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Unit #1: Beginning with a Renaissance 10th Grade Honors Literature Mr. Coia Name: _________________________Date:______________ Period: ________ Since this is the first unit guide, let me explain a few items. Each unit guide will cover anywhere from one-four weeks. You’ll have all the information in case you are

absent. Share this with your parents immediately. Print off an extra copy to put on the refrigerator. The bulleted points show what we will try to do in class. If we don’t get to it, I’ll have you move/remove

activities. HW=homework. It’s due the next class period unless stated otherwise. Items in bold show larger items (papers, tests, etc.) Remember, while major tests will always be listed, quizzes can spring up anytime. Write your name on this, and put in your Handouts section now. Mon 8/25 • Introduction to the course • Create name card with:

o Favorite movie & book • Four-Square

o Name Acrostic o A haiku about school o Pick a quotation and explain it o Describe in as much detail as you can

one or two events that were most memorable this summer

• Renaissance Essay: type 500 words describing a time when you experienced a renaissance, when you were re-invented, re-born, re-defined (follow essay format sheet)

HW: Read and initial rules sheet; Parent/student signature; class supplies; Renaissance essay typed in format; print article, “Is Google Making Us Stupid?” (see Handouts section on mrcoia.com) Wed 8/27 • Share Renaissance essays with class • Peer comments • Finish Four-Square • Write #1: “Is our use of technology making us

stupid? Try to explain answer on both sides of the issue.”

• Lesson on marking text o Margin notes o Important Phrases o Strong verbs o Asking questions

• Begin reading article, marking text HW: Read, mark article, give bountiful margin notes, then summarize five main points of the article. Write these at the end of the article on the last/back page

Fri 8/29 • Notebook/supply check • Write #2: “Trapped by TV” comic. How does

this add to Nicholas Carr’s article? • Triad discussion • Sayings 2.0 activity • Watch: Look Up • Writing strong summary sentences HW: Prepare for Socratic Seminar. You’ll need your points and examples prepared in advance; additional quotations on the subject will help Wed 9/3 • Notebook/supply check • Socratic Seminar rules • Socratic Seminar

o Essential Question: “How Does Our Internet Usage Affect Us?”

HW: Read, mark The Prince chapter 17. Complete section on worksheet Thurs 9/4 Open House for Parents 1700-1900 Fri 9/5 • Small group: Passages about Reading and

Thinking sheet • Write #3: Is it better for a leader to be feared

or loved? Why is this one more effective? • Discussion on leadership styles for the leaders

in your life. List leaders and how you will expect them to lead

• How do you attack difficult texts? • Share work on chapter 17 • Read excerpts of The Prince (chaps 10, 17-

19). This can be found online • For each chapter 17-19, summarize (what

does it say?) and analyze (what does it mean?), list 2 important quotations, and give a lesson for modern politicians

HW: Finish The Prince work; Print “Bill, Meet Niccolo” article

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Tues 9/9 • Sentence of the Week #1: Subject and

Predicate • Discussion on The Prince work • Read, mark “Bill, Meet Niccolo” article • Essay format: Intro, thesis, body, conclusions • Read handout: “Thesis Statements and

Beyond” • Persuasive essay: “Is it better for a leader to

be feared or loved?” Use quotations from The Prince

• 6 Traits grading rubric HW: Persuasive essay (at least a typed introduction/thesis is due next class) Thurs 9/11 • Typed persuasive introduction due • Reviewing introductions • Peer comments • Strong v. weak verbs • Work time on essay HW: Persuasive essay (bring two typed copies) Mon 9/15 • Persuasive essay due • Student comments on essays • Watch DVD: The Medici (The Medici Popes) • Work on viewing guide and questions HW: Optional: You can use the student comments to improve your essay. However, you MUST have both student comment papers attached to the back of your new essay for credit Wed 9/17 • Essay improvement due • Sentence of the Week #2: Simple Sentences • DVD: The Medici • Complete viewing guide • Final discussion on The Prince Fri 9/19 (1/2 Day) • Finish DVD: The Medici • Lecture: Martin Luther • Read Martin Luther’s “Speech to the Diet of

Worms” HW: Read and mark Luther’s speech; consider this question: “What would I be willing to stand for even in light of punishment?” Tues 9/23 • Marking text

o Margin notes o Important Phrases o Strong verbs

• Write #4: “Here I Stand: Write a mini-speech on something specific in which you are willing

to take a stand (even onto punishment) on. Be concrete, modeled after Luther”

HW: Prepare for class presentation on your “Here I Stand” speech. Two-minute limit Thurs 9/25 • Class Presentations: Perform your “Here I

Stand” mini-speech. Be sure you have practiced ahead of time so your presentation is interesting and powerful.

Mon 9/29 • Sentence of the Week #3 • Shakespeare’s “Sonnets” • #18, 29, 64 • Read in small groups, analyze, and discuss • Write #5: Write one sonnet about a topic of

your choice Wed 10/1 • Shakespeare unit on Othello begins Here I Stand Speaking Rubric Content was persuasive 0 1 2 3 4 5 Voice was clear, varied, and a good volume 0 1 2 3 4 5 Speech appeared rehearsed 0 1 2 3 4 Speech was in the form of Luther’s 0 1 2 3 Time between 1-2 minutes 0 1 2 3

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Assignments for this Unit Non-Fiction Articles: We’ll use a non-fiction article to begin to look at persuasive writing and how it works. For the article, you will actively read by making comments in the margins and questioning the author’s arguments. Formal Essays: You’ll have two opportunities to display your understanding in two essays this unit. We’ll have a narrative as well as a persuasive essay. Both will be between 500-700 words, and we will use the 6 Traits grading rubric for all essays. They must be typed, and follow the class format. Write Assignments: We will have short, 5-minute bursts of writing in class to prepare our brain to think or to express thoughts we have. These assignments are quick, and you will receive full credit if you write for the entire time. Use these to prepare understanding or expression of a concept from class. Notebook and Supply Check You’ll need the following for our notebook check Wed 9/3. Remember, this is the first, and we’ll add to this throughout the year to provide you with an orderly notebook. Therefore, you need ALL the pieces to receive credit. No partial credit offered on this. You need two tabs with the following: LA Handouts:

• Unit guide 1 • Class Rules sheet, initialed

LA Classwork: Notes from lectures, presentations, mini-lessons. Remember you should be taking notes each class period. You will also have at least 25 sheets of loose-leaf paper in your binder, and your pens, pencils, highlighter, etc.

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Standards for This Unit, or, Why We are Learning This!

Reading 10E1b.1: Analyze the structure and format of various informational documents and explain how

authors use the features to achieve their purposes. Example: Analyze an advertisement that has been made to look like the informational newspaper or magazine content around it. Explain why the advertisement would be designed this way and evaluate its effectiveness.

10E1b.5: Evaluate an author’s argument or defense of a claim by examining the relationship between generalizations and evidence, the comprehensiveness of evidence, and the way in which the author’s intent affects the structure and tone of the text. Examples:

1. Evaluate science articles by judging the references, the author’s presentation of facts and opinions, and the date of publication.

2. Evaluate different arguments on a legal issue, such as the legal age for getting a driver’s license.

10E1c.14 Analyze the way in which a work of literature is related to the themes and issues of its historical period. Example: Read a book such as Hornblower During the Crisis by C.S. Forester and tell how the author uses the story to convey larger themes about a period of transition in British history. Writing

10E2a.2: Establish a coherent thesis that conveys a clear perspective on the subject and maintains

a consistent tone and focus throughout the piece of writing.

