and

multipurpose river valley projects like the Bhakra-Nangal, Hirakud, Damodar Valley, Nagarjun

Sagar, Indira Gandhi Canal project etc has been taken up.

In 2002 the study shows that agriculture is the largest consumer of water. It accounts for

89% of the surface water and 92% of the groundwater utilisation. Domestic sector with 9%

utilisation in the second largest surface water while industrial sector with 5% utilisation is second

largest consumer of groundwater. However, share of agriculture in the total water consumption is

likely to reduce and that of domestic and industrial sector increase in future as the development

takes place.



Water scarcity

While water is a renewable resource, it is at the same time a finite resource. The total

quantity of water available on the globe is the same as it was thousands of years ago. It is

important to appreciate the fact that only 3% of world's water is fresh and roughly one third of it

is inassessible. The rest is very unevenly distributed and the available supplies are increasingly

contaminated with wastes and pollution from industry, agriculture and households.

Over the years, increasing population, growing industrialisation, expanding agriculture

and rising standards of living have pushed up the demand for water. Efforts have been made to

collect water by building dams and reservoirs and creating groundwater structures such as wells.

It is the human nature that we value things only when they are scare or in short supply.

As such we appreciate the value of water once the rivers, reservoirs , ponds wells etc run dry.

Our water resources have now entered an era of scarcity. It is estimated that 30 years from now,

approximately one third of our population will suffer from chronic water shortages.

The consequences of scarcity will be more drastic in the arid and semi-arid regions.

Water shortage will also be felt in rapidly growing coastal regions and in big cities. Several

cities are already, or will be, unable to cope with the demand of providing safe water and

sanitation facilities to their inhabitants.

Indicators of water stress and scarcity are generally used to reflect the overall water

availability in a country or a region. When the annual per capita of renewable fresh water in a

country or a region falls below 1,700 cubic metres, it is held to be situation of water stress. If the

availability is below 1,000 cubic metres, the situation is labelled as that of water scarcity. And

when the per capita availability falls below 500 cubic metres, it is said to be a situation of

absolute scarcity.

At the time of independence in 1947, the per capita availability of water in India was

6,008 cubic metres a year. It came down to 5,177 cubic metres in 1951 and to 1,820 cubic

metres in the year 2001. India has only 4% of world's water resources and it has to support 18%

of the worlds 10% of livestock. according to mid term appraisal after tenth plan availability of

water resources, and she has to support over 17% of world's population and over 15% of

livestock. According to mid term appraisal of the 10th plan, per capita availability of water is

likely to fall down to 1,340 cubic metres in 2025 and 1,140 cubic metres in 2050. The problem

of water storage is further complicated when we look at the areal distribution of water resources

with reference to population.



Interlinking the rivers

Although India has vast surface water resources, the same are very unevenly distributed

over time and space . While some river basins have vast catchment area and carry enormous

quantity of water, others are small and have comparatively small quantity of water. Most of the

Himalayan rivers are large and originate in the snow covered high altitude areas of the

Himalayan ranges. As such they carry sufficient water throughout the year and are called

perennial rivers. In contrast, the rivers of the peninsular India are seasonal. They carry no or

very little water in the dry summer season. During the rainy season, most of the rivers are

flooded and large part of water flows down the slope to the sea. Thus much of precious water is

wasted and is not available for use. Keeping these and many more problems in mind, the idea of

interlinking rivers through interbasin linkages or through national grid has been mooted. Some

of the important projects are briefly described as under.

The Ganga-Cauvery link canal

This project was prepared by the United Nations team at the request of Government of

India. It was proposed by the then irrigation minister Dr K.L Rao in 1950s. The project aimed at

reducing the impact of floods in the Ganga basin and supply water to central and eastern parts of

the country which suffer from chronic problem of water shortage. Water from Patna barrage will

be lifted by large pumps to a point near the boundary of the basins of Ganga and the Narmada

from where it will be distributed by gravity via dug up canals or through existing rivers to the

west or south. Flood waters of the Narmada and the Godavari could also be used. However , it

was pleaded that water from the Ganga for the inter-basin transfer could be drawn only during

four months of rainy season from July to October when the flow of water in the Ganga river

exceeds 2,850 cumecs.



