unesco creative cities network: inclusion of lucknow · administration later shifted to lucknow....

UNESCO CREATIVE CITIES NETWORK: INCLUSION OF

LUCKNOW INTERIM REPORT

JUNE 2019

Prepared for: Department of Culture, Govt. of Uttar Pradesh Prepared by:

DRONAH, GURGAON

1 INTERIM REPORT:UNESCO CREATIVE CITIES NETWORK FOR INCLUSION OF LUCKNOW FOR DEPARTMENT OF CULTURE, GOVT. OF UTTAR PRADESH

UNESCO CREATIVE CITIES NETWORK: INCLUSION OF LUCKNOW

Interim Report

Prepared by:

Prepared for:

Department of Culture, Government of Uttar Pradesh


Contents 1. Executive Summary .................................................................................... 3

2. Introduction ................................................................................................ 4

3. Historical Background of Avadh And Lucknow As the Provincial Capital 9

4. GASTRONOMY: Historical Introduction ................................................... 20

4.1. Gastronomy of Lucknow: Historical Context and Patronage in the Court of the Nawabs of Lucknow ..................................................................................... 20

4.2. Contemporary Lucknow and the State of Gastronomy Sector ................... 26

4.3. Listing the traditional Cuisines in historic core of Lucknow ..................... 29

4.4. Cuisines of Lucknow ................................................................................ 35

5. Preliminary Swot Analysis of Gastronomy of Lucknow City ................... 50

6. Proposed Solutions to Promote the Gastronomy Sector ......................... 53

7. Folk Traditions of Lucknow City .............................................................. 55

8. Traditional Fairs and Festivals of Lucknow City ..................................... 56

8.1. Aishbagh Fair ........................................................................................... 56

8.2. Eid-Iftar ................................................................................................... 56

8.3. Bada Mangal of Aliganj Fair ..................................................................... 57

8.4. Dewa Sharif Mela ..................................................................................... 59

8.5. Gudion Ka Mela (Doll’s fair) ...................................................................... 59

8.6. Athon Ka Mela (fair of the Eighth) ............................................................ 60

8.7. Chhariyon Ka Mela (fair of sticks)............................................................. 60

9. Contemporary Food Festivals of Lucknow ............................................... 61

9.1. Lucknow Mahotsav .................................................................................. 61

9.2. Sanatkada Festival ................................................................................... 62

10. Work Schedule for Deliverables ................................................................ 63

References ........................................................................................................... 64

List of Figures ..................................................................................................... 65


1. Executive Summary

The Department of Culture, Govt. of Uttar Pradesh has commissioned a project to provide consultancy on nomination of Lucknow as a UNESCO Creative Cities Network in the field of Gastronomy.

Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state in India, with a large pool of skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled labour. Alternately, the population is also looked upon as the largest consumer base in the country with around 200 million people. It is the largest producer of food grains among all states in India and accounted for about 17.83 per cent share in the country’s total food grain output in 2016-171.The state is also one of the major producers of horticultural crops and food grains in India which serves as a lucrative base for the food processing industry. Wheat, Rice, Barley, Bajra and Sugarcane are the major crops produced in Uttar Pradesh. The state is also the largest producer of fruits (Mango, Gooseberry, Banana, Guava, Muskmelon and Watermelon); and vegetables (Potato, Peas, Pumpkin, Pointed gourd, Carrot and Bottle gourd). Of all that Lucknow has to offer, local food remains one of the most mesmerising experiences. The Avadhi cuisine not only continues to attract patrons from all over the country, but also binds the local population together. It has indeed made the Lucknawi society more liberal by facilitating dialogues through food and other cultural sharing. Muslim areas are frequently visited by people for other religions who appreciate their lineage and brand value in food. Over the years, the local Muslim community has also been accepting of the new variants added to the mix of Avadhi cuisine. Avadhi food, for years has been a medium to bind people belonging to various classes and religion together. From the time of the Nawabs when friendly culinary challenges between royal families were a common phenomenon, and Nawabs taking pride in their Rakabdars and their own lineage of food, to the current times when people from across religion drool over the same food, Avadhi food has never failed to mesmerize both its patrons and its makers.

This interim report builds upon the food and gastronomical heritage of Lucknow. The objective is to analyse the scope of field in city, the collect information, developing maps, analyse the collected data, SWOT analysis, proposals and filing the application for UCCN. The project proposal has been crafted to develop an action plan for the city which will outline the short term and long term goals to be achieved by to fulfil the UCCN objectives such as creative area walks, infrastructures, and up gradation for the creative field, national and international events, evaluation of the existing creative cities and scope of collaboration with them, developing a budget plan for the implementation of the proposed action plan, coordination and dialogue with HRD, MOC, UNESCO; international network cities as per requirement and support for application, plan for the communication and presentation for promoting the network, analysing the measures taken by the state government and concerned departments to support and enhance the creative field in the city. The final step is the preparation of an application as per UCCN guidelines.

1 https://www.ibef.org/states/uttar-pradesh-presentation (Industrial Development and Economic Growth in Uttar Pradesh)

https://www.ibef.org/states/uttar-pradesh-presentation


2. Introduction

Current dynamics of Uttar Pradesh

Uttar Pradesh, known as United Province in the British times, is one of the largest states of India. Uttar Pradesh is a landlocked state, but the rich network of many Himalayan rivers and some rivers originating from the Vindhya Range have made the soil fertile. The rich agricultural produce has led to the evolution of a cuisine that makes good use of the grains grown in the state. Interestingly, the cuisine of the state is quite diverse since the cities and towns that make up Uttar Pradesh have all had a unique complex history of invasions and changing regimes. The rural parts of the state have an agrarian culture. Though the state is moving towards the flashy display of packaged foods, thankfully, most of the locals are connected to their roots and have not stopped eating the foods their forefathers ate; thus, the cuisine has survived in both rural and urban centres, and people still find comfort in their own regional and micro-regional cuisines.

Figure 1Key points of Uttar Pradesh; source- Google- a document of Ministry of Food Processing Industries (GoI) for World Food India 2017

Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state in India, with a large pool of skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled labour. Alternately, the population is also looked upon as the largest consumer base in the country with around 200 million people. It is the largest producer of food grains among all states in India and accounted for about 17.83 per cent share in the country’s total food grain output in 2016-17. Food grain production in the state in 2017-18 stood at 51,252.7 thousand tonnes and 18,416.3 thousand tonnes in 2018-19. Pulses production in the state stood at 2,208.0 thousand tonnes in 2017-18 (4th Advance estimates) and 660.7 thousand tonnes under kharif season in 2018-19 (1st Advance Estimates).


Production of vegetables is 27,515.92 (Provisional) thousand tonnes in 2017-18. The state has become a hub for the semiconductor industry with several major players having their offices and research and development (R&D) centres in Noida.

Between 2011-12 and 2018-19, Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) expanded at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 11.41 per cent to Rs 15.42 trillion (US$ 213.78 billion) whereas the Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) expanded at a CAGR of 11.42 per cent to Rs 13.76 trillion (US$ 190.66 billion)2

Wheat, Rice, Barley, Bajra and Sugarcane are the major crops produced in Uttar Pradesh. The state is also the largest producer of fruits (Mango, Gooseberry, Banana, Guava, Muskmelon and Watermelon); and vegetables (Potato, Peas, Pumpkin, Pointed gourd, Carrot and Bottle gourd).

Figure 2 Mango production in UP; image source- Uttar Pradesh Food Trails, Directorate of Tourism, UP

Nawabi legends of Culture and Cuisine

From times immemorial, settlers in this region have enjoyed mouth-watering variety of food grains and vegetables harvested several times a year. These agrarian communities have traditionally lived in the company of a host of cattle that help them to till and irrigate the fertile alluvial soil and also gift their owners a daily supply of milk. Milk products like ghee, cheese, butter milk, khoya, and yoghurt can be produced in abundance from plentiful, high quality, creamy milk.3

Avadh as a region was formally known as the ‘United Province of Agra and Oudh’ in British India. Earlier flourishing under the Sharqui Sultanate of Jaunpur and then the early Mughals, Avadh passed through several hands between the mid-14th and the early 18th centuries, shaping up to the cradle of North Indian aristocracy, tehzeeb, tameez aur nafasat (referring to the refined regional culture with its classy

2 https://www.ibef.org/states/uttar-pradesh-presentation (Industrial Development and Economic Growth in Uttar Pradesh) 3 Husain Salma. Flavours of Awadh.pp14. Niyogi Books, New Delhi.2015



manners and mannerisms, the high sophistication and a rare tradition of etiquette, typical of this region), Avadh is still identified as the cultural capital of north India society.

It is in Avadh that urdu as a language acquired finesse and perfection, kathak as a classical dance form took shape and regional theatre traditions contributed in lending a basic structure to Indian cinema- the Mumbai film industry brand in particular. The region is a vital link between tradition and modernity-the seat of a composite culture best known as the Ganga-Jamani tehzeeb. Faizabad was the old capital of Avadh (often referred to as Oudh in colonial India); the seat of administration later shifted to Lucknow. The city is the capital of the state of Uttar Pradesh. All the Nawabs of Avadh ruled from Lucknow and were hence popularly referred to by the title- the Nawab of Lucknow.

Lucknow and Avadh stand out among other Nawabi provinces, it was solely and entirely because of its rulers who had certain interests or shauks or the art and architecture that flourished during their times because of the extensive immigration and embraced the regional culture also. There is absolutely no doubt in the fact that the art, architecture and culture of Avadh were a result of the interests of the rulers. The rulers could go to any lengths to fulfil what they desired so much so that in order to cater to his needs, Wajid Ali Shah even went bankrupt.

Avadh became famous and noted not only for its architectural delights but also became a cradle for the manifestation of various art forms like Kathak, Thumri, Khayal, Dadra, Gazals, Qawwalies and Sher-o-Shairi, impeccable Handicrafts of Chikan work, the Zardozi and Kamdani work. These along with the personal interests of Nawabs led to the development of spaces which modern day Lucknow comprises of.

Another distinct feature that sets Avadh apart was its testimony to the impeccable etiquettes. Courtesans like the tawaif were exclusively trained for the trade. Their highest ranks consisted of well-educated and exquisitely mannered women who were employed by Lucknow’s elite classes for musical and dance enactments, poesy recitals, and the teaching of social etiquette. Respected tawaifs were even engaged to sing and recite poetry at Lucknow’s Shia religious assemblies. They were depicted by many European and Indian artists in paintings and photographs that stand in rather stark contrast to imagined views of wives and consorts in the protected domestic spaces of the zenana, images that belie the latter women’s sometimes considerable political influence.

It is the nawabs of Avadh who are credited with the evolution of Avadh as a centre of cultural renaissance. Abundance of wealth, a taste for finer things in life and the availability of time for leisure made the nawabs great patrons of music, poetry, dance, drama and art. Hence, during their rule, Avadh attracted artists, architects, poets, artisans, scholars and khansamas who shaped the rich cultural heritage of the region. Avadhi dastarkhwan, literally a tablecloth, used metaphorically to refer to the lavish spread of the Avadhi cuisine, which had a variety of dishes ranging from melt-in-mouth kebabs, qorma, pulao and sheermal to the soft and weightless


makhan malaai and zarda. The aromatic dumpukht method too was adopted in the kitchens and dishes like shabdeg were produced. The nawabs were great admirers of culinary art and encouraged the cooks to invent unique dishes. Avadh had some famous rikabdars, or master chefs, who created artisanal foods. Skilful cooking and amazing presentation coupled with gracious hospitality defined a typical Avadhi culinary experience. Even today, Avadhi cuisine is recognized globally for its refined taste.

Figure 3 (l) Kebab and tea preparation ;(r)- paan with silver foil

Guzishta Lucknow is written by Maulana Abdul Halim Sharar where he gives insight into the daily lives of the Nawabs and the commoners of the city while capture the minor details like how the paan (beetle leaf served as a breath freshener) was served during social gatherings. It is filled with countless lesser known facts and fascinating stories about yesteryear’s Lucknow. It talks about most of today’s so-called old city areas which came up during the period of Nawab Sa’adat Ali Khan was responsible for the establishment of many old markets such as Sa’adatganj, Rakaabganj, Maulviganj, Golaganj and Rastogi mohalla, Motimahal. Nawab Ghayasuddin Haider started the practice of animal fighting in Lucknow and about the cook named Muhamdoo in the period of Nawab Nasir-ud-din Haider who invented the Sheermaal (popular orange colored local bread).