10E2a.3: Use precise language, action verbs, sensory details, and appropriate modifiers, and the active (“I will always remember my first trip to the city”) rather than the passive voice (“My first trip to the city will always be remembered”).

10E2a.8: Integrate quotations and citations into written text while maintaining the flow of ideas.

10E2a.13 Provide constructive criticism to other writers with suggestions for improving organization, tone, style, clarity, and focus; and edit and revise in response to peer reviews of own work.

10E2b.2:

Write biographical or autobiographical narratives or short stories that: a. Describe a sequence of events and communicate the significance of the events to

the audience. b. Locate scenes and incidents in specific places. c. Describe with exact details the sights, sounds, and smells of a scene and the

specific actions, movements, gestures and feelings of the characters. In the case of short stories or autobiographical narratives, use interior monologue to show the character’s feelings.

d. Pace the presentation of actions to accommodate changes in time and mood. Example: After reading an example of an autobiography, use the structure of the autobiography to compose your own autobiography. Speaking

10E3a.15:

Deliver expository presentations that: a. Provide evidence in support of a thesis and related claims, including information

on all relevant perspectives.

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Name: _________________________Date:______________ Period: ________ The Prince work For each chapter 17-19, summarize (what does it say?) and analyze (what does it mean?), list two important quotations, and give a lesson for modern politicians. These must all be in complete sentences, and more than one for each. Chapter 17 Summary: Analysis: Two important quotations: 1. 2. Lesson for modern politicians: Chapter 18 Summary: Analysis: Two important quotations: 1. 2. Lesson for modern politicians: Chapter 19 Summary: Analysis: Two important quotations: 1. 2. Lesson for modern politicians:

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Name: _________________________Date:______________ Period: ________ Viewing Guide for The Medici DVD Part 3: The Medici Popes (Online version Part 3) Objectives:

• Understand Italian politics and warfare of the Renaissance

• Understand the origins and effects of the Protestant Reformation

• Contrast Renaissance and Medieval attitudes

• View film and understand how images and sounds are used to convey information and mood

• Use reading strategies to focus viewing

• Use writing as a way to learn

• Participate meaningfully in class discussions

Choose one question from each of the two categories to answer: Focusing Questions: In what ways did the Medici popes continue the family's talent for art patronage? What was different? What effect did art patronage have on the effectiveness of the papacy? ______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

What mistakes did Popes Leo X and Clemens VII make? What effects did their mistakes have on Florence? The church? Europe?

______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ Closure Questions:

How was Niccolo Machiavelli's political handbook, The Prince, influenced by what was going on in Italy and in his own life?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

What have you learned about papal elections during this period?

______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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How Do I Format My Paper? Susan Harrison Your name 10/18/2012 Date paper is due Pop Culture essay What is the name of the assignment? AP Language Period A4 Class name and period number Mr. Coia Teacher name 482 words Word count (Do not include heading or title in word count)

Play-Dough Minds: Plato vs. Popular Teen Culture always have a creative title in bold print.

In his Republic, Plato had a higher opinion of children and a higher purpose for childhood.

Contrary to producers, advertisers, and performers, Plato saw boys and girls as “young and tender

thing[s],” and believed that this part of life is the “most important part.” Childhood, according to Plato,

is not important because it presents a lucrative demographic; rather, it is vital because it is the

formation of the character of a future man or woman in society.

It is important because Plato implies that who we are when we are forty begins when we are

four. This is the time in which character is planted and watered. Plato commented that childhood is “a

time when character is being formed and the desired impression is more readily taken.” What, then, is

the “desired impression” in these times? For advertising conglomerates, it is to sing an annoying jingle,

stamp an impressive logo, or a showcase a tanned body for the sole and unscrupulous purpose of

selling products. The desired impression occurring on Madison Avenue is fueled by product placement

and the bottom line. Plato, however, seems to desire a more virtuous impression for these young

minds. [essay not complete]

Format: o Double-spaced, unless otherwise stated. Poems are single-spaced lines, and double-spaced

stanzas

o No “floating paragraphs” (blank lines between paragraphs). If your Word automatically adds

blank lines, fix it by going to FormatParagraphchange Spacing to 0 in the Before and After

columns.

o 12-point font, standard font (Times, Arial, Verdana, or Helvetica)

o No more than 1-inch margins all around (In Word, go to FilePage SetupMargins).

o Includes a creative title related to your writing. This is your first introduction to the reader.

Make it clever and interesting, and not just the assignment title.

do not skip an extra line between paragraphs

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Socratic Seminar Introduction 10 Honors World Literature Mr. Coia Article: “Is Google Making Us Stupid?” Essential Question: “How Does Our Internet Usage Affect Us?” Socratic Seminars -- Grading Rubric A major goal of this class is to develop the student's skill to analyze a text, and then demonstrate that analysis through speaking and writing. Socratic seminars seek to give the student the opportunity to demonstrate a level of understanding of a text and the ability to apply those ideas through the spoken word. Rules 1. Students read a text provided by the teacher. 2. The group sits in two circles. 3. No put-downs or arguments. 4. All members must participate to be evaluated. 5. There is no single right or wrong answer to the essential question. Procedures 1. No raising hands. Speak when appropriate. 2. This is a student-led discussion. The teacher is not a participant in the discussion, but an active observer. 3. The teacher will evaluate the students based on the grading rubric included in this information. 4. Refer to the text / source material whenever possible. Uses text- Use text during the Socratic Seminar. Refer to it for evidence. Evidence and examples are essential to your grade and are a habit of mind you should have. Number of Comments- How often did you speak? Did you interrupt people? Don't talk to the teacher, talk to the class. You will lose points if you are talking while others are trying to score points. Asks or responds to questions- Do you listen to what others are saying? Did you ask a question to the group or did you respond to a question posed to the group? Answers Essential Question- Refer directly to the EQ. Be very clear that you are answering the EQ.

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Socratic Seminar Grading Criteria Total _________/20 discussion _____/5 evaluation notes Name of Speaker (who is the student you are grading?):_______________________________ Name of Evaluator (that’s you!): ________________________________ Essential Question: “How Does Our Internet Usage Affect Us?” A. Number of comments 0 1 2 3 4 5 _________________________________________________________________________ Doesn’t speak 1 comment 2 comments 3 comments 4 comments 5 comments B. Quality of comments (earning a 0 -2 on above rubric limits this category to a 0-3) 0 1 2 3 4 5 _________________________________________________________________________ Doesn’t speak repeats other comments original ideas original, deep comments C. Addresses essential question and stays to the text 0 1 2 3 4 5 _________________________________________________________________________ Never once or twice Often Insightful and thought-provoking D. Discussion Etiquette (listens to others, allows others to speak, avoids dominating and cutting others off) 0 1 2 3 4 5 _________________________________________________________________________ Not engaged/slouching Listening only Appears only mildly interested in discussion actively engaged and good part How would you describe and explain what you saw from the Speaker’s performance in this activity? What impressed you? What needed more work? ______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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Socratic Seminar Circle Evaluator’s Name:____________________ Put student names on the outside of each wedge to represent the circle. Tick off each time a person speaks, and jot down important comments. While you will take notes on all students, your focus will be on your partner. Additional Comments:

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Name:__________________________________ Per:______ Date:________________ Passages about Reading and Thinking For each, read and jot down a few thoughts of analysis (what does it mean?). What key words and phrases stick out? In small groups, you will connect one of the passages with one of the poems. How do they relate? What is the application for students today? Passage 1: "Read not to contradict and confute, not to believe and take for granted; not to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be read in parts; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention …Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man." --Francis Bacon from Of Studies _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ Passage 2: "I think we ought to read only books that bite and sting us. If the book we are reading doesn't shake us awake like a blow on the skull, why bother reading it in the first place? So that it can make us happy, as you put it? Good God, we'd be just as happy if we had no books at all; books that make us happy we could, at a pinch, also write ourselves. What we need are books that hit us like a most painful misfortune, like the death of someone we love more than we love ourselves, that make us feel as though we had been banished to the woods, far from any human presence, like a suicide. A book must be the axe for the frozen sea within us."