The proposed Ganga-Cauveryi link Canal was to have been 2,640km long, withdrawing

60,000 cusecs. From the flood flows of the Ganga for about 150 days in the year, and would

have involved a list of a substantial part of water over 450 metres. It is also proposed to supply

about 300 cumecs of the Ganga water to different parts of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand,

Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh by pumping additional water during the lean season.

The scheme has been thoroughly examined and found impractical because of the huge

financial costs and very large energy requirements. Move over environmental issues put great

hindrances in the way of the project. However, the idea survives in the popular mind and comes

up whenever water scarcity is felt and conflicts begins acute.

The Brahmaputra-Ganga link canal

The Brahmaputra is a mighty river and carries a discharge of 3,500 to 5,000 cumecs even

during lean period of dry summer. This is because its catchment area receives heavy annual

rainfall. The amount of water flowing in this river is more than the requirements of the people

living in its basin area. In contrast the lower Ganga basin faces scarcity of water, particularly in

the summer season. This unbalanced distribution of water can be rectified by diverting the

surplus water of the Brahmaputra basin to the water scarcity areas of the lower Ganga basin.

The Brahmaputra-Ganga link canal project involves the construction of a diversion

barrage at Dhubri in Assam and a 320 kilometre long feeder Canal to link the Dhubri barrage

with the Farakka barrage. A part of the feeder canal will pass through Bangladesh territory for

which India will have to reach an agreement with that country. However, this will benefit

Bangladesh also because a part of water available in the feeder canal can be used for irrigation or

for augmenting the water flow Padma river. It is estimated that when completed, this project will

be able to divert about 1,150 cumecs of water from the Brahmaputra at Dhubri to the Ganga at

Farakka. It will require lifting of water by 10 to 15 metres at suitable intermediate sites.

Experts in various allied fields have grave misgivings regarding the feasibility of this

project in view of huge expenditure involved, resources crunch and lack of proper understanding

between the concerned neighbouring countries.

National water grid.

This is the largest ever thought of project of linking all major rivers of India with the help

of a network of canals. The idea of linking rivers across India to solve flood, drought, power and

other water related problems of the country is not new. It has been mooted in different forms for

the last few decades. Sir Arthur Cotton, who pioneered the development of water resources in

Southern India from 1839 onwards, had proposed a plan for interlinking of Indian rivers for



inland navigation. A small portion of the plan was implemented but was abandoned later in

favour of railways. In 1974, the famous engineer of Mumbai, captain Deen Shaw, presented his

scheme to link Indian rivers by constructing a chain of canals. In 2002, the hon'ble Supreme

Court of India ordered the central government to complete the project in 10 years. Keeping in

view the order of the supreme court, the Government of India constituted a committee in

December 2002 to prepare a detailed report of the project. The project envisages linking 26

major rivers of India by constructing 30 different link canals. The national perspective plan as

well as the NWDA studies have two components of the project.

1. Himalayan rivers development component

2. Peninsular rivers development component

These two can be linked on the Mahanandi

1. The Himalayan Rivers Development Component

The Himalayan Rivers Development Component envisages construction of storage

reservoirs on the principle tributaries of Ganga and Brahmaputra in India, Nepal and Bhutan

along with interlinking Canal systems to transfer surplus flows of the eastern tributaries of the

Ganga and the west, apart from linking of the main Brahmaputra and its tributaries with the

Ganga and the Ganga with the Mahanandi. The Himalayan Rivers Development Component

shall provide additional irrigation and generation of hydropower, besides providing substantial

flood control in the Ganga and Brahmaputra basin.

The Himalaya Component is based on multipurpose storage giving, benefits of

hydropower and flood control, besides diverting water to downstream links. NWDA have taken

up 11 Himalayan links for study. Under the Himalayan Component, NWDA has already

completed water balance studies at 19 diversion points, top of sheet studies of 16 storage sites

and 19 link alignments and prepared pre feasibility reports of 14 proposed water transfer links.

The feasibility report for these links have already been completed.