The present day attractions of the city, the bazaar, debatable foods, its crafts people, the architecture are been well described by the authors, Rosie Llewellyn- Jones in few books she have written on Lucknow which have interviews of few cooks of Lucknow and describes the stories which are attached to the craft and how they have played important role in shaping the tradition.


Figure 4 Varieties of foods- sheermal, chaat and makhan malai; image source- Ajaish Jaiswal


3. Historical Background of Avadh And Lucknow As the Provincial Capital

The modern definition of Avadh geographically includes the districts of Ambedkar Nagar, Bahraich, Balrampur, Barabanki, Faizabad, Gonda, Hardoi, Lakhimpur Kheri, Lucknow, Pratapgarh, Raebareli, Shravasti, Sitapur, Sultanpur and Unnao from Avadh and Kanpur, Kanpur Dehat, Fatehpur, Kaushambi and Allahabad from Lower Doab.

Figure 5 Map of Oudh; image source- Google

Architecture under the Nawabs of Avadh gained prominence during the downfall of the Mughal Empire. As the Mughal Empire weakened thus, the Nawabs of Murshidabad, Avadh and Hyderabad began to establish their own successor states. The architecture sponsored by the rulers and inhabitants of these new domains was heavily dependent on the Mughal style established during ShahJahan and Aurangzeb, yet in each case new formal interpretations and meaning gave way to older forms. The capital of Avadh was Faizabad which later shifted to Lucknow under Nawab Asaf-ud-Daulah.

In view of the historical development of the region, the growth of Lucknow’s architecture may be studied in three phases. Contextual framework


1. Later Mughals 2. Nawabi Period Early Nawab (1775-1800) - Reign of Nawab Asaf Ud Daula and Nawab

Saadat Ali Khan. There was excessive building activity during this time. It represents the adaptation of later Mughal architecture, which was itself already in decline. It was also the time when Claude Martin, an influential European in the court of the Nawab, and the engineers of the British East India Company were creating buildings in Lucknow. So during this time while Asaf Ud Daula was building his magnificent Imambara Asafi,while Martin was building palaces with European elements, which were to have a deep impact on the architecture of Lucknow.

Later Nawab (1800-1856) - those monuments, which belong to the first half of the nineteenth century, before Avadh was annexed by the British. These monuments are characterised by a hybrid style, incorporating Indo-Muslim and European elements.

3. Colonial Period (1857-1947): The third phase comprises those monuments raised by the British.

From Lakshmana Pura to Lucknow:

It is said that after Raja Ramchandra had conquered Ceylon and completed his term of exile in wilderness, and when he had honoured the status of kingship by adopting its form, he gave this region of Lucknow as a reward to his devoted brother Lachman (Lakshman), who had accompanied him on his travels. To commemorate the latter’s say, a village was built on a high hill overlooking the river which since that day has been known as Lachmanpur. The hill was called Lachman hill and in it was a very deep cave with a well of which no one could estimate the depth. People said it went down as far as Shesh Nag. This idea gave religious feeling and Hindus, inspired by faith, would go there to sprinkle water and offer flowers4.

It is also said that Maharaja Yudhistira’s grandson, Raja Jaman Ji, gave this region as a reward to holy sages, the rishis, and munis, and that they set up their hermitages throughout the land and became immersed in the contemplation of the Almighty. After some time, realizing that these sages had become weak and defenceless, two hitherto unknown tribes came from the Himalayan foothills and took possession of the region. These tribes seem to have been two branches of the same family- one was called Bhar and the other Pansi.

These people were attacked by Saiyyid Salar Masud Ghazi in 1030 and probably also by Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1202. Therefore, the first muslim families to settle in this region were those that had accompanied these two assailants, especially the former.

From early days Brahmans and Kayasthas in addition to the Bhars and Pansis, lived together in peace and harmony in the small town. It cannot be said when this

4 Sharar Halim Abdul. The Lucknow Omnibus. pg 36. Oxford University Press.2001


town changed its name from Lachmanpur to Lucknow. The name which is now current cannot be denied that a large population of Hindus and Muslims were settled before Akbar’s reign. This can be proved by an event which is described long before that time in the family records of the Shaikhs of Lucknow. In 1540, when King Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah at Jaunpur, he fled from the battlefield by way of Sultanpur, Lucknow and Pilibheet. He paused to rest for four hours in Lucknow and although he came as a victim of defeat and had no power or authority, the people of Lucknow, purely from feelings of sympathy and hospitality, made him a gift of ten thousand rupees and fifty horses.

When in 1590 Emperor Akbar divided the whole of India into twelve Provinces, Lucknow was, in the first instance, chosen as the seat of the Subedar, or Governor of Avadh. At that time one Shaikh Abdur Rahim, an impecunious and down-at-heel nobleman of Bijnaur (UP), went to Delhi to seek his fortune. Here, he acquired some influence with the nobles of the court and was himself accepted as a courtier. Eventually, having become an official in imperial service, he was granted land in Lucknow and a few days later, with great pomp and show, he went to his estate. Here, he took up residence on Lachman or Shah Pir Muhammad Hill. He built Panj Mahla, which according to some accounts was a five-storeyed palace and according to others a complex of five palaces, erected the Shaikhan Gate and himself became part and parcel of Lucknow. His tomb is known today as Nadan Mahal5.

At that time Shaikh Rahim had a small fort built on an eminence close to Lachman hill. It was stronger than other forts in the vicinity and people in the neighbourhood were much impressed by it. Either because Shaikh Abdur Rahim had been awarded the title of Mahi Maratib at the Imperial Court or because on the twenty-six arches in one portion of the fort the architect had engraved two fish on each arch, making a total of fifty-two fix, this fort came to be known as Machi Bhavan. The word bhavan, as well as meaning ‘fort’, could be a corruption of the word bavan, meaning ‘fifty-two’. The architect who designed this fort was an Ahir named Lakhna. Some may say that because his name the town was called Lucknow. Others think that Lachmanpur was corrupted into Lucknow. Conjecture, as one may, there is no doubt that the town adopted this name after the coming of Abdur Rahim.

Sometime later in addition to the family of Shaikh Abdur Rahim, that is to say, the Shaikhzadas, a number of Pathans arrived who settled in the south and were known as the Ram Nagar Pathans. They fixed the limit of their lands at the place where the Gol Darvaza now stands because from that point on towards the river the territory of the Shaikhzadas commenced. After these Pathans, another group of Shaikhs arrived and settled towards the east. They were known as the Benehrah Shaikhs and their land was where the ruins of the Residency now stand.

Although these three groups occupied their own areas and held sway over them, the authority of the Shaikhzadas was paramount and their power over the neighbourhood was supreme. The principal reason for this was that they had 5 Sharar Halim Abdul. The Lucknow Omnibus. pg 37.Oxford University Press.2001


influence with the court at Delhi and members of the family had been appointed Subedars of the whole Province of Avadh. Their fort, Machi Bhavan, was so strong that it was said, ‘He who holds Machi Bhavan holds Lucknow.'

During Akbar’s reign Lucknow made progress and its population grew. But although some of the Shaikhzadas were chosen as Subedars of Avadh, for the most part a Delhi noble was appointed to the post. These officials stayed throughout the year in their own homes in Delhi and came to Avadh only when the time came for collecting taxes. Only their deputies resided in Lucknow, so there was little hope of the town making progress under their administration. On the few occasions that a member of the Shaikhzada family was appointed Subedar, Lucknow certainly benefited by the appointment. It appears as though Akbar took a special interest in Lucknow, for he gave the local Brahmans one of rupees for the Bajpai offerings and from that time the Bajpai Brahmans of Lucknow became famous. One can gather from this that the oldest Hindu quarters of Lucknow in existence at this time were the Bajpai, Katari,’ Sundhi, Banjari and Ahiri tolas. All these quarters remain, in the neighbourhood of the then main market-place of Chowk.

Mirza Salim, who was known by the title of Nur-ud Din Jahangir when he came to the throne, laid the foundations of Mirza market to the west of Machi Bhavan whilst his father was still alive and he was heir apparent.

Towards the end of Akbar’s reign, Jawahar Khan was Subedar. He himself lived in Delhi but his deputy, Qazi Mahmud Bilgrami, built, adjacent to the south part of the Chowk market-place, Mahmud Nagar and Shah Ganj. Between he had a gate erected which was known as Akbari Gate to perpetuate the Emperor’s name.

During Akbar’s reign, when these buildings were being erected and the town was filling up, Lucknow had become a great centre of commerce. It was so prosperous that a French merchant, who traded in horses, settled there in the hope of reaping a profit. Having received a Certificate of Security* from the Imperial Court for his stay in Lucknow, he set up his stables and in the very first year was so successful that he built four splendid houses in the vicinity of the market- place.

In 1631 at the commencement of the reign of Emperor Shahjahan, a European traveller, Lockett, made a journey to India. He wrote that Lucknow was a great centre for trade.6

In Shahjahan’s time the Governor of Lucknow was Sultan Ali Shah Quli Khan, who had two sons, Mirza Fazil and Mirza Mansur. To commemorate their names, he inaugurated two new quarters, Fazil Nagar and Mansur Nagar, just beyond the southern outskirts of Mahmud Nagar.

In the days of the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah Rangeley, the Governor of Lucknow was a valiant Hindu Risaldar named Gardhananga whose uncle Chabele

6 Sharar Halim Abdul. The Lucknow Omnibus. pg 38. Oxford University Press.2001


Ram had been appointed ruler of Allahabad by the Mughal court. On the death of Chabele Ram, Gardhananga decided to revolt and to assume the ruler ship of Allahabad in his uncle’s place. But thinking better of it, he declared his loyalty and allegiance and was granted the khilat of office as Subedar of Avadh by the Government. He came to live in Lucknow and his wife Rani laid the foundations of Rani Katra.

“Do the inimical heavens ever have the power to separate me from Lucknow?

Lucknow dies for me, I die for Lucknow!

Who could describe the grandeur of the King of Lucknow?

The bowl in the beggar’s hand here is the wine cup of Jamshed,

the legendary king.”

- Shaikh Imam Bakhsh ‘Nasikh’ (1722-1838)

This was the state of affairs in Lucknow when, in 1732, Navab Sadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk came to the town after having been appointed Subedar of Avadh by the Delhi Government. It was he who laid the foundations of that fine oriental court whose evolution, as stated by the essayist, historian and novelist Abdul Halim Sharar (1860-1926) is considered to be the last example of Eastern culture which he wished to an account of.

Lucknow’s hereditary dynasty began in 1722 when an Iranian Shia Muslim noble named Saadat Khan Burhan al-Mulk (r. 1722–39) was appointed the Nawab of Avadh by the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah (r. 1719–48). Although nominally in charge of the region, Saadat Khan still had to conquer the local land barons who


ruled Lucknow, the Shaikhzadas, in order to begin his governorship. Through able as well as devious administration Saadat Khan consolidated his control over Avadh and secured his political base and increasing autonomy. In 1739 Saadat Khan conspired with Nadir Shah to conquer Delhi but died immediately before the attack, reportedly by suicide. Saadat Khan’s nephew and son-in-law Safdar Jang (r. 1739–54) was then appointed the governor of Avadh by Muhammad Shah. After Safdar Jang repulsed several military incursions, he was rewarded by being promoted to Wazir (chief minister) of the Mughal Empire. During Safdar Jang’s long rule, Avadh enjoyed a lasting peace that enabled the development of an independent style of art and culture.

Both Saadat Khan and Safdar Jang regarded Delhi as their permanent family home. Consequently, they ruled Avadh from temporary quarters in a fort at Faizabad, approximately ninety miles east of Lucknow. The early nawabs and their officers often travelled back and forth between Faizabad and Lucknow, residing in the city where current events. Muhammad Shah and Nadir Shah, c. 1740, Muhammad Azam, Nasir al-din Haidar, c. 1830, dictated their attention. Faizabad was closer to the eastern provinces of Avadh, whereas Lucknow was centrally located and also functioned more readily as the base of operations for activities in the western provinces.

Thus, the two cities of Faizabad and Lucknow served as alternating seats of Nawabi power and presence. When Safdar Jang died in 1754, he was succeeded by his son Shuja al-Daula as the nawab of Avadh. Shuja al-Daula had been living in Lucknow in his capacity as the deputy governor responsible for the western provinces of Avadh, and after becoming Nawab, he continued to favor Lucknow as his primary residence. Like his father, Shuja al-Daula also served valiantly and skilfully at the Mughal court, and eventually was appointed Wazir under Shah Alam II (r. 1759–1806).