--Franz Kafka _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________

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Poem #1: Introduction to Poetry by Billy Collins I ask them to take a poem and hold it up to the light like a color slide or press an ear against its hive. I say drop a mouse into a poem and watch him probe his way out, or walk inside the poem's room and feel the walls for a light switch. I want them to waterski across the surface of a poem waving at the author's name on the shore. But all they want to do is tie the poem to a chair with rope and torture a confession out of it. They begin beating it with a hose to find out what it really means. ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________

Poem #2: Sometimes by Sheenagh Pugh Sometimes things don't go, after all, from bad to worse. Some years, muscadel faces down frost; green thrives; the crops don't fail, sometimes a man aims high, and all goes well. A people sometimes step back from war; elect an honest man; decide they care enough, that they can't leave some stranger poor. Some men become what they were born for. Sometimes our best efforts do not go amiss; sometimes we do as we meant to. The sun will sometimes melt a field of sorrow that seemed hard frozen: may it happen to you ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________

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Books We’ll Read This Year In case you want your own copy

Some students and parents like to know the books that we’ll read throughout the year in order to purchase individual copies for note taking, highlighting, etc. While we have copies for you and purchasing is not required, I think that having personal copies helps to understand the book more in-depth. For those students who wish to do so, here is the list. Most of these are classics that can be purchased at Amazon for as cheap as 1 cent! I suggest buying them all at the start of the year, as it takes time to arrive via Media Mail.

• Othello by William Shakespeare

• Tartuffe by Moliere

• Candide by Voltaire (be sure to get the translation by Lowell Bair)

• A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens

• A Doll’s House by Ibsen

• Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe

• All Quiet on the Western Front by Erich Maria Remarque

• Night by Elie Wiesel

• Red Scarf Girl by Ji-li Jiang

The title in bold is the ones that I may not be able to check out due to limited numbers. Therefore, if you are interested in purchasing books, these should be a priority. If you have any questions, please ask. Sincerely, Mr. Coia

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Shakespeare Insult Kit

Combine one word from each of the three columns below, prefaced with "Thou": Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Adjective Adjective Noun artless base-court apple-john bawdy bat-fowling baggage beslubbering beef-witted barnacle bootless beetle-headed bladder churlish boil-brained boar-pig cockered clapper-clawed bugbear clouted clay-brained bum-bailey craven common-kissing canker-blossom currish crook-pated clack-dish dankish dismal-dreaming clotpole dissembling dizzy-eyed coxcomb droning doghearted codpiece errant dread-bolted death-token fawning earth-vexing dewberry fobbing elf-skinned flap-dragon froward fat-kidneyed flax-wench frothy fen-sucked flirt-gill gleeking flap-mouthed foot-licker goatish fly-bitten fustilarian gorbellied folly-fallen giglet impertinent fool-born gudgeon infectious full-gorged haggard jarring guts-griping harpy loggerheaded half-faced hedge-pig lumpish hasty-witted horn-beast mammering hedge-born hugger-mugger mangled hell-hated joithead mewling idle-headed lewdster paunchy ill-breeding lout pribbling ill-nurtured maggot-pie puking knotty-pated malt-worm puny milk-livered mammet qualling motley-minded measle rank onion-eyed minnow reeky plume-plucked miscreant roguish pottle-deep moldwarp ruttish pox-marked mumble-news saucy reeling-ripe nut-hook spleeny rough-hewn pigeon-egg spongy rude-growing pignut surly rump-fed puttock tottering shard-borne pumpion unmuzzled sheep-biting ratsbane vain spur-galled scut venomed swag-bellied skainsmate villainous tardy-gaited strumpet warped tickle-brained varlot wayward toad-spotted vassal weedy unchin-snouted whey-face yeasty weather-bitten wagtail

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Honors World Literature Short Readings for Quarter One

Contents: Martin Luther’s Speech before the Diet of Worms Sonnets by William Shakespeare Analects by Confucius Japanese Zen Parables The Prince excerpts—chapters 17-19 “Is Google Making Us Stupid?” by Nicholas Carr

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“Speech before the Diet of Worms” by Martin Luther

Born at Eisleben, Saxony, in 1483, Martin Luther was

educated first at the University of Magdeburg, then at Erfurt. When Staupitius opened the University at Wittenberg, Luther was hired to teach and preach there by the Elector Frederic, Duke of Saxony. Having set out to study the gospels and Psalms, Luther showed the difference between the Law and the Gospel confounding the teaching that men could earn salvation by his own works with mere outward discipline. In 1516, Pope Leo X. succeeded Julius II and under pretense of war against the Turks began to sell indulgences. The Dominican Friar Tetzel made this into a public nuisancy and blasphemy causing even the poor to give their last quarters for worthless pieces of paper. In January 1519 the Emperor Maximilian died. With the vote of the Duke of Saxony Charles, King of Spain rather then Francis, the French King, was elected Emperor.

After the week long disputation with Eck at Augsburg, the cardinals burned the books of Luther, which caused the monk to do the same to the decrees of the pope on December 10, 1520. But the Emperor Charles had set a Diet for January 6th, 1521 at Worms. By March 6th the emperor sent letters to Luther to appear at Worms twenty one days after receiving them accompanied by Casper Sturm, the emperor’s herald. Luther, accompanied by few friends, arrived in Worms Tuesday, April 16, 1521 after two weeks of traveling. The Lieutenant-General of the `men-at-arms’ of the Empire, Ulrich von Pappenheim, was chosen by the emperor to tell Luther to appear before the Imperial Majesty in the afternoon at 4 o’clock the next day, Wednesday, to understand the reasons for him having been commanded to Worms. Luther was led through the garden of the `Knights-of-the-Rhodes’ place to the `Earl Palatine’s Palace’ and then led by secret stairs to the place where the audience was supposed to take place. Yet many, who realized the maneuvering, violently rushed in despite being resisted in order to see Martin Luther. There he stood before the emperor, the electors, dukes, earls, and estates of the empire being advised by Ulrich von Pappenheim to remain silent until asked to speak. Then Dr. Eck began to condemn Luther’s writings and asked Luther directly to revoke them. Luther said, “I humbly beseech the Imperial Majesty to grant me liberty and leisure to

deliberate; so that I may satisfy the interrogation made unto me, without prejudice of the Word of God, and peril of my own soul.” Upon this Dr. Eck commanded him to reappear next day at the same time.

The next day, Thursday, the herald brought Luther back to the court where he waited until 6 o’clock while the assembly consulted with themselves on grave matters. After the princes were set and Luther entered Dr. Eck demanded again from Luther to recant his books. Dr. Martin Luther answered again modestly and with a low voice, and yet with a stoutness and Christian constancy:

Most serene emperor, illustrious princes, gracious lords… I obediently appeared at the time appointed yesterday evening, in conformity with the order given me yesterday, and by God’s mercies I conjure your majesty and your August highnesses to listen graciously to the defense of a cause which I am assured is just and true. If, through ignorance, I should transgress the usages and proprieties of courts and should fail to give anyone the titles due to him or should act in some gestures or manner against courtly etiquette, I entreat you to pardon me; for I was not brought up in the palaces of kings, but in the seclusion of a cloister. I can say nothing of myself than that I have hitherto sought on earth through the simple-mindedness of my writings and teachings nothing but God’s honour and the edification of believers.