2. The Peninsular Rivers Development Component

This component has four major parts but major important are interlinking the Mahanadi-

Godavari-Krishna-Cauvery and the diversion of a few West flowing rivers towards the

peninsular basin across the Western Ghats. It will ease the water situation in the Peninsula. The

link from Mahanandi would require construction of Manibhadra Dam. The Mahanandi-Godavari

link would be 9,390 kilometres long and cut across east flowing drainages. It does not involve

any lifting of water. Even after meeting downstream basin requirements, the Godavari has



surplus water in this reach which can be stored in the available dam site of Inchampalli. After

irrigating about 11.5 lakh hectares of dry land between the Godavari and the Krishna, there will

still be about 3 kilometre cube water left which can be transferred to Cauvery basin and relieve it

from occasional shortages, It will also help to resolve the bitter dispute between Tamilnadu and

Karnataka over the water of Cauvery river.

Under the Peninsular Component, the agency has already completed data collection and

the balance studies of 137 basin/sub basins and at 52 identified diversion points, toposheet

studies of 58 identified storage and 18 toposheet studies of link alignments, and prepared pre-

feasibility reports of 17 water transfer links. Presently, the work of field surveys and

investigations for preparation of feasibility reports of link schemes in on hand. Feasibility

reports of these links have already been completed.

The implementation of the intebasin water transfer link schemes can be taken up in a

phased manner depending on the priorities of the Government and availability of funds.

If and when completed, this project will give following benefits:

i) Surplus water from the eastern rivers will be transferred to west deficit areas of central, south

and western parts of the country.

ii) Flood problem, particularly in Bihar and Assam will be solved to great extent.

iii) 34,000 megawatt hydroelectricity would be produced. This electricity will be used for

irrigation and other purposes.

iv)The implementation of the programme of interbasin water transfer is expected to provide

additional irrigation benefit of 35 Mha which will be over and above the ultimate irrigation

potential of about 140 Mha envisaged from major, medium and minor irrigation projects.

v) Chronically drought affected areas will get sufficient water for irrigation, drinking and other

purposes.

vi) As much as 1,275.74 billion cubic metre (BCM) water wastefully flowing in rivers

originating in the glaciers of the Himalayas will be properly used.

vii) The project will provide ample opportunities for inland navigation and thus reduce pressure

on rail and road transport.

viii) It will be of great help in resolving inter state water disputes.



ix) A minimum flow of water will be ensured in water deficit rivers.

However, the project has been criticized on several grounds and several experts have

questioned even the feasibility of such a gigantic project. Following are some of the objections

raised against this project.

i)The project will involve a huge cost ₹ 5,60,000 crore which amounts to a quarter of the

country's current GDP. A developing country like India can hardly afford such a huge

investment in just one project.

ii)The project will entail the construction of several major dams and lengthy canals cutting across

various river basins. This is not an easy task and will require engineering skills of high calibre.

iii)The project aims at transferring water from water surplus rivers to water deficit rivers. But

hydrologists believe that there are hardly any surplus waters anywhere in the country.

iv)The construction of big dams and long canals will destroy forested areas, fertile soils and

agriculture lands and disturb in psychological balance.

v)No provision worth the name, has been made to resettle the displaced people. An estimate of

over 30 million people have been displaced by development projects since independence.

vi)Some experts have expressed doubt about the capability of the project. For example, if water

available in the deficit Sabarmati basin is only 300 cubic metres per capita (CMPC), then it is

difficult to comprehend how a further 1,400 CMPC can be brought from a surplus base to solve

the problem.

vii)Alternative measures of managing and conserving water resources can be proved to be more

useful than the proposed project of interlinking the rivers. According to the Central Ground

Water Board(CGWB), 37 BCM of groundwater can be recharged locally at only ₹24,500 crore.

Then what is the validity of investing ₹5,60,000 crore in obtaining a mere 175 BCM for

interlinking of rivers.

ix)Neighbouring countries like Bangladesh and Nepal have not been consulted althrough these

countries along with China,would be affected by the project.

Ken-Betwa river interlinking

Interlinking of Ken with Betwa in Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh is aimed at

transferring surplus water from river Ken to Betwa river. It will ensure water to drought prone



areas of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Besides it would provide annual irrigation to about

6 lakh hectares of land and drinking water facility to 13.42 lakh people of both the concerned

States. The project was initially mooted in early 1980s. The NITI Aayog ( National Institute of

Transforming India) has recommended that Madhya Pradesh contribute 40% of the project cost,

with centre contributing the remaining 60% cost. It will submerge about 10% of the Panna Tiger

Reserve in Madhya Pradesh. A total of 10 villages consisting of 1,585 families are likely to be

affected by the project.