The course of Lucknow’s history changed dramatically in 1764. In what proved a futile attempt to curb the growing power of the English East India Company, the combined but ineffectual armies of Shuja al-Daula, Shah Alam II, and the recently deposed Nawab of Bengal, Mir Qasim (r. 1760–63), were decisively defeated at the

Battle of Buxar (Baksar) in Bihar, in eastern India, by the greatly outnumbered British forces led by Major Hector Munro (1726–1805). Shuja al-Daula shrewdly threw himself upon the mercy of Lord Robert Clive (1725–1774), who, unwilling to take over the administration of the vast realms of those defeated and wanting a buffer zone against the Marathas and the remaining Mughal Empire, restored Shuja al-Daula to power in Avadh through the Treaty of Allahabad in 1765, this in exchange for duty-free trade concessions throughout Eastern India and parts of present-day Bangladesh, a mutual defence alliance funded by Avadh, and a substantial war restitution of five million rupees. On his return to Lucknow, Shuja al-Daula curtailed his military aggression and relocated his capital to Faizabad. He developed Faizabad into an important cultural center and erected luxurious palaces and lush gardens, but it served as Avadh’s capital for only another decade,


until Shuja al-Daula’s death in 1775. Shuja al-Daula’s son and successor, Asaf al-Daula, returned the capital to Lucknow soon after his accession, reportedly to establish his independence and escape the interference of his mother, the powerful widow of Shuja al-Daula, Bahu Begam.

It was during the rule of Asaf al-Daula that the artistic glories of Lucknow and the Avadh dynasty truly began to flourish. Asaf al-Daula revelled in a life of courtly splendour and strove to surpass his rival potentates, the Nizam Ali Khan of Hyderabad (r. 1762–1803) and Tipu Sultan of Mysore (r. 1783–99).7 He spent lavish sums on the luxuries of royalty and built imposing palatial and religious architecture to proclaim the magnificence of his dynasty. Grand palaces, mosques, and mausoleums were erected, inspired by the architectural marvels of the great Mughals but given a European flavour through hybrid flourishes and embellishment on the interior with numerous European glass chandeliers. Asaf al-Daula and the nawabs of Lucknow also commissioned special halls called Imambaras in honor of Shia religious leaders (imams) for use in the Shia observance of Muharram.

The significance of the reigns of Shuja al-Daula and Asaf al-Daula cannot be understated. Shuja al-Daula and his primary wife, Bahu Begam, cultivated a vibrant, urbane culture for the Avadh court at Faizabad. Asaf al-Daula, though neither praised during his life nor remembered by historians for any momentous political accomplishments, nonetheless was responsible for fostering a sophisticated aesthetic vision for the Avadh court at Lucknow, which in turn defined the stylistic identity for much of the dynasty’s future artistic achievement. The two Nawabs also enabled Avadh to become a fertile environment for the arts. The prosperity and patronage of their courts not only attracted numerous Indian painters, poets, musicians, singers, and dancers but also enticed many Britons and Europeans into long-term residences while they served at court in various military or advisory capacities. These expatriates are significant in the present context because some of them became active collectors and patrons of the arts, especially of Indian painting. They in turn attracted various European artists to Avadh who not only produced numerous portraits and other works in western styles but also helped stimulate a dynamic cross-cultural interaction in the arts and architecture.

After the death of Asaf al-Daula in 1797, the English East India Company (“the Company”) quickly demanded and was accorded far greater political and economic control over the Lucknow court. Asaf al-Daula’s chosen successor was his adopted son, Wazir Ali Khan (r. 1797–98), but he ruled for a mere four tumultuous months before being deposed for his violent anti-British views by Sir John Shore, the governor-general of India (1793–97). Shore installed Asaf al-Daula’s young half-brother Saadat Ali Khan (r. 1798–1814) as the new puppet Nawab of Lucknow and forced him to sign a succession settlement ceding control of the Allahabad Fort and committing to a substantial annual subsidy to the British. Further concessions were imposed in 1801, when the succeeding governor-general (from 1798 to 1805), Richard Colley Wellesley, Lord Mornington and1st Marquis of Wellesley, forced Saadat Ali Khan to surrender even more political authority and to cede half of


Avadh’s territory and the considerable revenue derived from it to permanent British control. Despite Saadat Ali Khan’s enfeebling loss of half his domain and virtually all his political power—or some might say because of his great loss—he proved a remarkable builder who transformed Lucknow’s urban landscape. He had abroad thoroughfare constructed for European visitors so they would not have to transverse Lucknow’s notorious crowded lanes, and he commissioned numerous country homes and a palace complex built in an imposing hybrid architectural style.

Another major chapter in Lucknow’s history opened with the accession in 1814 of Saadat Ali Khan’s son, Ghazi al-Din Haidar, who in 1819 was officially crowned king of Avadh; he ruled until 1827. In casting off the nominal yoke of Mughal subjugation to assert his sovereignty, Ghazi al-Din Haidar proudly proclaimed the fulfilment of the Avadh dynasty’s imperial aspirations. His assumption of an independent throne was aggressively promoted on behalf of the Company by Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings, who was then Indian governor-general (1813–22). The long-term practical effect of the collusion was that Ghazi al-Din Haidar and his reigning descendants became entrenched in financial and political obligations that would help lead to the complete annexation of Avadh in 1856, and eventually to the establishment of formal British rule over India. Ghazi al-Din Haidar’s coronation was an exceedingly lavish affair, modeled in ceremony and symbolic accoutrements upon Mughal empowerment rituals, but the crown and sumptuous garments of his imperial regalia were designed in a hybrid European style by his English court artist Robert Home (1752–1834).Although Ghazi al-Din Haidar expended considerable effort and expense in proclaiming his newfound kingly status, including issuing appropriately aggrandizing coinage and commemorative medals, he had little actual political power under the controlling oversight of the British Resident,18 who was responsible for promoting the commercial interests of the Company. With limited governmental responsibilities, Ghazi al-Din Haidar was free to patronize literature and poetry, as well as commission various monuments, including the Chota Chattar Manzil, parts of the Moti Mahal complex, and the Shah Najaf Imambara, which serves as his mausoleum.

Ghazi al-Din Haidar was succeeded by his son Nasir al-Din Haidar (r. 1827–37). He built only a few structures, principally the royal observatory, but is chiefly remembered for his dalliances and avoidance of administrative responsibility. When he died childless after being poisoned in 1837, a tragic struggle for succession ensued. Ghazi al-Din Haidar’s brother Muhammad Ali Shah (r. 1837–42) was finally installed by the British as the new king of Avadh and promptly set about restoring an effective administration and constructing numerous edifices, including the grand Husainabad Imambara, in which he is entombed.

Muhammad Ali Shah was followed briefly by his pious son Amjad Ali Shah (r. 1842–47), who was succeeded by his son Wajid Ali Shah (r. 1847–56). Wajid Ali Shah inherited a kingship that was virtually bereft of political power. In consequence perhaps, he was a devoted practitioner and patron of the arts,


especially music, dance, and poetry. Many notable compositions were created during his reign. He also commissioned a number of architectural projects, including a walled garden for his wife Sikander Begam.

His most magnificent monument was the Qaisar Bagh, an enormous palatial complex built between 1848 and 1852. After less than a decade of Wajid Ali Shah’s reign, however, in 1856 Avadhwas annexed by the English East India Company and the former king was banished to Calcutta (Kolkata), where he continued to patronize music and poetry, and lived, muted, in exile until his death in 1887.

Although the aesthetic glories of Lucknow declined sharply at this time, especially after the widespread retaliatory destruction in 1858 following the Great Uprising of 1857 (also known as the Sepoy Mutiny or Rebellion and the First War of Indian Independence), sophisticated artistic expression in the media of painting, metal ware, and jewellery, and in arts such as music and poetry, continued in Lucknow well into the early twentieth century.

Three primary sources of artistic sponsorship developed to fill the void left by the forced departure of Avadh’s ruler and court. The principal new arts patrons were the local minor rajas and taluqdars, a class of wealthy Muslim and Hindu landowners and landlords, many of whom aspired to become gentry.

A lucrative commercial market functioned as a second form of new patronage for the artists of Lucknow because of the widespread renown of the cataclysmic events of 1857–58, especially the six-month siege of the Residency, Lucknow became a “must see” stop on tourist itineraries for European and Indians alike (although the emotional connotations of the sites visited certainly differed for the two groups). Accordingly, a thriving trade in Lucknow’s famed silver metal ware and jewellery sprang up in the city’s main market. Popular genre paintings and stock photographs were also presumably available. Areas surrounding the Gomti river and nearby, were established first and hence are now considered the older areas of Lucknow, which are famous for their readily available snippets and experiences of culture7. Some of the main markets include, Chowk, Aminabad, Kaiserbagh, Chota and Bada Imambara.

7 The Dynastic History of Lucknow India’s Fabled City: The Art of Courtly Lucknow, pp. 14-23. Los Angeles: LACMA and DelMonico Books, 2010., 2010


Figure 6 European trade posts in India; image source-Curry: a tale of cooks and conquerors by Lizzie Collingham


Figure 7 Historic map of Lucknow; image source-Google


4. GASTRONOMY: Historical Introduction

4.1. Gastronomy of Lucknow: Historical Context and Patronage in the Court of the Nawabs of Lucknow

The rulers of Avadh engaged in peaceful pursuits since the battle of Buxar, and laid the foundation of a culture which dazzled the world. Under their patronage developed a cuisine which did not remain the prerogative of royalty alone. Recipes travelled from the royal kitchen to the kitchens of the nobility and from there, to the kitchens of ordinary people. Thus, the style is native of Lucknow which later influenced the entire region. The people of Lucknow learnt not only to eat well but to spend more than they should on their bawarchi khana. Research and innovation proceeded unabated in the bawarchi khanas of the royalty and aristocracy, with no money and time constraint. Importance of the art form can be seen by the mention of the amount of money spent on cuisine, in the personal bawarchi khana of Nawab Shuja-ud-daula, Rs.60,000 was spent per month or Rs. 7.2 lakhs per year on the preparation of dishes. The dishes which adorned his dastarkhwan did not come from that kitchen alone but from five other bawarchikhanas, including that of his mother Nawab Begum and his wife Bahu Begum. These ladies separately spent Rs.9000 every month on the preparation of food. The staggering salaries of the hierarchy of cooks and other kitchen staff came from a separate budget. Not only high salaries but also total freedom to pursue their work on their own way was a reason for the excellent performance of the cooks.

Three classes of people were employed in preparing food. First there were the scullions who cleaned enormous pots and dishes and worked under the cook. Second was bawarchi, the cook, who prepared the meals in large quantities. Third was rikaabdar, the chef, who was the most expert and usually cooked in small pots for a few people only. He considered it beneath his dignity to produce food in large quantities. Cooks, too, like to prepare m small quantities, but chefs never do otherwise because in addition to cooking, they are occupied with the presentation and serving of the food. They adorn the dishes with dried fruits cut into the shape of flowers, edible silver foils and other embellishments. They prepare light, delicious conserves and pickles and exhibit their skill in the gastronomic art in subtle ways.8

8 Mahmud Aslam. The Awadh Symphony.pp.90-122.Rupa Publications. New Delhi. 2017


Some of the famous Rikabdars were-

Figure 8 'The Cook' - A sketch by an English lady, 1838- From the book The King of Oudh, his brother and Attendants

Nabi Bakhsh Lakhnavi was famous for his raw mango preserve. He prepared a preserve of unripe raw mangoes in which the green peel of the mangoes was retained as is, giving an impression of raw mangoes in syrup.

Peer Ali Lakhnavi lived during the reign Nawab Nasir-u-Din Haider. He was famous for making a sweetmeat that looked exactly like a real pomegranate-the kernels of the pomegranate, its rind and the membrane between the kernels all looked real. Each seed was made from pear juice while the rind and the membrane were made from sugar.

Shaikh Ikram Ali started working under Nawab Ghazi-ud-Din Haider and worked till the reign of Wajid Ali Shah. For Nawab Ghazi-ud-Din Haider he prepared breads from sugar candy and from almonds. He is also said to have made preserves out of gold and silver coins, which retained the engravings on them and which could be read.

Shaikh Fida Ali was a Rikaabdar during the reign of Wajid Ali Shah and lived in Sarai Mali Khan in Lucknow. He once placed a transparent lampshade on a table before British dignitary. He put a lit candle inside the shade and after a little while, he extinguished the candle, broke a piece off what appeared to be a glass shade and started eating it. It was later learnt that the entire lampshade had been made out of sugar candy.