Most serene Emperor, gracious electors, nobles and lords… Yesterday I was asked two questions: whether I would confess those pamphlets which were published under my name to be mine and whether I would persist in them or revoke them. To this I answered readily and clearly that I would now and for all eternity admit that these books were mine and were published under my name unless my opponents had changed them with deception or meddlesome wisdom or given false quotations. For I confess nothing but what I myself have written and certainly not the painstaking interpretations and comments of others.

Now I am called upon to answer the second question. I humbly pray your Imperial Majesty and lords, to consider carefully that my books are not all of the same kind. There are some in which I dealt with faith and life in such an evangelical and simple manner that even my opponents must admit that they are useful, innocent and worthy to be read by Christian people. Even the bull, which is otherwise quite fierce and cruel, considers some of my books quite harmless, though it

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condemns them on the basis of an unnatural judgment. Would I now revoke these books, I would do nothing but condemn the truth which is confessed by all, friend and foe alike. I of all men would be against a common and general confession.

The second group of books is written against the papacy and papal scheming and action, that is against those who through evil teaching and example have ruined Christendom laying it waste with the evils of the spirit and the soul. No one can deny or obscure this fact, since experience and complaint of all men testify that the conscience of Christian believers is sneered at, harassed and tormented by the laws of the Pope and the doctrines of men. Likewise the goods and wealth of this most famous German nation were and are devoured through unbelievable tyranny in unreasonable manner, through decretals and laws, regulations and orders. Yet Canon Law states that the law and teaching of the Pope, whenever contrary to the Gospel and opinions of the holy Fathers, are to be considered in error and rejected. Were I, therefore, to revoke these books I would only strengthen this tyranny and open not only windows, but also doors for such unchristian ways, which would then flourish and rage more freely than ever before. The testimony of my opposition will make the rule of their bold and ignominious malice most intolerable for the poor suffering people...

The third group of my books consists of those I have written against certain private individuals who attempted to defend such Roman tyranny and denounce my pious doctrine. I confess that I have been more bitter and vehement against them than is in keeping with my Christian estate and calling. I do not claim to be a saint, nor do I proclaim my life, but rather the doctrine of Christ. Thus I cannot revoke these books, since my revocation would mean the continuance of their tyrannical, violent and raging rule due to my compliance and hesitancy. The people of God would be treated more violently and unmercifully than ever.

What more shall I say? Since I am a man and not God, I cannot support my pamphlets through any other means then that which the Lord Jesus employed when he was questioned before Ananias and asked concerning his teaching and smitten on his cheek by a servant. He said then: “If I have spoken evil bear witness of the evil.” If the Lord, who knew that he could not err, did not refuse to hear testimony against his doctrine even from the most miserable servant, how much more should I, the scum of the earth and prone to error, hope and expect that someone should testify against my doctrine. Therefore I pray by the

grace of God that your Imperial Majesty and Lordships, and everyone, high or low, should give such testimony, convict me of error and convince me with evangelical and prophetic writings. Should I thus be persuaded, I am most ready and willing to revoke all errors and be the first to throw my books into the fire.

From this it should be evident that I have carefully considered and weighed such discord, peril, uproar and rebellion which is rampant in the world today on account of my teaching, as I was gravely and urgently made aware yesterday. It is quite revealing as far as I am concerned that the divine word causes factions, misunderstanding, and discord to arise. Such, of course, must be the fate and the consequence of the divine Word, even as the Lord himself said: “I am come not to send peace but a sword, to set a son against his father, and a daughter against her mother, and the daughter in law against her mother in law. And a man’s foes shall be they of his own household.” Therefore we must ponder how wonderful and terrible God is in his counsels, plans and intentions. Perhaps we condemn the Word of God if we do away with our factions and dissensions. It could be a deluge of inestimable evils, indeed a cause of concern lest the imperial rule of our most pious and youthful Emperor should have an unfortunate beginning...

Finally I commend myself to your Majesty and to your Lordships, humbly praying that you will not suffer me, against your will, to be subjected to disgrace and defamation by my enemies.

After this statement the spokesman for the Empire claimed angrily that I had not given a clear answer. Furthermore there was no need to discuss what has already been condemned and decided by councils. Therefore I was asked to answer in a simple and unsophisticated manner whether I would revoke. Thereupon I said: “Since your Imperial Majesty and Lordships demand a simple answer I will do so without horns or teeth as follows: Unless I am convicted by the testimony of Scripture or by evident reason - for I trust neither in popes nor in councils alone, since it is obvious that they have often erred and contradicted themselves - I am convicted by the Scripture which I have mentioned and my conscience is captive by the Word of God. Therefore I cannot and will not recant, since it is difficult, unprofitable and dangerous indeed to do anything against one’s conscience. God help me. Amen.”

On Thursday, April 25th, Luther requested to be allowed to return to

Wittenberg. On Friday the 26th of April at 10 o’clock Martin Luther left Worms on his journey home.

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Sonnets by William Shakespeare Sonnet 18 Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate: Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, And summer's lease hath all too short a date: Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines, And often is his gold complexion dimm'd; And every fair from fair sometime declines, By chance or nature's changing course untrimm'd; But thy eternal summer shall not fade Nor lose possession of that fair thou owest; Nor shall Death brag thou wander'st in his shade, When in eternal lines to time thou growest:

So long as men can breathe or eyes can see, So long lives this and this gives life to thee.

Sonnet 29 WHEN in disgrace with fortune and men’s eyes I all alone beweep my outcast state, And trouble deaf heaven with my bootless cries, And look upon myself, and curse my fate, Wishing me like to one more rich in hope, Featur’d like him, like him with friends possess’d, Desiring this man’s art, and that man’s scope, With what I most enjoy contented least; Yet in these thoughts myself almost despising, Haply I think on thee,—and then my state, Like to the lark at break of day arising From sullen earth, sings hymns at heaven’s gate;

For thy sweet love remember’d such wealth brings That then I scorn to change my state with kings.

Sonnet 64 WHEN I have seen by Time’s fell hand defac’d The rich-proud cost of outworn buried age; When sometime lofty towers I see down-raz’d, And brass eternal slave to mortal rage; When I have seen the hungry ocean gain Advantage on the kingdom of the shore, And the firm soil win of the watery main, Increasing store with loss, and loss with store; When I have seen such interchange of state, Or state itself confounded to decay; Ruin hath taught me thus to ruminate— That Time will come and take my love away.

This thought is as a death, which cannot choose But weep to have that which it fears to lose.

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Zen Parables from Shaseki-shu (Collection of Stone and Sand)by Muju This text courtesy of Ashida Kim 14. Muddy Road

Tanzan and Ekido were once traveling together down a muddy road. A heavy rain was still falling.

Coming around a bend, they met a lovely girl in a silk kimono and sash, unable to cross the intersection.

“Come on, girl” said Tanzan at once. Lifting her in his arms, he carried her over the mud.

Ekido did not speak again until that night when they reached a lodging temple. Then he no longer could restrain himself. “We monks don’t go near females,” he told Tanzan, “especially not young and lovely ones. It is dangerous. Why did you do that?”

“I left the girl there,” said Tanzan. “Are you still carrying her?”