Interlinking of rivers-experience in Andhra Pradesh

Andhra Pradesh has become the first state in India to achieve interlinking of rivers. The

first interlinking is that of Godavari and Krishna rivers through Pathiseema Lift Scheme. The

interlinking of the Godavari and the Krishna rivers become a reality with nearly 2,400 cusecs of

Godavari water reaching the Ferry on its way to Prakasam Barrage about 15 km away. The

water flow will reach 8,000 cusecs when more motors are switch on. Water into the Polavaram

Right Main Canal(RMC) is lifted at pathiseema. The water has to travel 174 km from

Pathiseema to reach Prakasam Barrage. Polavaram RMC is designed to hold upto 16,000 cusecs

of water flow. Thus Polavaram RMC is capable of bringing 16,000 cusecs of Godavari water

into the Krishna river near Vijayawada. It will be of great help to the farmers in the drought

prone Rayalaseema region and could serve 2,59,000 families at 150 litre per day for 365 days.

The Polavaram project will be completed by 2019. The development is seen as a boon for

farmers, mainly those in Krishna and Guntur districts.

The 800 km by Mahanadi-Godavari interlinking project would link River Sankosh.

Krishna-Pennar(Penna)-Cauvery link

This is aimed at reducing imbalance in water availability between different regions of

Andhra Pradesh. It forms a part of the scheme to transfer of surplus waters of Mahanadi and

Godavari rivers to deficit basins of Krishna, Pennear, Cauvery and Vaigai. The diversion of the

water is proposed by utilising the existing Krishna (Srisailam) reservoir, and Srisailam Right

Main Canal (SRMC). The total length of the link canal is about 204 km out of which 180 km is

through natural streams. Four mini hydel schemes are proposed enroute of the conveyance

system utilising the natural falls of streams Neppulavagu,Galeru and Kunder. The total installed

capacity of these hydel projects would be 17 MW. It is supposed to be one of the biggest river

linking projects in the country. The project comprises two stages. River Krishna will be

connected with Pennar and following it by kinking Pennar with Cauverh. The length of the canal

will be 587.17 km and its carrying capacity will be 230 cusecs. The total area irrigated will be

2,58,334 hectares. The project is estimated to cost about ₹ 6,600 crore.



Emerging water problems

There are several problems regarding the water resources. The main problems of water

resources are its availability, use, quality and management. If the present trend of water

requirement and its wastage continues, the day is not very far off when India will face crucial

shortage of water.

Deterioration of water quality

Water quality refers to purity of water, or water without unwanted foreign substances.

Water gets polluted by foreign matters such as micro-organisms, chemicals, industrial and other

wastes. Such matters deteriorate the quality of water and render it unfit for human use. Quality

of water suffers from its large scale population almost throughout the country. It has been

estimated that about three-fourths of the surface water in India is polluted. Most of the rivers are

carrying polluted water . We have been dumping all sorts of waste matter into our rivers

Industrial waste, municipal sewage, residues of chemical fertilizers etc. These wastes are both,

solids as well as in soluble form. Cities and towns generate a lot of sewage. Most of this sewage

is dumped into water courses without any treatment rendering the natural water course

downstream unfit for drinking and even for bathing. About 14 river basins have been affected by

untreated city sewage. Large scale pollution of rivers is turning them into septic drains posing

serious threat to the health of millions of people.

Industries are also responsible for water pollution. There are about 150 leather factories

in Kanpur which discharge more than 5.8 million litres of waste water in the Ganga river

everyday.

Indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides etc to increase the form

production has further aggravated the problem of surface and groundwater pollution. The

residuals of fertilizers and other chemicals reach the waterbodies and contaminate them.

Conservation of water resources

Conservation of water resources has become very essential due to its short supply,

increasing demand, large scale pollution and its uneven distribution in time and space.