Nawab Syed Mahmud Husain Khan Bahadur Tabaatabai was a master at peeling raw mangoes in a way that marks of the knife did not leave any blemish or unevenness on the fruit. The peeled mango was smooth and glossy, and, if placed among eggs, could not be distinguished from them. Nawab Mirza Mehdi lived during the reign of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah and belonged to the family of Salar Jung. He lived in Musahib Ganj in Lucknow. He would squat on the parapet of a well and peel a plum so expertly that the skin would form a thin strip without a break.9

Utensils were made either of iron or copper. Meat kababs were cooked in a mahitava (large, round shallow pan), using a kafgir which is a flat, long handled ladle for turning kababs and parathas. Bone China plates and dishes were used in Lucknow since the time of the Nawabs. Water was normally sipped from copper or silver katoras and not glasses. The seating arrangement, while eating, was always on the floor where beautifully embroidered dastarkhwans were spread on darees and chandnis (white sheets). Sometimes this arrangement was made on a takht or low, wide wooden table. The most important activity in human life is eating. As any community or nation progresses, its diet is the most salient guide to its refinement.

A brief account of the Food habits of the Nawabs

At the time of Shuja ud Daula, the supervisor of the court kitchens was Hasan Raza Khan, who went by the name of Mirza Hasanu and came of a respectable Delhi family. A Shaikhzada, Maulvi Fazal Azim, had come to Lucknow from Safipur (Unao District, U.P.) to study. By a stroke of fortune, he had been received into Mirza Hasanu’s house. The two had grown up together and Mirza Hasanu appointed him assistant supervisor of the kitchens. It was Fazal Azim’s custom to prepare the trays for dinner, then put his seal on them and take them to the Nawab's antechamber. He would personally hand them to Bahu Begam’s special maidservants and thus ensure that nothing detrimental was done to the food. He also kept on good terms with the maidservants.

Nawab Shuja ud Daula had his meals inside the Palace with his wife Bahu Begam. The maidservants brought the trays to the Begam, uncovered them in her presence and placed the food on the dastar khwan (tablecloth). Each day food for the Nawab and the Begam came from six separate kitchens.

Firstly, there was the Navab’s own main kitchen supervised by Mirza Hasanu. In these two thousand rupees a day were spent on food, so that, apart from the wages of cooks and other servants, 60,000 rupees a month were spent on food and delicacies. The second was the subsidiary royal kitchen, the supervisor of which was originally Mirza Hasan Ali, but later on was Anbar Ah Khan, a eunuch: here three hundred rupees a day were spent on food The third kitchen belonged to Bahu Begam’s apartments, supervised by Bahar Ali Khan, also aeunuch The fourth was the kitchen of Navab Begam, Shuja ud Daula’s mother, the fifth, Mirza Ali Khan’s, and the sixth that of Navab Salar Jang These last two were Bahu Begam’s brothers.



All these six kitchens were excellent and every day produced the most sumptuous and delicious food for the dinner of the ruler One day a fly emerged from the Navab’s dish which had been prepared in the royal kitchen. The Nawab was very annoyed and asked, ‘Where has this food come from?’ The maid-servant thought that if she mentioned the royal kitchen, her adopted brother the Maulvi would get into trouble, so she said, ‘Sir, the meal has come from Navab Salar Jang’s kitchen’

After Shuja ud Daula’s time Asaf ud Daula gave Mirza Hasan Raza Khan the title of Sarfaraz ud Daula and honoured him with the khilat. Hasan Raza then thought that supervising the kitchens was beneath his dignity and appointed Maulvi Fazal Azim for the task, who now took the dinner trays to Asaf ud Daula’s antechamber He then collected some of his relatives to help him, amongst whom were his brother Maulvi Faiq Ali and his two cousins Ghulam Azim and Ghulam Makhdum The four used to take turns to convey the meals to the antechamber. Following Asaf ud Daula’s reign, during the short period of Wazir Ah Khan’s rule, Tafazul Husain Khan became Vazir

He sent these relatives back to Safipur and appointed Ghulam Muhammad, popularly known as Bare Mirza, to be supervisor of the kitchens.

Thus, from the time of Shuja ud Daula a very high standard of cooking was maintained. The very best cooks were enlisted, elaborate efforts were madein the preparation of foods and innovations were introduced. Expert cooks from Delhi and other places polished up them skills and invented new delicacies and special savours. Sarfaraz ud Daula Hasan Raza Khan would prepare the most wonderful meals. He himself was extremely fond of good food and entertaining and as supervisor of the main royal kitchen he had every opportunity of displaying his talents Scores of nobles became connoisseurs of good food, though NawabSalar Jang’s family was the most celebrated for its innovations and delicacies.

Reliable sources tell us that Navab Salar Jang’s cook, who prepared food for him alone, received a monthly salary of 1, 200 rupees, an amount greater than the salary of any cook m the highest courts in the history of India This cook used to prepare the most enormous pulaus, which no one except Salar Jang could digest.

In those days the best food was considered to be that which appeared light and delicate but was in fact heavy and not easily digestible. People with old- fashioned taste still have a penchant for this sort of food but today it is not generally popular.

At the time of Ghazi ud Din Haidar, Nawab Husain Ah Khan of Salar Jang’s family was a great gourmet who had scores of different varieties of pulaus prepared for him. These were so light and delicate that no other nobleman could compete with him. Even the King envied him and gourmets would call him ‘the rice man’.

During the reign of Nasir ud Haidar, a cook came to Lucknow who made khichri using pistachio nuts and almonds instead of rice and lentils. He cut


the almonds into rice-shapes and the pistachio nuts into the shape of lentils so perfectly that when cooked the dish looked exactly like khichri.

At the time of Nawab Sadat Ali Khan there was an expert cook who made nothing but gulathis rice puddings This was the splendour of the royal table, the favourite dish of the ruler and such a delicacy that the noblemen all longed for it.

Of the noblemen interested in food, one was Navab Mirza Khan Nishapuri, who was reputed to have a vasiqa of 14,000 rupees a month. He showed such talent in producing delicious food and enlisting the services of expert chefs that his dastarkhwan became famed throughout the city. Another was Mirza Haidar, also of Nishapur. He was such an honoured and respected nobleman that the Nishapuri community in Lucknow acknowledged him as their leader.

During the 100-odd years between the mid – 18th and mid – 19th centuries, Avadhi cooks vied with each other to please their patrons with the best, most unusual foods they could create while patrons dueled amongst themselves to host ever better, more exotic “daawats”. Sensuality ruled and food became a very powerful statement of class and social position. Cooking turned into an art, the site for a grand mingling of the material sciences with sensibilities and heritages indigenous and European, especially French, with sensibilities and heritages indigenous and European, especially French. It spawned bawarchis and rakabdars, degshos, masalchis, and aabdaars; specialized utensils came into being and hakims, vaids, and perfumers got drawn into preparing recipes. But precisely because cooking was a site, simultaneously for symbiosis and contestation, secrecy became equally necessary and came to constitute the other core of bawarchi gharanas.

Sweetmeat sellers

In Avadh, sweetmeats were typically not prepared at home. Rather shops specializing in preparing sweetmeats catered to the requirements of the public. These were the original halwais (confectioners). One of the most famous shops, Ram Asrey, was located in Banwali gali in the chowk area of Lucknow. It was set up by one Gulab ji and named after his sone Ram Asrey. Among his famous sweets were malai gilauri, sohan halwa and lal peda.

Another well-known sweetmeat seller was Hussaini, from the times of Nawab Nasir-ud-Din haider, renowned for his halwas, particularly sohan halwa and habshi halwa.10

Thus, the Land of Nawabs and Avadhi cuisine, Lucknow is a total foodie's paradise! From kebabs to paans to biryanis, wander around in the city for a day or two and you'll never know which narrow alley takes you to food heaven. The taste, the smell and the air of the city screams magic. The traditional cuisines have been categorized into-



Sno. Category Dishes

1 Curries & Meat vegetable curries

Qalia, Qorma, Keema, Ishtoo, Jhalfrezi, Shabdeg, Haleem

2 Kebabs Dumpukht kebab, fish kebab,kofta, pasanda, shami, gilani, chicken, shahpasand, bandhnu, galawati

3 Vegetarian dishes Mungchhi, riconch

4 Breads and rice preparations

Khameeri roti, sheermal and baqerkhani,taaftan, tandoori roti, besani roti, waraqi paratha, birhai paratha, biryani (dumpukht), pulao/yakhni

5 Deserts Firni,Yaqooti,Muzaafar, Shahi tukra, Gold and Silver foil, rose and keora water, clotted cream (balai)

6 Drinks Namash, Aam panna, Kashmiri chai

7 Sweetmeat Malaai gilauri, sohan halwa and lal peda, different varieties of halwa.

Lucknow is a city that charmed people, attracted them towards its culture and gave them a cuisine, which remains distinctive and delicious even now. The effort behind collecting the traditional recipes and putting them down on paper stems from a rare passion for food history and a personal wish to bring back the food (and the authentic recipes) which adorned the tables of rajas, nawabs, taluqdars and even the elite of this beautiful city whose hospitality is widely accepted. A reasonably fair number of recipes have been collected from distinguished personalities and families of Lucknow and the Avadh region. The entertained lavishly and enjoyed good food. Some distinguished taluqdars like Mahmudabad, Kotwara, Tirwa, Zaheer and Faridi families have their distinct flavours.


4.2. Contemporary Lucknow and the State of Gastronomy Sector

Largest producer of fruits and vegetables in India– Rank 1 in production of Food grains, Milk, Sugarcane, Potato, Peas, Mango, Gooseberry, Watermelon. The data collected from Food safety and standards authority, Lucknow (FSSAI) states that there are approximately 13000-14000 registered eateries while, providing employment approximately 6% of workforce. Uttar Pradesh is the highest producer of mangoes, out of 59.22 %, the state accounts for 23.86 %.11 There is an unaccounted data for mango sellers and street food vendors who are engaged in different traditional foods. Available data indicates Lucknow cuisine is an exquisite gastronomical experience of the State. There no independent figures are available for the contribution of cuisines.

Share of Hotel & Restaurant in Domestic Product of Uttar Pradesh

(Rs. in lakh)

2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18

Gross State Value Added by economic

activity

At current prices 784393 831362 989391 915687 1019303 1091152 1233431

At constant (2011-12) prices 784393 776197 875724 800503 923850 976521 1072149

Net State Value Added by economic activity

At current prices 671256 697268 826899 768332 894018 957036 1081827

At constant (2011-12) prices 671256 648953 726692 671009 811919 858209 942251

Share of Trade and Hotel & Restaurant in Domestic Product of Uttar Pradesh

(Rs. in Crores)

2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17

Gross State Value Added by economic

activity

11 http://agriexchange.apeda.gov.in/Market%20Profile/one/MANGO.aspx

http://agriexchange.apeda.gov.in/Market%20Profile/one/MANGO.aspx


At current prices 69465.88 74725.00 86690.15 93256.22 105070.09 109451.13

At constant (2011-12) prices

69465.88 69760.21 76796.66 81625.72 89447.99 95788.56

Net State Value Added by economic

activity



64749.04 64488.47 70618.81 75160.74 82030.84 87851.11

Share of Trade and Hotel & Restaurant of Lucknow District in Domestic Product of Uttar Pradesh

(Rs. in Crores)

2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17

GROSS DISTRICT DOMESTIC PRODUCT


At constant (2011-12) prices 1152.75 1149.92 1217.82 1312.92 1567.30 1760.43

NET DISTRICT DOMESTIC PRODUCT



1074.47 1063.02 1119.85

1208.93 1437.34 1614.55

The above data table is compiled from UPDES Data (Directorate of Economics and Statistics Government of Uttar Pradesh)


Figure 9 Tourist visitation in Uttar Pradesh, source: Directorate of Tourism, UP


4.3. Listing the traditional Cuisines in historic core of Lucknow

The art of cooking received a fillip during the reign of Nawabs of Avadh. The food culture practiced in Lucknow city have been associated with sectarian families living within defined city wards or mohallas and lanes. Etymologically, the lanes were based on certain cuisine that was prevalent in that area, like Banwali gali for street food and sweetmeat, sheermal gali for sheermal, chawal gali for rice etc. The historic core has markets at Sadatganj, Rakaabganj, Maulviganj, Golaganj and Rastogi mohalla, Motimahal, Mirza market, Gol Darvaza. There were various areas in Lucknow where master cooks resided like, Bawarchi tola near Agha Mir Deodhi, Husainabad and Daliganj. Some of the communities involved are Brahmin, Kayastha, Marwari, Baniya and Muslim. Some distinguished taluqdars like Mahmudabad, Kotwara, Tirwa, Zaheer and Faridi families have their distinct flavours. Associated markets like Yahyaganj for utensils, Nakkas for animals, Aminabad for trade.