18. A Parable

Buddha told a parable in sutra: A man traveling across a field encountered a tiger. He fled,

the tiger after him. Coming to a precipice, he caught hold of the root of a wild vine and swung himself down over the edge. The tiger sniffed at him from above. Trembling, the man looked down to where, far below, another tiger was waiting to eat him. Only the vine sustained him.

Two mice, one white and one black, little by little started to gnaw away the vine. The man saw a luscious strawberry near him. Grasping the vine with one hand, he plucked the strawberry with the other. How sweet it tasted!

37. Publishing the Sutras

Tetsugen, a devotee of Zen in Japan, decided to publish the sutras, which at that time were available only in Chinese. The books were to be printed with wood blocks in an edition of seven thousand copies, a tremendous undertaking.

Tetsugen began by traveling and collecting donations for this purpose. A few sympathizers would give him a hundred pieces of gold, but most of the time he received only small coins. He thanked each donor with equal gratitude. After ten years Tetsugen had enough money to begin his task.

It happened that at that time the Uji Rive overflowed. Famine followed. Tetsugen took the funds he had collected for the books and spent them to save others from starvation. Then he began again his work of collecting.

Several years afterwards an epidemic spread over the country. Tetsugen again gave away what he had collected, to help his people. For a third time he started his work, and after twenty years his wish was fulfilled. The printing blocks which produced the first edition of sutras can be seen today in the Obaku monastery in Kyoto.

The Japanese tell their children that Tetsugen made three sets of sutras, and that the first two invisible sets surpass even the last.

44. The Thief Who Became a Disciple

One evening as Shichiri Kojun was reciting sutras a thief with a sharp sword entered, demanding wither his money or his life.

Shichiri told him: “Do not disturb me. You can find the money in that drawer.” Then he resumed his recitation.

A little while afterwards he stopped and called: “Don’t take it all. I need some to pay taxes with tomorrow.”

The intruder gathered up most of the money and started to leave. “Thank a person when you receive a gift,” Shichiri added. The man thanked him and made off.

A few days afterwards the fellow was caught and confessed, among others, the offense against Shichiri. When Shichiri was called as a witness he said: “This man is no thief, at least as far as I am concerned. I gave him the money and he thanked me for it.”

After he had finished his prison term, the man went to Shichiri and became his disciple.

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91. The Taste of Banzo’s Sword Matajuro Yagyu was the son of a famous swordsman. His father, believing that his son’s work was too mediocre to anticipate

mastership, disowned him. So Matajuro went to Mount Futara and there found the famous swordsman Banzo. But Banzo confirmed the father’s judgment.

“You wish to learn swordsmanship under my guidance?” asked Banzo. “You cannot fulfill the requirements.” “But if I work hard, how many years will it take me to become a master?” persisted the youth. “The rest of your life,” replied Banzo. “I cannot wait that long,” explained Matajuro. “I am willing to pass through any hardship if only you will teach me. If I become

your devoted servant, how long might it be?” “Oh, maybe ten years,” Banzo relented. “My father is getting old, and soon I must take care of him,” continued Matajuro. “If I work far more intensively, how long would

it take me?” “Oh, maybe thirty years,” said Banzo. “Why is that?” asked Matajuro. “First you say ten and now thirty years. I will undergo any hardship to master this art in the

shortest time!” “Well,” said Banzo, “in that case you will have to remain with me for seventy years. A man in such a hurry as you are to get

results seldom learns quickly.” “Very well,” declared the youth, understanding at last that he was being rebuked for impatience, “I agree.” Matajuro was told never to speak of fencing and never to touch a sword. He cooked for his master, washed the dishes, made his

bed, cleaned the yard, cared for the garden, all without a word of swordsmanship. Three years passed. Still Matajuro labored on. Thinking of his future, he was sad. He had not even begun to learn the art to

which he had devoted his life. But one day Banzo crept up behind him and gave him a terrific blow with a wooden sword. The following day, when Matajuro was cooking rice, Banzo again sprang upon him unexpectedly. After that, day and night, Matajuro had to defend himself from unexpected thrusts. Not a moment passed in any day that he did

not have to think of the taste of Banzo’s sword. He learned so rapidly he brought smiles to the face of his master. Matajuro became the greatest swordsman in the land.

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CHAPTER XVII — CONCERNING CRUELTY AND CLEMENCY, AND WHETHER IT IS BETTER TO

BE LOVED THAN FEARED Coming now to the other qualities mentioned above, I say that every prince ought to desire to be considered clement and

not cruel. Nevertheless he ought to take care not to misuse this clemency. Cesare Borgia was considered cruel; notwithstanding, his cruelty reconciled the Romagna, unified it, and restored it to peace and loyalty. And if this be rightly considered, he will be seen to have been much more merciful than the Florentine people, who, to avoid a reputation for cruelty, permitted Pistoia to be destroyed.(*) Therefore a prince, so long as he keeps his subjects united and loyal, ought not to mind the reproach of cruelty; because with a few examples he will be more merciful than those who, through too much mercy, allow disorders to arise, from which follow murders or robberies; for these are wont to injure the whole people, whilst those executions which originate with a prince offend the individual only.

(*) During the rioting between the Cancellieri and Panciatichi factions in 1502 and 1503.

And of all princes, it is impossible for the new prince to avoid the imputation of cruelty, owing to new states being full of dangers. Hence Virgil, through the mouth of Dido, excuses the inhumanity of her reign owing to its being new, saying:

"Res dura, et regni novitas me talia cogunt Moliri, et late fines custode tueri."(*)

Nevertheless he ought to be slow to believe and to act, nor should he himself show fear, but proceed in a temperate manner with prudence and humanity, so that too much confidence may not make him incautious and too much distrust render him intolerable.

(*) . . . against my will, my fate A throne unsettled, and an infant state, Bid me defend my realms with all my pow'rs, And guard with these severities my shores. Christopher Pitt.

Upon this a question arises: whether it be better to be loved than feared or feared than loved? It may be answered that one should wish to be both, but, because it is difficult to unite them in one person, it is much safer to be feared than loved, when, of the two, either must be dispensed with. Because this is to be asserted in general of men, that they are ungrateful, fickle, false, cowardly, covetous, and as long as you succeed they are yours entirely; they will offer you their blood, property, life, and children, as is said above, when the need is far distant; but when it approaches they turn against you. And that prince who, relying entirely on their promises, has neglected other precautions, is ruined; because friendships that are obtained by payments, and not by greatness or nobility of mind, may indeed be earned, but they are not secured, and in time of need

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cannot be relied upon; and men have less scruple in offending one who is beloved than one who is feared, for love is preserved by the link of obligation which, owing to the baseness of men, is broken at every opportunity for their advantage; but fear preserves you by a dread of punishment which never fails.

Nevertheless a prince ought to inspire fear in such a way that, if he does not win love, he avoids hatred; because he can endure very well being feared whilst he is not hated, which will always be as long as he abstains from the property of his citizens and subjects and from their women. But when it is necessary for him to proceed against the life of someone, he must do it on proper justification and for manifest cause, but above all things he must keep his hands off the property of others, because men more quickly forget the death of their father than the loss of their patrimony. Besides, pretexts for taking away the property are never wanting; for he who has once begun to live by robbery will always find pretexts for seizing what belongs to others; but reasons for taking life, on the contrary, are more difficult to find and sooner lapse. But when a prince is with his army, and has under control a multitude of soldiers, then it is quite necessary for him to disregard the reputation of cruelty, for without it he would never hold his army united or disposed to its duties.