Following three steps are necessary for conservation of water resources.

i)Developing water saving technologies and methods.

ii)Preventing pollution of water.



iii) Encouraging watershed development, rainwater harvesting, water recycling and reuse and

conjunctive use of water for sustaining water supply in long run.

Prevention of water pollution

As mentioned earlier, both surface and groundwater are polluted in most parts of country.

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in collaboration with State Pollution Control

Boards has been monitoring water quality of national aquatic resources at 507 stations.

According to their investigations, organic and bacterial contamination are the major causes of

pollution of river waters. The Yamuna river is the most polluted river in the country between

Delhi and Etawah.

Similarly, groundwater is also polluted primary due to high concentration of heavy/toxic metals,

fluoride and nitrates at different parts of the country.

The government made several legislative provisions for preventing water pollution. Some

such provision are Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974, and Environment

Protection Act, 1986. Unfortunately these provisions have not been implemented effectively. In

view of all these failures it has become necessary to generate public awareness about importance

of water and the impact of its pollution.

Recycle and Reuse of water

Availability of fresh water can be improved by recycling and reusing water. Water of

inferior quality such as claimed waste water can be used in industries for cooling and fire

fighting. In urban areas water after bathing and washing utensils and vehicles can be used for

gardening. This helps in conserving water of better quality for drinking. The practice of

recycling and reusing water is at its initial stage but there are vast possibilities of replenishing

water through recycling.

Watershed Management

Watershed is geographical are that drains to a common point, which makes it an ideal

planning units for conservation of soil and water. It may comprise one or several villages,

contain both arable and non-arable lands, various categories of land holdings and farmers. The

watershed approach enables a holistic development of agricultural and allied activities, such as

horticulture, agro-forestry and silviculture(forests).



Watershed development is a very important device to conserve water resources, increase

agricultural production and stop ecological degradation. In this way it improves the living

conditions of the people.

The Central and State Governments as well some non government organisations are

working on watershed development programmes. One such programme is Haryali which is

sponsored by the Central Government. Its primary aim is to help the rural people in conserving

water for drinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation.

Neeru-Meeru (water and you) in Andhra Pradesh and Arvary Pani Sansad in Alwar

district of Rajasthan are two important programmes of water harvesting. Under these

programmes various steps have been taken to harvest water for the benefit of the common man.

Several structures like percolation tanks, check dams etc have been constructed for water

harvesting.

Tamil Nadu is one state which had made it mandatory to have water harvesting structures

in the houses. No buildings is allowed to be constructed without making provision for water

harvesting structures.

Water harvesting movement is still in the nascent stage and there is urgent need to

generate public awareness regarding it.

Rainwater Harvesting

Large scale depletion of groundwater is a very serious problem which must be tackled

urgently. Shortage of water is felt in rural areas for irrigation and or domestic as well as

industrial use in urban areas. One of the methods of solving the problem is rainwater harvesting.

It is technique of increasing the recharge of groundwater by capturing and storing rainwater

locally in subsurface water reservoirs to meet the household needs.

Objectives of the rainwater harvesting are to:

1.Meet the ever increasing demand for water,

2.Reduce the runoff which chocks drains,

3.Avoid the flooding of roads,

4.Augment the groundwater storage and raise the water table,



5.Reduce groundwater pollution,

6.Improve the quality of groundwater,

7.Reduce the soil erosion, and

8.Supplement domestic water requirement during summer and drought.

There are so many low cost techniques which can be used to recharge the groundwater

aquifers. Some of the important techniques are roof water harvesting, recharging of hand pumps,

recharge through abandoned dug well, recharge through trench and bands and stop dams on

small rivulets. Techniques or rainwater harvesting are not new to India. Rainwater has been

harvested in India since antiquity as is amply proved by the following evidences.

1.There are evidences of advanced water harvesting systems like canals, tanks, embankments

and wells.

2.In hills and mountains, rainwater harvesting from rooftops and springs were carried over long

distances with the help of bamboo pipe.

3.In arid and semi arid regions, structures like wells and step wells were built to tap groundwater

aquifers. Rain-water harvesting from rooftops used artificially created catchments, which

drained water into artificial 'kunds' or tanks in Rajasthan.

4.Construction of tanks throughout the country has been very popular measure of conserving

rainwater.

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