A site survey was carried out using inventories and google satellite imagery as the base map and accordingly the mapping of traditional hubs for different cuisines were studied and mapped. The survey progressed with identification of the old market in the historic core area of the city i.e. the chowk. It is among the oldest continuously inhabited areas of Lucknow. Significant settlement and commercial activity date back to around the late 16th or early 17th century, when Jaunpur under its Sharqui rulers, rather than either Faizabad or Lucknow, was Avadh’s major urban center. But Chowk really came into its own as the hub of a very dense web of fine artisanal work and intense commercial dealings towards the end of the 18th century when Lucknow became the capital of Avadh. From Chowk and Nakkhas to Aminabad and Hazratganj, the eighty-odd years preceding 1857 saw the emergence of early modern Lucknow. Rulership, of course, was the monopoly of Nawabs and taluqdars, neither entirely modern nor democratic; but economic activity in town and country was in the throes of a near revolution, throwing up new social groups and classes with new desires and aspirations. Most fascinatingly, every element that made up the complex of everyday life in Lucknow, from language and dress to music and cuisine, seemed in this period to have been touched by the Muse, “everything so exquisite, in every word such rhyme and elegance…..”12

Akbari Gate is where Chowk and Nakkhas come together. From the Chowk end of the Gate come sounds of quick and regular hammer blows, of something being beaten into shape; and very fine, dispersing clouds of aromatic blue smoke. Little workshops line both sides of Chowk’s main street. Two or three men sit in each, pounding little pieces of silver into gossamer thin foil to be used in decorating murg-mussallam or zarda pulao, a chandi qalia or the malai paan, and a variety of other sweets and desserts.

12 Mangalik Mukul. Lucknow food, streets and Bazar. Published in Lucknow: Then and Now then. Pp34-46, ed. Rosie Llewellyn Jones.2013


On the same street, a stone’s throw away from the Akbari Gate, opposite a small halwai’s shop known for its early morning jalebis and samosas, is one of Chowk’s most popular eateries-the tunde ke kabab shop. It is an unpretentious place, with an open front and a fairy large, rather dark and austere interior. Two stoves up front, facing the main street, and open to the gaze of passers-by, constitute the heart of the eatery. Daily, a little after mid-day, and then again around 7.30 pm, work gets into full swing. Two young men, normally wearing lungis and vests, and sweating profusely, stand over a large pan, frying and flattening small, unevenly rounded, fairly ordinary looking kababs. A slightly older man sits over a convex pan on the other stove turning out fresh waraqui parathas. The entire operation, labor-intensive and unhurriedly performed, appears to be rather run-of-the-mill, but the aroma is arresting, and the number of people going in and coming out, just standing on the street, chatting and eating, lends this place a special feel. Tunde ke shahi galawat ke kabab come four on a metal plate with one paratha for ten rupees. Tunde kababi turns out, in a most unselfconscious manner, one of Lucknow’s most delectable kabab preparations for a primarily working and lower middle-class clientele, both Hindus and Muslims.

The Chowk, the historic core lies in the geographical west of the city. The half a mile stretch of street between Gol darwaza and Akbari darwaza has become symbolic old Lucknow.

There is a concentration of trades along certain stretches of the street with the area Gol darwaza, and the tertiary lanes which are specialized in a certain activity; like phool wali gali, there is active in specific hours of the day in this case in the morning, the change in activity can be seen with change in time and seasons.

Some of the important lanes and by lanes are associated with the food which are- Areas traditionally associated with a specific cuisine

(19th century)

Sno. Area/ Lane/ By-lane Cuisine 1 Banwali Gali Sweet meat called malai

gilori, dessert and street food like chaat

2 Akbari gate Silver warq (foil) 3 Chawal wali Gali Rice 4 Sheermal wali Gali Sheermal (an authentic

bread) 5 Masjid wali gali 6 Yahyaganj Copper basins and iron pots 7 Nakkas Crockery animals and birds 8 Aminabad Traditional traders 9 Ganj Historic Grain market 10 Molvi ganj grains 11 Saadatganj Spices 12 Aishbagh Coal and wood


Figure 10 Historic market places of Lucknow


Figure 11 Location of traditional foods of Lucknow


Figure 12 Mapping of traditional foods in historic core of Lucknow


The urban fabric in this area is tightly knitted and it gives a feel of elongated courtyard carved out of the dense building. A strong sense of enclosure makes the Chowk kinesthetically stimulating. The open spaces structure operates at three levels. One is the intensely public ‘urban space' in the form of the main street of Chowk with its multiple uses which starts from five in the morning and ends at midnight. Second is the semi-public spaces created by clusters and are separated by grade. Third are the intensely private courtyards of the individual houses.


4.4. Cuisines of Lucknow

The food of Lucknow though rooted in the past has traditionally been responsive to market demands, client preferences, experimentation with food and innovation in food preparation. Nevertheless, they continue to represent to traditional practice used to create and manufacture an artifact. Historically, these cuisines represent the process, the finesse of the workmanship achieved a level of perfection, transforming into a culinary art practice. Though, extant examples are few, yet private practitioners of local food and Avadhi cuisine across the world have popularized the state of Uttar Pradesh in the field of gastronomy.

Dum cooking style: Lucknow is known for its own cooking style very well, which is called the Dum cooking style. Dum means to ‘breathe in’ and pukht to ‘cook’. Dum pukht (Persian) or slow oven cooking is a cooking technique associated with the Avadh region of India, in which meat and vegetables are cooked over a very low flame, generally in sealed containers. The technique is believed to have its origins in the earlier Persian cooking methods introduced to India through the Mughals. This cooking style however was fully realised, recognised and developed under the reign of Nawab Asaf-ud-Daulah. Legend claims that when Nawab Asaf-ud-daulah (1748–1797) found his kingdom in the grip of famine, he initiated a food-for-work programme, employing thousands in the construction of the Bada Imambara shrine. Large cauldrons were filled with rice, meat, vegetables and spices and sealed to make a simple, one-dish meal that was available to workers day and night. Then, one day, the Nawab caught a whiff of the aromas emanating from the cauldron and the royal kitchen was ordered to serve the dish. It was from there, that the cooking style was picked on by the bawarchis (chefs) and rakabdars (gourmet cooks) of Avadh who, through further experimentation, invented the dum style of cooking.

Other stories, however, simply state that dum pukht appears to be based on a traditional Indian method of cooking dishes buried in sand. The Persian influence is most evident in this method though in Avadh it has acquired its own distinct character. The magic of ‘dum’ is the excellent aroma, flavour and texture which results from slow cooking. Dum pukht cooking uses a round, heavy bottomed pot, a handi, in which food is tightly sealed and cooked over a slow fire. There are two main aspects to this style of cooking; bhunao and dum, or ‘roasting’ and ‘maturing’ of a prepared dish. In this style of cuisine, herbs and spices play an important role. The process of slow roasting gently persuades each to release maximum flavour. The sealing of the lid of the handi with dough achieves maturing. Cooking slowly in its juices, the food retains all its natural aromas and becomes imbued with the richness of flavours that distinguishes the dish.


Figure 13 (l) dumpukht style; (r) preparation of bread

An overview of the various crafts selected for inclusion in the UCCN application of Lucknow city, along with history, recipe and popularity of foods and cuisines:

a. Mangoes

In Lucknow, mango is mainly growing in Malihabad, Mal, Kakori and Bakshi ka Talab blocks/taluqs/tehsils. Dashehari, Lucknow Safeda, Chausa, Langra, Bombay Green and Ramkela are the major mango varieties growing on commercial scale. Important pickle varieties are Ramkela and seedlings; sucking varieties are Lucknow Safeda, Gilas and seedlings, while important table varieties are Dashehari, Langra and Chausa. In the region, flowering starts in the first week of January and continues up to the last week of March. Major fruit setting period is March. In the district, mango season starts from last week of May and ends during first week of August. Totapari, Banganapalli, Alphonso and Suvarnrekha are the varieties sold in the local market from other states. Dashehari, Langra, Lucknow Safeda, Chausa are the varieties, which are exported to other states. Dashehari and Chausa are exported to other countries also. Veneer grafting, inarching and wedge grafting are the major propagation methods used by the orchardist of the area. ICAR-CISH Rehmankhera, Rajkiya Santati Udyan-Malihabad, local nurseries of Malihabad & Mall are the sources for planting materials. With Mango festivals, being celebrated in Ahmedabad, Lucknow, Allahabad, Delhi and Goa, Mangoes in India have become a symbol of summer and are no less than a cultural legacy. Noted Mango cultivator Haji Kalimullah has even named a new variety a cross – breed of Kolkata‟s Husn – e – Aara and Lucknow’s Dussehri, as the “Modi Mango”. It’s no wonder then that the Mango is rightfully called the “King of Fruits”13

13 https://mangifera.res.in/

https://mangifera.res.in/


Figure 14 Mangoes in Lucknow; image source: National Mango database

b. Kachori and chaat

Lucknow’s Tokri Chaat is made by frying grated potatoes in the shape of a basket. This basket is then loaded with aloo tikkis, papdi, lentil fritters, chickpeas, and sweetened yogurt topped with tamarind and green chilli chutneys. This scrumptious basket of flavours is finally sprinkled with grated carrots, sev, pomegranate kernels and aromatic spice powders.

Matar ki Chaat

A local favourite, ground chickpeas are cooked in an onion and green chilli-based masala, shaped into tikkis and deep fried before being served with curd, tangy tamarind chutney and a sprinkling of chopped coriander.

Figure 15 Lucknow chaat (snack food); image courtesy-google


c. Qorma

Figure 16 Lucknow qorma curry; image courtesy-Google

According to Mirza Jafar Hussain, among meat dishes, qorma is the tastiest, most exquisite and most gratifying fare. However, its preparation requires great skill. He was of the view that if one was to eat good qorma even twice a day for a long period, one would not grow tired of it. He narrates that in 1925, he was able to employ a cook who had worked during Nawabi days. Jafar Hussain treated the cooking of qorma as a very delicate operation. He was of the opinion that a good qorma was best prepared from half a kilogram or so of shanks. The dry spices should be pounded to a very fine powder, which in the days before the coming of electric grinders, used to be done with mortar and pestle.

d. Qalia

According to Platt’s dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi and English first published I the 19th century, qalia is broiled meat dressed with anything. In other words, it is a meat or chicken curry with lots of gravy. It goes well with bread and also plain boiled rice. The ideal accompaniment to a dish of qalia and rice is a salad of onion rings, tomato slices, beetroot slices, cucumber/gherkin slices and carrot and radish pieces in salt pepper and lime juice.

e. Qima/ Keema: Pounded or minced meat called qima (also keema) is a very popular dish in Avadh. In fact, it is popular among all Indian Muslims. Typically, qima is cooked dry and well-fried, without vegetables. One of the main ingredients of qima of any type is cut green chillies, which add to the piquancy of the dish and lend distinct flavour. In quite a few households, besides green chillies, fresh coriander leaves are used as garnish. Fried qima may also be cooked with vegetables. The most popular vegetable used is green peas. Other vegetables used are potatoes (in halves), spinach and other green leafy vegetables, capsicum, seeds of sem, cabbage, cauliflower and fried pieces of colocasia.


f. Jhalfrezi:

Indian Christians, particularly in Avadh, have been cooking the dish for decades. It is not mentioned in Hobson-Jobson by Yule and Burnell or in Sahibs, Nabobs and Boxwallahs by Ivor Lewis or in Hanklyn-Janklin by Nigel B. However, the word ‘jalfrezi’ is listed in the Concise Oxford English Dictionary and the ingredients are the same. The etymology of the word is interesting: jhal is hot and parherzi (modified of frezi) in Persian/ Urdu means ‘fit for one under regimen’. So, jhalfrezi was supposed to be a dish suitable for an ailing person on a diet. Lizzie Collingham, in her book Curry: A tale of Cooks and Conquerors states that the British in India sometimes curried cold meat, and this is the original jhalfrezi that appears in Anglo-Indian cookery books as cold meat fried with lots of onions and chillies. Some restaurants serve a garbled style of jhalfrezi, which includes as variation made only of vegetables.

g. Shabdeg:

Figure 17 Lucknow Shab deg curry; image courtesy-Google

In his cookery book, Mirza Jafar Hussain has described the difficult process of preparing Shabdeg. This dish was common in Avadh and used to be cooked in households during winter on at least one of two occasions. The turnips were peeled, halved and rubbed with salt and turmeric powder and kept in the sun. Cooking was started in the evening. Minced meat balls were prepared with spices typically used for kebabs. Onion rings were browned and taken out from the pot, in which the usual chilli powder, turmeric powder, coriander powder, ginger and garlic paste were then fried in in the remaining oil till the spices separated from the oil. Steaks were added and fried with the spices. The minced meat balls (kofta) and turnip pieces were also added. Some water was included. The pot was sealed with dough and allowed to cook on a low flame wood fire throughout the night. In the morning, fried onions were ground in yoghurt and were mixed in the pot with ‘hot spices’ (garam masala) and mace powder. Lime juice was also sprinkled on the dish.