Among the wonderful deeds of Hannibal this one is enumerated: that having led an enormous army, composed of many various races of men, to fight in foreign lands, no dissensions arose either among them or against the prince, whether in his bad or in his good fortune. This arose from nothing else than his inhuman cruelty, which, with his boundless valour, made him revered and terrible in the sight of his soldiers, but without that cruelty, his other virtues were not sufficient to produce this effect. And short-sighted writers admire his deeds from one point of view and from another condemn the principal cause of them. That it is true his other virtues would not have been sufficient for him may be proved by the case of Scipio, that most excellent man, not only of his own times but within the memory of man, against whom, nevertheless, his army rebelled in Spain; this arose from nothing but his too great forbearance, which gave his soldiers more license than is consistent with military discipline. For this he was upbraided in the Senate by Fabius Maximus, and called the corrupter of the Roman soldiery. The Locrians were laid waste by a legate of Scipio, yet they were not avenged by him, nor was the insolence of the legate punished, owing entirely to his easy nature. Insomuch that someone in the Senate, wishing to excuse him, said there were many men who knew much better how not to err than to correct the errors of others. This disposition, if he had been continued in the command, would have destroyed in time the fame and glory of Scipio; but, he being under the control of the Senate, this injurious characteristic not only concealed itself, but contributed to his glory.

Returning to the question of being feared or loved, I come to the conclusion that, men loving according to their own will and fearing according to that of the prince, a wise prince should establish himself on that which is in his own control and not in that of others; he must endeavour only to avoid hatred, as is noted.

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CHAPTER XVIII(*) — CONCERNING THE WAY IN WHICH PRINCES SHOULD KEEP FAITH

(*) "The present chapter has given greater offence than any other portion of Machiavelli's writings." Burd, "Il Principe," p. 297.

Every one admits how praiseworthy it is in a prince to keep faith, and to live with integrity and not with craft. Nevertheless our experience has been that those princes who have done great things have held good faith of little account, and have known how to circumvent the intellect of men by craft, and in the end have overcome those who have relied on their word. You must know there are two ways of contesting,(*) the one by the law, the other by force; the first method is proper to men, the second to beasts; but because the first is frequently not sufficient, it is necessary to have recourse to the second. Therefore it is necessary for a prince to understand how to avail himself of the beast and the man. This has been figuratively taught to princes by ancient writers, who describe how Achilles and many other princes of old were given to the Centaur Chiron to nurse, who brought them up in his discipline; which means solely that, as they had for a teacher one who was half beast and half man, so it is necessary for a prince to know how to make use of both natures, and that one without the other is not durable. A prince, therefore, being compelled knowingly to adopt the beast, ought to choose the fox and the lion; because the lion cannot defend himself against snares and the fox cannot defend himself against wolves. Therefore, it is necessary to be a fox to discover the snares and a lion to terrify the wolves. Those who rely simply on the lion do not understand what they are about. Therefore a wise lord cannot, nor ought he to, keep faith when such observance may be turned against him, and when the reasons that caused him to pledge it exist no longer. If men were entirely good this precept would not hold, but because they are bad, and will not keep faith with you, you too are not bound to observe it with them. Nor will there ever be wanting to a prince legitimate reasons to excuse this non-observance. Of this endless modern examples could be given, showing how many treaties and engagements have been made void and of no effect through the faithlessness of princes; and he who has known best how to employ the fox has succeeded best.

(*) "Contesting," i.e. "striving for mastery." Mr Burd points out that this passage is imitated directly from Cicero's "De Officiis": "Nam cum sint duo genera decertandi, unum per disceptationem, alterum per vim; cumque illud proprium sit hominis, hoc beluarum; confugiendum est ad posterius, si uti non licet superiore."

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But it is necessary to know well how to disguise this characteristic, and to be a great pretender and dissembler; and men are so simple, and so subject to present necessities, that he who seeks to deceive will always find someone who will allow himself to be deceived. One recent example I cannot pass over in silence. Alexander the Sixth did nothing else but deceive men, nor ever thought of doing otherwise, and he always found victims; for there never was a man who had greater power in asserting, or who with greater oaths would affirm a thing, yet would observe it less; nevertheless his deceits always succeeded according to his wishes,(*) because he well understood this side of mankind.

(*) "Nondimanco sempre gli succederono gli inganni (ad votum)." The words "ad votum" are omitted in the Testina addition, 1550. Alexander never did what he said, Cesare never said what he did. Italian Proverb.

Therefore it is unnecessary for a prince to have all the good qualities I have enumerated, but it is very necessary to appear to have them. And I shall dare to say this also, that to have them and always to observe them is injurious, and that to appear to have them is useful; to appear merciful, faithful, humane, religious, upright, and to be so, but with a mind so framed that should you require not to be so, you may be able and know how to change to the opposite.

And you have to understand this, that a prince, especially a new one, cannot observe all those things for which men are esteemed, being often forced, in order to maintain the state, to act contrary to fidelity,(*) friendship, humanity, and religion. Therefore it is necessary for him to have a mind ready to turn itself accordingly as the winds and variations of fortune force it, yet, as I have said above, not to diverge from the good if he can avoid doing so, but, if compelled, then to know how to set about it.

(*) "Contrary to fidelity" or "faith," "contro alla fede," and "tutto fede," "altogether faithful," in the next paragraph. It is noteworthy that these two phrases, "contro alla fede" and "tutto fede," were omitted in the Testina edition, which was published with the sanction of the papal authorities. It may be that the meaning attached to the word "fede" was "the faith," i.e. the Catholic creed, and not as rendered here "fidelity" and "faithful." Observe that the word "religione" was suffered to stand in the text of the Testina, being used to signify indifferently every shade of belief, as witness "the religion," a phrase inevitably employed to designate the Huguenot heresy. South in his Sermon IX, p. 69, ed. 1843, comments on this passage as follows: "That great patron and Coryphaeus of this tribe, Nicolo Machiavel, laid down this for a master rule in his political scheme: 'That the show of religion was helpful to the politician, but the reality of it hurtful and pernicious.'"

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For this reason a prince ought to take care that he never lets anything slip from his lips that is not replete with the above-named five qualities, that he may appear to him who sees and hears him altogether merciful, faithful, humane, upright, and religious. There is nothing more necessary to appear to have than this last quality, inasmuch as men judge generally more by the eye than by the hand, because it belongs to everybody to see you, to few to come in touch with you. Every one sees what you appear to be, few really know what you are, and those few dare not oppose themselves to the opinion of the many, who have the majesty of the state to defend them; and in the actions of all men, and especially of princes, which it is not prudent to challenge, one judges by the result.

For that reason, let a prince have the credit of conquering and holding his state, the means will always be considered honest, and he will be praised by everybody; because the vulgar are always taken by what a thing seems to be and by what comes of it; and in the world there are only the vulgar, for the few find a place there only when the many have no ground to rest on.

One prince(*) of the present time, whom it is not well to name, never preaches anything else but peace and good faith, and to both he is most hostile, and either, if he had kept it, would have deprived him of reputation and kingdom many a time.

(*) Ferdinand of Aragon. "When Machiavelli was writing 'The Prince' it would have been clearly impossible to mention Ferdinand's name here without giving offence." Burd's "Il Principe," p. 308.

CHAPTER XIX — THAT ONE SHOULD AVOID BEING DESPISED AND HATED

Now, concerning the characteristics of which mention is made above, I have spoken of the more important ones, the others I wish to discuss briefly under this generality, that the prince must consider, as has been in part said before, how to avoid those things which will make him hated or contemptible; and as often as he shall have succeeded he will have fulfilled his part, and he need not fear any danger in other reproaches.