Over two hundred years ago in the early 18th century, Kashmiri families came down the mountain valley to seek fame and fortune in the rich plains below. Those were the days of the decline of the Mughal Empire, and it was not surprising that the glory of Avadh pulled them towards Lucknow. A number of Kashmiris came to settle in the capital of Avadh. They brought with them the scent of saffron, the cups of kahwa and their celestial cuisine. Truly, the cooking of “Shab-Deg” in winter for Nawab in Avadh, became not only a celebration of Winter, but a reminder of the bond with that land which is oft referred to as heaven on earth;

‘Agar firdaus bar ru-yi-zamin ast,

Hamin ast, u hamin ast, u hamin ast.’

If on earth be an Eden of bliss,

It is this, it is this, none but this.

The cooking of shabdeg is a delicate business, which involves using the dumpukht method. The real taste of shabdeg comes from the prolonged slow cooking and the nurturing of its cooked juices.

h. Kebabs:

In Avadh, kebabs could refer to chunks of meat, or minces meat grilled on a skewer, or minced meat patties fired on a large, flat hot plate called mahitawa. There is a Persian manuscript titled, ‘Kitab-i-tasavir-i Sheeshagaran Vaghairah wa Baya-I Alat-i-Aanha (The illustrated Book about makers of Glassware, etc, and a Description of the tools) by one Ghulam Yahya in the Van Pelt Library of the University of Pennsylvania that has been translated and edited by Mehr Afsan Farooqi as Crafting traditions: Documenting Trades and Crafts in Early 19th century India. The various kebabs of Avadh mentioned are dumpukht kebab, fish kebab, kofta kebab, pasanda kebab, shami kebab, gilani kebab, chicken kebab, shahpasand kebab, bandhnu kebab, galawati kebabs.

Galawati Kebabs:

The word ‘galawat’ means ‘melting’ or becoming very tender. To prepare this kebab, minced meat is mixed with various spices and herbs, but it is not boiled as in case of the shami kebabs. Rather, ground green papaya is added to the mixture, which is then allowed to sit for a while to make it tender. The patties are then made and shallow fried on a flat girddle. The galawati kebabs are garnished with raw onion rings, pieces of green chilli and fresh coriander or mint leaves. The famous kebab seller Tunda (which means a person with only one arm) of Lucknow popularized the galawati kebab, which had a distinct aroma. Haji Murad Ali, alias Tunday Kebabi (1877-1967), so called because he had only one arm, migrated from Bhopal and set up shop in Lucknow. The original shop is still there in the historic core of Chowk area.


Figure 18 Lucknow galawati kebabs' image courtesy-DRONAH

Bread preparations: Naan, Kulcha and Sheermal

As wheat is the staple food of the state, breads are very significant. Breads are generally flat breads baked in a pan; only a few varieties are raised breads. Improvisations of the roti (or bread) are of different types and made in various ways and include the rumaali roti, tandoori roti, naan (baked in a tandoor), kulcha, lachha paratha, sheermaal and baqarkhani. Naan is an oven-baked, flatbread served with curries, gravies and soups in the Avadhi cuisine. Kulcha is similar to naan, only thicker and with more ghee/butter, and is consumed too in a similar manner. In Lucknow, Kulchas are frequently consumed especially with Naahri, a gravy preparation.

Sheermaal: Sheermal or Shirmal is a saffron-flavoured traditional flatbread. It is a mildly sweet naan made out of maida, leavened with yeast, baked in a tandoor or oven. It is eaten as a breakfast savoury.

Figure 19 Rahim's sheermal paratha; image courtesy: Ajaish Jaiswal


Rice preparations: Biryani

Biryani is a mixed rice dish from the Indian subcontinent. The origin of the dish is uncertain; however, it is believed to have its roots in Persian food culture. Biryani, which looks very similar, is different from the latter in many ways. Biryanis have more complex and stronger spices, compared to pulao, and are consumed as a primary dish in a meal; instead of a second accomplishment in a larger meal. There are many varieties in biryani based on where it evolved in different parts of India. Avadhi biryani is a pucci biryani - where rice and meat are cooked separately and then layered tocook again on “dum”, so that flavours intermingle. It is primarily known for its subtle flavours and light texture. Due to its subtlety, it is usually advised to have nothing before and after consuming Lucknawi biryani. One of the most famous Biryani joints in Lucknow is about a hundred years old Lucknowi. The founder, Mohammad Idris started the shop in 1968 and his special recipe from his father who was an expert biryani cook. It is presently owned by Mohammad Abu Bakr & Mohammad Abu Hamza, who are he proud sons of Mohammas Idris. They usually sell a total 16 to 18 Deghs each, in a day. Copper Degh is used for cooking and the inside of Degh is oiled, which is also unique in preparing the same. Cooking is done on ‘Bhatti’ using ‘Pathar Ka Koyla’. Their most famous, mutton Biryani, takes 3 hours for one large serving of a huge pot full of biryani to be prepared. The process starts with marinating mutton with the ingredients mentioned in the strictly guarded family recipe. The rice used in Lucknowi Biryani has to be prepared separately. Rice has to be soaked beforehand and added to boiled water using a large vessel. Other ingredients used in rice are cinnamon, milk and ghee. The secret of Dum Biryani is that it is slow steamed cooked, milk and malai are the valued ingredient along with herbs & light masala which results in delicious biryani. For the final preparation heat oil and ghee in a vessel, fry both the masalas till they leave oil, add the marinated chicken or mutton.

For Lucknowi Mutton Biryani marinated mutton has to be cooked with spices in pressure cooker for 15 minutes then used for layering. Later, ghee is poured into another vessel and whole garam masalas are added. A layer of cooked chicken or mutton, and then a layer of parboiled rice and garnished with friend onions, dry fruits, food color, lemon juice and Ittr, finishes the preparation.


Figure 20 Chef Sanjeev Kapoor at Idris Briyani; image courtesy-google

Figure 21 Dumpukht biryani; image courtesy-google


Sweet savouries: Faluda kulfi

One of the most famous places in Lucknow to have made a name for itself for its delicious preparation of faluda kulfi is Prakash Kulfi. This place is particularly with the conservative Hindu population of the city as it complies with their religious sensibilities. This shop was started by Late Shree Prakash Chandara Arora in 1965 with view workers and he used his own formula to make this desi (indigenous) dessert delicious. Prakash Ki Kulfi uses their own formula of making which makes their Kulfi delicious and different from other Kulfi. For making Kulfi they boil milk for three to four hours and add Kesar and other secret ingredients to make this dessert delicious and delightful. They also use their own way of freezing Kulfi. In this process, they put sticky stuff of Kulfi in small containers of metal and seal them with flour (Maida). At last they keep small containers in a big container of metal and add rock salt and ice in it. Then they shake the big container for one to two hours for freezing sticky stuff of Kulfi in small container. When asked about why they haven’t utilised technology for mass production of their product, they imply the lack of need to disrupt the sanctity of their traditional preparing methods which go way back. They believe traditional methods ensure impeccable quality which cannot be replicated in mass production.

Figure 22 Kulfi; image courtesy-google


Deserts:

Some of the classic desserts of Avadh are described below:

Kheer: This is a sweet, thick pudding made of milk and whole rice grains garnished with dried fruits. It is also known as gulatthi.

Firni: This is similar to kheer, but the differentiating factor is that the consistency is that of rice paste, rather than whole grains of rice.

Shahi tukra: Originally, this dessert was prepared with the pieces of sheermal. Nowadays, slices of breads are used. The bread is fried in ghee, which has been tempered with green cardamom and clove.

Special ingredients of Avadhi cuisine;

Gold and silver foil: In Avadh, sweet dishes and sweetmeats were decorated with very fine gold or silver foilt. It was claimed that eating the foil strengthened one.

Rose and Keora water: Keora water is extracted from the screw pine, which is a species of Pandanus odoratissimus. The flowers and roots of this plant are mainly used for making keora water. Keora is used for flavouring both savoury and sweet dishes like biryani, qorma and zarda (saffron rice).

Makhan Malai is indeed a heavenly dessert that melts and vanishes as soon as it enters the mouth. According to oral traditions, however, it didn’t originate in Lucknow but Mathura. Without bothering about its history of origin, the Lucknow- wala, young and old; rich and poor alike love savouring the frothy dessert that is available as soon as the summer sun mellows down in its intensity in the more autumn months of October and November. Makhan Malai is a seasonal dessert that is prepared in cooler times of the year only.

Makhan Malai-wallahs make trips on their bicycles, with two steel buckets hanging on either side of the handle and covered with the traditional red cloth. They are also spotted sitting beside their cart near Gol Darwaza, Chowk, scooping up one tempting Makhan-Malai dish after another. The inviting presentation of the dessert adds to the sudden flux of drool in the mouth at the very first sight.

The dishes are covered by a big conical glass funnel that is partially draped with the same traditional red cloth around it. The creamy effervescence becomes even more tantalizing when saffron is added to it, thus giving it a soothing, pale yellow colour. Makhan Malai is garnished with fresh flakes of soaked pistachios and almonds. Lastly, it is beautifully embellished by ‘Chandi ka Warq’ (silver leaf) that makes it look even more irresistible.

Makhan Malai and Nimish, have become synonymous but few know that there is a minor difference between the two. While the former originated in India using cow’s milk, the latter is an Afghani dessert in which horse’s milk was used. But the method is almost the same as in both Makhan Malai and Nimish, the mixture of


milk, cream and sugar is hung in a clay pot all night under the winter sky. The peculiar freshness and lightness comes from a dollop of dew, the secret ingredient added to it by Mother Nature. Early every morning, the clay pot is taken off the peg and the mixture is blended using a mathaani (manual wooden blender), to make it frothy.

The most famous shop selling Nimish called Samad was located in Nakhas near Akbari Gate but has been shut since a few years.

In modern times, Makhan Malai wallahs have witnessed a decrease in the popularity of this traditional delicacy.

Figure 23 Makhan Malai; image courtesy-Ajaish Jaiswal

Figure 24Makhan Malai; image courtesy-Mehru Jafar


Beverages: Aam ka panna, Sherbat and Kashmiri tea

Aam ka panna (sherbet of raw mango) - Raw mangoes are quite prevalent during the hot summer in Avadh. A savoury drink is made from raw mangoes (kairi)

Sherbet is a well-known beverage in Avadhi cuisine, and is served especially during the summers. It tends to be a mixture of simple lemonade and complex drink of milk with crushed almonds. It is always served cold, and may also be quite filling. One of my other favourite hot beverages to consume on the chilly evenings of winters in Lucknow is the Kashmiri tea. It seemingly has its origin in Kashmir; however, is now a popular tea variant in the city, due to years of migration and cultural mixing. Also known as Noon Chai, this amazingly pink beverage is made from the same tea leaves as green tea but varies dramatically in taste. A bit salty and incredibly creamy, this chai (tea) is as unique in taste as it is in appearance. The tea takes minimum four hours of preparation, three of which are spent on boiling tea leaves on slow flame while constantly stirring it, which gives the tea its color. Other flavours and added later after the tea water is thoroughly saturated and is then mixed with milk. The prepared tea is eventually stored in big thermal containers which maintain a constant temperature for the tea since further boiling of the prepared tea could throw the flavours off balance. It, hence is one of the most delicate tea preparations in the city, and is appreciated for exactly that.

Figure 25 (l) Vessel for tea; (r) gulabi kashmiri chai


Hukkas & Gilori Paans

Paan was frequently consumed by the Nawabs and their Begums. Gilori Lucknowi Paan, was carefully crafted and modified to comply with the royal taste of Lucknow. Hukkas are considered to be one of the most important symbolic representations of the Avadhi culture and the Nawabi rule. Hukkas are traditionally smoked post meals and during social gatherings. The ‘Nawabs of Avadh’ are to be credited for propagating and beautifying the culture of ‘hookah’. Earthenware hookahs with subtle designs and intricate carvings are a speciality of Lucknow. In today’s times, the act of smoking a hukka has lost its royal significance, however it continues to be a social facilitator. Hookah, in these times, has emerged as an intrinsic part of the party circuit in Lucknow. The popularity of hookah can be gauged in the old areas of Lucknow such as Nazirabad, Akbari Gate and Chowk where people could be seen smoking hookah over lengthy conversations on local and political affairs. Some people in the city smoke hookah with traditional ‘Khamira’, which is a mixture of rose petals, ripened fruits, tobacco and a variety of condiments. Many Hookah parlours in Lucknow are traditionally themed and they are very popular amongst the youngsters. In Lucknow, you will find Hookah’s at most weddings, parties and events. Generally, the young generation prefers the flavoured hookahs whereas old people smoke traditional hookahs.

Figure 26 Huqqas of Lucknow; image courtesy-google

After dinner: Paan

Paan is a common palate cleanser in India. Prepared with a combination of betel leaf, slaked lime paste, areca nuts, and some other spicy ingredients, paan is extremely flavoured leaf. Though it is prevalent in all parts of India, yet its presence is mostly felt in the northern part of India and Lucknow.


Paan chewing is extremely popular in Lucknow and the custom is widespread since Nawab’s era. It is a renowned cultural norm in the city and is often considered a part of the cuisine. Paan, apart from possessing a customary value, also has tremendous medicinal benefits. In fact, betel plant is itself a medicinal plant. This is commonly used in the preparation of local medicines. Fresh raw paan leaves are a naturalistic antiseptic, stimulant and also breath freshener. This popular scented leaf is chewed also for digestive purposes.

Figure 27 Paan (beetle leaf); image courtesy-google

Figure 28 Paan (beetle leaf); image courtesy-google


5. Preliminary Swot Analysis of Gastronomy of Lucknow City

The new, fast-paced ways of Lucknow, has naturally revived a longing amongst the contemporaries across classes and religion, to experience the true Avadhi culture that belongs to simpler times, appreciates art and beauty, and caters to the hedonistic depths of one’s subconscious. Those who appreciate the Avadhi culture could broadly be classified as; the avid participants in the race of life, for whom Lucknow is a refuge, while for the patrons, it’s a lifestyle. Even though, the two broad groups of people are different in their lifestyle choices, they are bound together in their appreciation for the past and their longing for a slow-paced life. This longing for nostalgia is especially indicated in the old cooking methods and recipes that are still followed by the descenders of the royal cooks of the Nawabs and are very well received by the generic population of the city.

The economical factor: Lucknow has emerged to be one of the fastest growing cities on India, yet culture continues to be well preserved in the city. Apart from emotional reasons like nostalgia, the political choices made by the contemporary officials in the state could also be responsible for this phenomenon as most of the economical advancements made in the city, did not trickle down into the older, poorer areas in Lucknow, for many passing years post the Nawab rule and continues to occur.

Smudgy religious divides: Historically, the Mughals as well as the Nawabs were known to facilitate religious mingling. Off late, even though, there have been various sparing conflicts within the Shia-Sunni communities in the city, the overall coexistence of various religious groups like Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs have been facilitated through the accommodating culture of Avadh which includes a mixed food platter. The varied the Avadhi cuisine is consumed by people across religion, however there is indeed a faint divide visible in the choice of meat that people consume there. Most of the standard local Hindus from the city would try out a mutton biryani but not the beef kababs. In a similar fashion, Prakash kulfi is more famous amongst the Hindus as compared to Muslims. The demographic distribution of the city is heavily dependent on the land use map of Lucknow. Hence, most of the old area in the market that have concentrated presence of known names in the local food businesses are located in heavily populated Muslim areas and hence, have a larger Muslim customer base.

Economic implications of the patronage on the local food business:

Such an interest shown by the locals in the Avadhi culture has not only benefited the locals who have retained it, but has also ensured the survival of the culture itself through consistent commercial exchanges. The well-known names in the food have not felt the need to go overboard with mass production since their current customer base has been sufficient and consistent over the years. Most of the food businesses choose to stick to traditional methods precisely due to this practical reason, the other one being that they believe any fiddling with the older preparation methods would affect the quality of food.


Competition amongst the local food businesses:

Since the recipes of most Avadhi food items are mostly individualistic and unique, they are known to be the cause of envy amongst the food business owners. Often, opposing food joint owners are heard talking badly about their competition. There is a lot of competition in the food market and everybody insists on their own peculiar and unmatchable spice preparation and claims a lineage in their respective food domain. The recipes are also heavily guarded and the spice preparations are usually made in the homes of the owners. The competitions have hence ensured constant efforts by the makers to keep up with the quality of food.

Patriarchy in the local food industry:

The food businesses in Lucknow are rarely seen to be handled by women; they seemingly only indulge in cooking in their own homes and strictly cook for close family members and friends. Even though, some of the guarded known recipes are guarded by women of the household, it’s the men who setup the business and take things ahead. Recent, cultural contributions through food remain one of the most mesmerising experiences. The Avadhi cuisine not only continues to attract patrons from all over the country, but also binds the local population together. It has indeed made the Lucknawi society more liberal by facilitating dialogues through food and other cultural sharing. Muslim areas are frequently visited by people for other religions who appreciate their lineage and brand value in food. Over the years, the local Muslim community has also been accepting of the new variants added to the mix of Avadhi cuisine.

Avadhi food, for years has been a medium to bind people belonging to various classes and religion together. From the time of the Nawabs when friendly culinary challenges between royal families were a common phenomenon, and Nawabs taking pride in their Rakabdars and their own lineage of food, to the current times when people from across religion drool over the same food, Avadhi food has never failed to mesmerize both its patrons and its makers.

The issues concerned with the transformation of traditional knowledge system are with respect to time, with new development and accessibility of modern material has started. With time changes are quite obligatory but with them the overall experience is also changing which becomes the main concern. For example, all the traditional shop had their preparation area in front of the shop, which was visual appealing as well as the fragrance allure a person from miles away, but now they have started following the standard norms.

• The change in the knowledge system is also because of the unavailability of the material on which culinary art is depend for example unavailability of earthen pots which is resulting in use of utensils of steel

• With the study of five city of UNESCO Creative Cities of gastronomy, showed that nomination enhanced the brand value and increased city awareness. Their citizen


understanding about their cultural assets strengthen the network and pushes local gastronomy for a bigger level.

• With the transformation of the built fabric the memories and the folk lore's are also losing. The newer generation nether knows about the names and the functions about on which they were named as the activities now days have completely changed.

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

Lucknow is globally known for its gastronomy. Largest producer of fruits and vegetables in India– Rank 1 in production of Food grains, Milk, Sugarcane, Potato, Peas, Mango, Gooseberry, Watermelon.

The change in the knowledge system is also because of the unavailability of the material on which culinary art is depend for example unavailability of earthen pots which is resulting in use of utensils of steel.

Historical association of land with specific cuisines and products

Lack of innovation in cooking techniques

The cuisines are mostly dependent on raw materials locally available

Economic exploitation of food artisans and their community

Both public and private sectors are contributing to the economy.

Diverse gastronomical traditions

OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

Access to newer and direct Markets through the use of internet and social media

Some of the Avadhi cuisines are lost with the bygone eras.

Creating GI in food sector (only mango is a GI tag)

The tradition of cuisine was inherited within the family, but now the younger generations have stopped participating in it.

Revival of lanes and by lanes associated with food

Fast Changing government / International trade Policies

State, national (Padma Shri) and International Awards/ Recognition to chefs who show exceptional talent/ skill

NGO’S providing artisan support

Regular Training programs being held under hunar se rozgar scheme of Ministry of Tourism

Huge demand in both domestic as well as

Develops Tourism industry of Uttar Pradesh

Professional hospitality/research courses


6. Proposed Solutions to Promote the Gastronomy Sector

Cuisine and creativity converge on a cultural level through a collaborative force, creating a state of unbridled culinary freedom. In contrast, the crisscrossing of gastronomy and creativity in the form of the so-called “self-sustaining” plays on an industry level marked by interaction and pairing.

Gastronomy as a cultural and creative activity is deeply rooted in urban communities and everyday life. Folk-inspired wisdom and knowledge are becoming the source material of gastronomic innovation. Anchored with creativity and innovation, gastronomy spans from the production phase all the way to consumption, a process during which new ideas and inspiration arise. The emergence of gastronomy centred creative market manifests not only in such fields as film and television, publications, advertising, the internet and animation; it also paves the way for creative potential to be translated into actual products.

Though the strength and opportunities exist in Uttar Pradesh food/gastronomy sector, but need exists to develop and implement strategies in order to explore and develop the hidden agenda thereby adding the value to socio-economic contribution of Uttar Pradesh food and gastronomy sector to the state. On the basis of above-mentioned threats and weaknesses, and initial analysis based on sample survey of the community and stakeholder meeting, following strategies can be adopted in order to smoothen the path of overall development of state’s economic and social conditions:

• Upliftment and empowerment of existing chefs and restaurer through various Government linked programs and schemes. Need to create and interface between unorganized sector of food and government incentives.

• Develop platforms and spaces wherein the chefs/cooks can engage in more meaningful conversations and thus promote and learn the food through creative exchange of ideas.

• Explore the new markets and try to develop existing ones through identification and exploration strategies.

• Work towards the creation of local demand. Create vertical linkages with the market.

• Refine the existing products and try to cater out the opportunities in global level through promotions and food festivals.

• Develop stringent mechanism to safeguard the originality of cuisine through IPR.

• Upgrade and try to develop modern strategies and cost-effective modules. • Train and develop new and existing skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled

manpower in order to update them for flexible business environment. • Hiring skilled manpower, provide training and awareness about latest

technology and market trends. • Adopt market centred philosophy rather than production centered.


• Cost Effective Distribution Development using both Physical and Electronic Distribution Channel (Internet, e-Commerce)

• Enhance National and International Market Development through food festivals, fairs, event management programs and sponsor the events at national and international level in order to create and attract both foreign and domestic customers.

• Focus should be on brand promotion of the local food products and cuisines globally.

• Revival of historic food streets in the historic core area. Upgradation of basic facilities to increase visitation.

• Need for development of incubation centers for promoting innovations in food sector.

• Development of Annual Awards forum/conclave for cooks/chefs for motivation and promotion. This will help change the mind-set of the people.

• Setting up of Entrepreneurship Development Institutes and Common Facility Service Centres in hospitality sector.

• To create a pride in the community by promoting Lucknow as a gastronomy city thus providing a wider impetus to the local chefs and gourmets in enriching the growth of food sector.


7. Folk Traditions of Lucknow City


8. Traditional Fairs and Festivals of Lucknow City

The melas (fairs) in Avadh used to be elaborate affairs and would draw huge crowds. Not many of the old fairs have survived, although they have been mentioned in the prose and poetry of 18th-19th centuries. Khwaja Abdur Rauf ‘Ishrat’ Lakhnavi wrote an article of the Royal fairs of Avadh in the July 1926.14

8.1. Aishbagh Fair

According to Ishrat, the foundation of Aishbagh area of Lucknow was laid by Nawab Asaf-ud-daula when he came to Lucknow in 1775. It was a locality where the Nawab took his morning ride. A grand day-fair was held on four Fridays of the Hindu month of Shravana. Later, Saturdays were also included as fair days. Visitors included the aristocracy and rich Hindu traders who came in their carriages. The common people-green grocers, butchers, washer men, cotton carders, weavers etc. - also visited the fair. Stalls were setup to sell popular eatables like dahibara, pera, gulab jamun, balushahi, jalebi, imarti and dalmoth. Food vendors brought caludrons of qorma, pulao and qalia.Paan and hookahs were dispensed by attractive women dressed in their finery.

Besides the Shravana mela, the fair of Tar was also held in Aishbagh, a day after of Eid-al-Fitr, which is celebrated on the first day of the Muslim month of Shawwal, after the month of Ramdan.