It makes him hated above all things, as I have said, to be rapacious, and to be a violator of the property and women of his subjects, from both of which he must abstain. And when neither their property nor their honor is touched, the majority of men live content, and he has only to contend with the ambition of a few, whom he can curb with ease in many ways.

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It makes him contemptible to be considered fickle, frivolous, effeminate, mean-spirited, irresolute, from all of which a prince should guard himself as from a rock; and he should endeavour to show in his actions greatness, courage, gravity, and fortitude; and in his private dealings with his subjects let him show that his judgments are irrevocable, and maintain himself in such reputation that no one can hope either to deceive him or to get round him.

That prince is highly esteemed who conveys this impression of himself, and he who is highly esteemed is not easily conspired against; for, provided it is well known that he is an excellent man and revered by his people, he can only be attacked with difficulty. For this reason a prince ought to have two fears, one from within, on account of his subjects, the other from without, on account of external powers. From the latter he is defended by being well armed and having good allies, and if he is well armed he will have good friends, and affairs will always remain quiet within when they are quiet without, unless they should have been already disturbed by conspiracy; and even should affairs outside be disturbed, if he has carried out his preparations and has lived as I have said, as long as he does not despair, he will resist every attack, as I said Nabis the Spartan did.

But concerning his subjects, when affairs outside are disturbed he has only to fear that they will conspire secretly, from which a prince can easily secure himself by avoiding being hated and despised, and by keeping the people satisfied with him, which it is most necessary for him to accomplish, as I said above at length. And one of the most efficacious remedies that a prince can have against conspiracies is not to be hated and despised by the people, for he who conspires against a prince always expects to please them by his removal; but when the conspirator can only look forward to offending them, he will not have the courage to take such a course, for the difficulties that confront a conspirator are infinite. And as experience shows, many have been the conspiracies, but few have been successful; because he who conspires cannot act alone, nor can he take a companion except from those whom he believes to be malcontents, and as soon as you have opened your mind to a malcontent you have given him the material with which to content himself, for by denouncing you he can look for every advantage; so that, seeing the gain from this course to be assured, and seeing the other to be doubtful and full of dangers, he must be a very rare friend, or a thoroughly obstinate enemy of the prince, to keep faith with you.

And, to reduce the matter into a small compass, I say that, on the side of the conspirator, there is nothing but fear, jealousy, prospect of punishment to terrify him; but on the side of the prince there is the majesty of the principality, the laws, the protection of friends and the state to defend him; so that, adding to all these things the popular goodwill, it is impossible that any one should be so rash as to conspire. For whereas in general the conspirator has to fear before the execution of his plot, in this case he has also to fear the sequel to the crime; because on account of it he has the people for an enemy, and thus cannot hope for any escape.

Endless examples could be given on this subject, but I will be content with one, brought to pass within the memory of our fathers. Messer Annibale Bentivogli, who was prince in Bologna (grandfather of the present Annibale), having been

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murdered by the Canneschi, who had conspired against him, not one of his family survived but Messer Giovanni,(*) who was in childhood: immediately after his assassination the people rose and murdered all the Canneschi. This sprung from the popular goodwill which the house of Bentivogli enjoyed in those days in Bologna; which was so great that, although none remained there after the death of Annibale who was able to rule the state, the Bolognese, having information that there was one of the Bentivogli family in Florence, who up to that time had been considered the son of a blacksmith, sent to Florence for him and gave him the government of their city, and it was ruled by him until Messer Giovanni came in due course to the government.

(*) Giovanni Bentivogli, born in Bologna 1438, died at Milan 1508. He ruled Bologna from 1462 to 1506. Machiavelli's strong condemnation of conspiracies may get its edge from his own very recent experience (February 1513), when he had been arrested and tortured for his alleged complicity in the Boscoli conspiracy.

For this reason I consider that a prince ought to reckon conspiracies of little account when his people hold him in esteem; but when it is hostile to him, and bears hatred towards him, he ought to fear everything and everybody. And well-ordered states and wise princes have taken every care not to drive the nobles to desperation, and to keep the people satisfied and contented, for this is one of the most important objects a prince can have.

Among the best ordered and governed kingdoms of our times is France, and in it are found many good institutions on which depend the liberty and security of the king; of these the first is the parliament and its authority, because he who founded the kingdom, knowing the ambition of the nobility and their boldness, considered that a bit to their mouths would be necessary to hold them in; and, on the other side, knowing the hatred of the people, founded in fear, against the nobles, he wished to protect them, yet he was not anxious for this to be the particular care of the king; therefore, to take away the reproach which he would be liable to from the nobles for favouring the people, and from the people for favouring the nobles, he set up an arbiter, who should be one who could beat down the great and favour the lesser without reproach to the king. Neither could you have a better or a more prudent arrangement, or a greater source of security to the king and kingdom. From this one can draw another important conclusion, that princes ought to leave affairs of reproach to the management of others, and keep those of grace in their own hands. And further, I consider that a prince ought to cherish the nobles, but not so as to make himself hated by the people.

It may appear, perhaps, to some who have examined the lives and deaths of the Roman emperors that many of them would be an example contrary to my opinion, seeing that some of them lived nobly and showed great qualities of soul, nevertheless they have lost their empire or have been killed by subjects who have conspired against them. Wishing, therefore, to answer these objections, I will recall the characters of some of the emperors, and will show that the causes of their ruin were not different to those alleged by me; at the same time I will only submit for consideration those things that are noteworthy to him who studies the affairs of those times.

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It seems to me sufficient to take all those emperors who succeeded to the empire from Marcus the philosopher down to Maximinus; they were Marcus and his son Commodus, Pertinax, Julian, Severus and his son Antoninus Caracalla, Macrinus, Heliogabalus, Alexander, and Maximinus.

There is first to note that, whereas in other principalities the ambition of the nobles and the insolence of the people only have to be contended with, the Roman emperors had a third difficulty in having to put up with the cruelty and avarice of their soldiers, a matter so beset with difficulties that it was the ruin of many; for it was a hard thing to give satisfaction both to soldiers and people; because the people loved peace, and for this reason they loved the unaspiring prince, whilst the soldiers loved the warlike prince who was bold, cruel, and rapacious, which qualities they were quite willing he should exercise upon the people, so that they could get double pay and give vent to their own greed and cruelty. Hence it arose that those emperors were always overthrown who, either by birth or training, had no great authority, and most of them, especially those who came new to the principality, recognizing the difficulty of these two opposing humours, were inclined to give satisfaction to the soldiers, caring little about injuring the people. Which course was necessary, because, as princes cannot help being hated by someone, they ought, in the first place, to avoid being hated by every one, and when they cannot compass this, they ought to endeavour with the utmost diligence to avoid the hatred of the most powerful. Therefore, those emperors who through inexperience had need of special favour adhered more readily to the soldiers than to the people; a course which turned out advantageous to them or not, accordingly as the prince knew how to maintain authority over them.

From these causes it arose that Marcus, Pertinax, and Alexander, being all men of modest life, lovers of justice, enemies to cruelty, humane, and benignant, came to a sad end except Marcus; he alone lived and died honoured, because he had succeeded to the throne by hereditary title, and owed nothing either to the soldiers or the people; and afterwards, being possessed of many virtues which made him respected, he always kept both orders in their places whilst he lived, and was neither hated nor despised.

But Pertinax was created emperor against the wishes of the soldiers, who, being accustomed to live licentiously under Commodus, could not endure the honest life to which Pertinax wished to reduce them; thus, having given cause for hatred, to which hatred there was added contempt for his old age, he was overthrown at the very beginning of his administration. And here it should be noted that hatred is acquired as much by good works as by bad ones, therefore, as I said before, a prince wishing to keep his state is very often forced to do evil; for when that body is corrupt whom you think you have need of to maintain yourself—it may be either the people or the soldiers or the nobles—you have to submit to its humours and to gratify them, and then good works will do you harm.

But let us come to Alexander, who was a man of such great goodness, that among the other praises which are accorded him is this, that in the fourteen years he held the empire no one was ever put to death by him unjudged; nevertheless, being

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considered effeminate and a man who allowed himself to be governed by his mother, he became despised, the army conspired against him, and murdered him.

Turning now to the opposite characters of Commodus, Severus, Antoninus Caracalla, and Maximinus, you will find them all cruel and rapacious-men who, to satisfy their soldiers, did not hesitate to commit every kind of iniquity against the people; and all, except Severus, came to a bad end; but in Severus there was so much valour that, keeping the soldiers friendly, although the people were oppressed by him, he reigned successfully; for his valour made him so much admired in the sight of the soldiers and people that the latter were kept in a way astonished and awed and the former respectful and satisfied. And because the actions of this man, as a new prince, were great, I wish to show briefly that he knew well how to counterfeit the fox and the lion, which natures, as I said above, it is necessary for a prince to imitate.

Knowing the sloth of the Emperor Julian, he persuaded the army in Sclavonia, of which he was captain, that it would be right to go to Rome and avenge the death of Pertinax, who had been killed by the praetorian soldiers; and under this pretext, without appearing to aspire to the throne, he moved the army on Rome, and reached Italy before it was known that he had started. On his arrival at Rome, the Senate, through fear, elected him emperor and killed Julian. After this there remained for Severus, who wished to make himself master of the whole empire, two difficulties; one in Asia, where Niger, head of the Asiatic army, had caused himself to be proclaimed emperor; the other in the west where Albinus was, who also aspired to the throne. And as he considered it dangerous to declare himself hostile to both, he decided to attack Niger and to deceive Albinus. To the latter he wrote that, being elected emperor by the Senate, he was willing to share that dignity with him and sent him the title of Caesar; and, moreover, that the Senate had made Albinus his colleague; which things were accepted by Albinus as true. But after Severus had conquered and killed Niger, and settled oriental affairs, he returned to Rome and complained to the Senate that Albinus, little recognizing the benefits that he had received from him, had by treachery sought to murder him, and for this ingratitude he was compelled to punish him. Afterwards he sought him out in France, and took from him his government and life. He who will, therefore, carefully examine the actions of this man will find him a most valiant lion and a most cunning fox; he will find him feared and respected by every one, and not hated by the army; and it need not be wondered at that he, a new man, was able to hold the empire so well, because his supreme renown always protected him from that hatred which the people might have conceived against him for his violence.

But his son Antoninus was a most eminent man, and had very excellent qualities, which made him admirable in the sight of the people and acceptable to the soldiers, for he was a warlike man, most enduring of fatigue, a despiser of all delicate food and other luxuries, which caused him to be beloved by the armies. Nevertheless, his ferocity and cruelties were so great and so unheard of that, after endless single murders, he killed a large number of the people of Rome and all those of Alexandria. He became hated by the whole world, and also feared by those he had around him, to such an extent that he was murdered in the midst of his army by a centurion. And here it must be noted that such-like deaths, which are deliberately inflicted with a resolved and desperate courage, cannot be avoided by princes, because any one who does not fear to die can

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inflict them; but a prince may fear them the less because they are very rare; he has only to be careful not to do any grave injury to those whom he employs or has around him in the service of the state. Antoninus had not taken this care, but had contumeliously killed a brother of that centurion, whom also he daily threatened, yet retained in his bodyguard; which, as it turned out, was a rash thing to do, and proved the emperor's ruin.

But let us come to Commodus, to whom it should have been very easy to hold the empire, for, being the son of Marcus, he had inherited it, and he had only to follow in the footsteps of his father to please his people and soldiers; but, being by nature cruel and brutal, he gave himself up to amusing the soldiers and corrupting them, so that he might indulge his rapacity upon the people; on the other hand, not maintaining his dignity, often descending to the theatre to compete with gladiators, and doing other vile things, little worthy of the imperial majesty, he fell into contempt with the soldiers, and being hated by one party and despised by the other, he was conspired against and was killed.

It remains to discuss the character of Maximinus. He was a very warlike man, and the armies, being disgusted with the effeminacy of Alexander, of whom I have already spoken, killed him and elected Maximinus to the throne. This he did not possess for long, for two things made him hated and despised; the one, his having kept sheep in Thrace, which brought him into contempt (it being well known to all, and considered a great indignity by every one), and the other, his having at the accession to his dominions deferred going to Rome and taking possession of the imperial seat; he had also gained a reputation for the utmost ferocity by having, through his prefects in Rome and elsewhere in the empire, practised many cruelties, so that the whole world was moved to anger at the meanness of his birth and to fear at his barbarity. First Africa rebelled, then the Senate with all the people of Rome, and all Italy conspired against him, to which may be added his own army; this latter, besieging Aquileia and meeting with difficulties in taking it, were disgusted with his cruelties, and fearing him less when they found so many against him, murdered him.

I do not wish to discuss Heliogabalus, Macrinus, or Julian, who, being thoroughly contemptible, were quickly wiped out; but I will bring this discourse to a conclusion by saying that princes in our times have this difficulty of giving inordinate satisfaction to their soldiers in a far less degree, because, notwithstanding one has to give them some indulgence, that is soon done; none of these princes have armies that are veterans in the governance and administration of provinces, as were the armies of the Roman Empire; and whereas it was then more necessary to give satisfaction to the soldiers than to the people, it is now more necessary to all princes, except the Turk and the Soldan, to satisfy the people rather the soldiers, because the people are the more powerful.

From the above I have excepted the Turk, who always keeps round him twelve thousand infantry and fifteen thousand cavalry on which depend the security and strength of the kingdom, and it is necessary that, putting aside every consideration for the people, he should keep them his friends. The kingdom of the Soldan is similar; being entirely in the hands of soldiers, it follows again that, without regard to the people, he must keep them his friends. But you must note that the state of the

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Soldan is unlike all other principalities, for the reason that it is like the Christian pontificate, which cannot be called either an hereditary or a newly formed principality; because the sons of the old prince are not the heirs, but he who is elected to that position by those who have authority, and the sons remain only noblemen. And this being an ancient custom, it cannot be called a new principality, because there are none of those difficulties in it that are met with in new ones; for although the prince is new, the constitution of the state is old, and it is framed so as to receive him as if he were its hereditary lord.

But returning to the subject of our discourse, I say that whoever will consider it will acknowledge that either hatred or contempt has been fatal to the above-named emperors, and it will be recognized also how it happened that, a number of them acting in one way and a number in another, only one in each way came to a happy end and the rest to unhappy ones. Because it would have been useless and dangerous for Pertinax and Alexander, being new princes, to imitate Marcus, who was heir to the principality; and likewise it would have been utterly destructive to Caracalla, Commodus, and Maximinus to have imitated Severus, they not having sufficient valour to enable them to tread in his footsteps. Therefore a prince, new to the principality, cannot imitate the actions of Marcus, nor, again, is it necessary to follow those of Severus, but he ought to take from Severus those parts which are necessary to found his state, and from Marcus those which are proper and glorious to keep a state that may already be stable and firm.