8.2. Eid-Iftar

Figure 29 Aminabad market during Ramdaan; image courtesy- Ajaish Jaiswal

14 Mahmud Aslam. The Awadh Symphony.Rupa Publications. New Delhi. 2017


Lucknow, the city of nawabs and kebabs, is probably the best place to be at on the day of Eid. The entire old Lucknow regions, featuring Bada Imambara, remain crowded with festive makers and devotees. People visit the city especially on the occasion of Eid to relish a wide range of Lucknowi kebabs. Streets including Victoria Street (Old Lucknow), Aminabad and Hazratganj are thronged with rozedars (people who observe roza/fasting) to relish ‘Iftari’ food.

8.3. Bada Mangal of Aliganj Fair

Bada Mangal is said to be Lucknow’s symbol of communal harmony between Hindus and Muslims. It is celebrated on all the Tuesdays of the Hindi month Jyeshtha.

The festival celebrated with gusto in Lucknow is dedicated to the Hindu deity, Lord Hanuman. This festival is unique to Lucknow and has been celebrated here for past 400 years. According to the legend, Begum Janab-e-Alia, the second wife of the third Nawab of Oudh Kingdom (of which Lucknow was a part), Shuja-ud-Daulah (1753-1775 CE), dreamt of a divine presence commanding her to build a temple honouring Lord Hanuman. The dream pointed the Nawab’s wife to a specific site where an idol of Hanuman was buried. Accordingly, the Begum ordered the excavation of the site and when the idol was found, she made arrangements for transporting it back to Lucknow on an elephant. However, the elephant stopped in its tracks after covering some distance and refused to budge. The Begum inferred this as another divine sign and ordered the erection of a temple at this spot in present day Aliganj. Since then, every year, devotee not just from UP but also other parts of the country congregate at this Hanuman temple in Lucknow in large numbers on the four Tuesdays of Jyestha. Well-off families and even corporate houses, shopkeepers and residents all over the city prepare a feast for public consumption on these four Tuesdays. Virtually every street in the city erects a marquee or two for doling out the feast to passersby irrespective of their faith. The feast comprises of hot pooris and tandoori rotis along with potato curry and chutneys with a sprinkling of diced onion. The feast is rounded off by a glass of chilled juice/sherbet. In some places sweets are also distributed. In the evening children throng fairs that are set-up around temples for the devotees. Muslims in large numbers put up stalls to offer water and food to the devotees in the scorching summer heat of Lucknow. Bada Mangal which is unique to Lucknow exemplifies secularism and cross-religious beliefs of Lucknowites.


Figure 30 Bada mangal celebration; image courtesy-google

Figure 31Bada mangal celebration; image courtesy-google


8.4. Dewa Sharif Mela

Deva Mela is the annual urs of the famous Sufi saint Haji Waris Ali Shah, celebrated during the months of October and November. Held at Deva, 10 km from Barabanki at the reversed shrine of Haji Waris Ali Shah, the mela showcases the spirit of communal harmony national unity. This fair attracts pilgrims from all over the world especially as far as from Pakistan and the Middle East Countries. Main attraction of this religious festival is the cattle fair. Music, poetry session, cultural events and games like volleyball, hockey and athletics are the added attractions of the fair. The shops are beautifully illuminated at night to commemorate the occasion and provide great shopping opportunities to the visitors by selling authentic handicrafts. The fair ends with a great display of fireworks on the last night.

Figure 32 Dewa Sharif fair; image courtesy-google

8.5. Gudion Ka Mela (Doll’s fair)

This was held in the Gungani Shukal ka Talab area of Lucknow, a little beyond Aminabad in the east, in the Hindu month of Shravan. Parents gave their married daughters present. This fair was more like a village fair and usual footpath food stalls were set up. The fair is still held, but a far lower key.


8.6. Athon Ka Mela (fair of the Eighth)

This fair was held on the eighth day of Chaitra, the first month of the Hindu calendar. This was typical village fair. The venue also had a temple dedicated to Shitala Devi, the goddess of small pox. The fair is still held in various parts of Lucknow.

8.7. Chhariyon Ka Mela (fair of sticks)

This fair was held in the month of Shravana wans was also known as the fair of Zahir Pir. Although essentially a fair for sweepers, people from various communities also visited the fair. Devotees of the Pir carried large sticks wrapped in red cloth and tied around with locks of hair, with two to four coconuts hanging from them. The sticks were buried in the Earth. There was group singing expressing the piety of the Pir. Entertaining shows and spectacles were held. According to Ishrat Lakhnavi, it was a magnificent fair and was held in the new Chowk area of Lucknow.


9. Contemporary Food Festivals of Lucknow

9.1. Lucknow Mahotsav

The year 1975-76 was observed and organized by Southern Asians as The Tourism Year. On this occasion it became a motive to promote Lucknow Mahotsav’s Art, Culture, and Tourism for national and international tourists. The decision to organize the Lucknow Festival was taken. During this period, with the exception of a few years, Lucknow Mahotsav has been celebrated every year. During the festival, an array of displays and events from Tonga races to Vintage automobiles reminds one of the past glories. It was held in Begum Hazratmahal Park for most of time.

Mahotsav is a delight for the connoisseurs of good food as it is the ideal place to pamper the taste buds of the visitors with endless varieties of scrumptious dishes as a wide range of cuisines are available at the festival, including Kesaria Doodh, Kebab-parathas and other mouthwatering non-vegetarian exotic dishes.

Lucknow Mahotsav is organized every year to showcase Uttar Pradesh Art and Culture and in particular Lucknowavi ‘Tehzeeb’ so as to promote Tourism. One of the objectives of the cultural bonanza is to provide encouragement to the Artisans. Craftsmen from all over the country bring their masterpieces to the festival to the delight of shoppers. Colorful processions, traditional dramas, Kathak dances in the style of Lucknow Gharana, Sarangi and sitar recitals, ghazals, qawalis and thumri produce a cheerful atmosphere during the ten-day-long festival. Exciting events like ekka races, kite flying, cockfighting and other customary village games re-establish an ambiance of the bygone Nawabi days.

The 10 days long festival is one such example. The festival invites many musical as well as comical artists for completing your day in its full sense. The festival celebrated between 25 November and 5 December in Lucknow, the capital of Uttar Pradesh, is a cultural extravaganza. Lucknow Mahotsav Exhibition had 200 commercial stalls, 33 pavilion, 55 food stalls, 40 quask for ice creams and beverage stalls in the year 2018.

Figure 33 Lucknow Mahotsav celebration; image courtesy-google


9.2. Sanatkada Festival

Sanatkada Festival is conducted every year at a large scale and attracts crowds from all sectors. From the beautiful array of weaves and crafts to the scrumptious plates of Avadhi cuisine-the festival is a kaleidoscope of culture and charm. Come during the day for heritage walks and tours to explore the living history of this marvelous city or come at night for soul-stirring performances or a leisurely Qissa Goi, a delicious qulfi or those heavenly kebabs. Bring your children to the kids' corner or bring your friends for a film. Come take part in the literary Guftugu (interactions) to discuss, understand and clarify your world view with noted authors, historians and litterateurs or explore the crafts bazaar for exquisite, hand-crafted products from around the country.

Figure 34 Sanatkada Festival; image source- Ajaish Jaiswal

Figure 35Sanatkada Festival; image source- Ajaish Jaiswal


10. Work Schedule for Deliverables

Work Schedule and Planning for Deliverables

TASKS

Activity

Work Plan (2019)

13

JUN

E

20

JUN

E

24

JUN

E

30

JUN

E

TASK 1

Planning and Project Design

i)Identifying and determining Objectives

a) Identifying and assembling mapping resources

b) Forming a stakeholder’s committee/ management committee with representation from various dept. and key people from food sector

iii) Identifying traditional food clusters in Lucknow geographically and socially

TASK 2

Interim report

i) Collecting information ii) Developing Maps through a geographic

representation of the data collected. iii) SWOT analysis iv) Analysing the impact of UCCN in the

sustainable development of Lucknow v) Preparation of an application as per

UCCN guidelines

TASK 3

(FINALISATION OF UCCN APPLICATION)

i. Filing of the draft UCCN application

ii. Finalisation of UCCN application after Review


References

1. Mahmud Aslam. Awadh Symphony.Rupa Publications, New Delhi. 2017 2. Collingham Lizzie.Curry: A tale of cooks and conquerors.Vintage books,

London, 2006 3. Hussain Salma. Flavours of Awadh.Niyogi Books, New Delhi. 2015 4. Sharar Halim Abdul. The Lucknow Omnibus.Oxford University Press.2001 5. Khanna Sangeeta. Culinary Culture of Uttar Pradesh, Times group books,

supported by Uttar Pradesh Tourism.2019 6. http://uttarpradesh.gov.in/en/foodandcuisine/food-and-cuisine/3800 7. https://www.thebetterindia.com/69352/lucknow-best-food-iconic-eateries/ 8. https://www.tornosindia.com/article/ 9. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Uttar Pradesh 10. https://mangifera.res.in/ (National Mango database) 11. https://www.ibef.org/states/uttar-pradesh-presentation

Cover Image of the Interim Report- Nawab Ghazi-ud-din haidar of Avadh and Lady Moira to a banquet; Image collection- British Library

http://uttarpradesh.gov.in/en/foodandcuisine/food-and-cuisine/3800

https://www.thebetterindia.com/69352/lucknow-best-food-iconic-eateries/

https://www.tornosindia.com/article/

https://mangifera.res.in/



List of Figures Figure 1Key points of Uttar Pradesh; source- Google- a document of Ministry of Food Processing Industries (GoI) for World Food India 2017 ................................... 4 Figure 2 Mango production in UP; image source- Uttar Pradesh Food Trails, Directorate of Tourism, UP ...................................................................................... 5 Figure 3 (l) Kebab and tea preparation ;(r)- paan with silver foil .............................. 7 Figure 4 Varieties of foods- sheermal, chaat and makhan malai; image source- Ajaish Jaiswal ......................................................................................................... 8 Figure 5 Map of Oudh; image source- Google .......................................................... 9 Figure 6 European trade posts in India; image source-Curry: a tale of cooks and conquerors by Lizzie Collingham ........................................................................... 18 Figure 7 Historic map of Lucknow; image source-Google ...................................... 19 Figure 8 'The Cook' - A sketch by an English lady, 1838- From the book The King of Oudh, his brother and Attendants ........................................................................ 21 Figure 9 Tourist visitation in Uttar Pradesh, source: Directorate of Tourism, UP .. 28 Figure 10 Historic market places of Lucknow ....................................................... 31 Figure 11 Location of traditional foods of Lucknow ............................................... 32 Figure 12 Mapping of traditional foods in historic core of Lucknow ....................... 33 Figure 13 (l) dumpukht style; (r) preparation of bread ........................................... 36 Figure 14 Mangoes in Lucknow; image source: National Mango database ............. 37 Figure 15 Lucknow chaat (snack food); image courtesy-google .............................. 37 Figure 16 Lucknow qorma curry; image courtesy-Google ...................................... 38 Figure 17 Lucknow Shab deg curry; image courtesy-Google.................................. 39 Figure 18 Lucknow galawati kebabs' image courtesy-DRONAH ............................. 41 Figure 19 Rahim's sheermal paratha; image courtesy: Ajaish Jaiswal ................... 41 Figure 20 Chef Sanjeev Kapoor at Idris Briyani; image courtesy-google ................. 43 Figure 21 Dumpukht biryani; image courtesy-google ............................................ 43 Figure 22 Kulfi; image courtesy-google .................................................................. 44 Figure 23 Makhan Malai; image courtesy-Ajaish Jaiswal ...................................... 46 Figure 24Makhan Malai; image courtesy-Mehru Jafar .......................................... 46 Figure 25 (l) Vessel for tea; (r) gulabi kashmiri chai .............................................. 47 Figure 26 Huqqas of Lucknow; image courtesy-google .......................................... 48 Figure 27 Paan (beetle leaf); image courtesy-google ............................................... 49 Figure 28 Paan (beetle leaf); image courtesy-google ............................................... 49 Figure 29 Aminabad market during Ramdaan; image courtesy- Ajaish Jaiswal .... 56 Figure 30 Bada mangal celebration; image courtesy-google .................................. 58 Figure 31Bada mangal celebration; image courtesy-google.................................... 58 Figure 32 Dewa Sharif fair; image courtesy-google ................................................ 59 Figure 33 Lucknow Mahotsav celebration; image courtesy-google ......................... 61 Figure 34 Sanatkada Festival; image source- Ajaish Jaiswal ................................. 62 Figure 35Sanatkada Festival; image source- Ajaish Jaiswal .................................. 62

unesco creative cities network: inclusion of lucknow · administration later shifted to lucknow....

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