Solar Energy Projects for UNDP country offices in Sub-Saharan Africa:

A review of drivers and challenges

Internship Report

MSc BLC Business and Development Studies

Supervisor: Andrew Crabtree

Written paper, max. 20 pages

Hand-in deadline: August, 3rd 2015

No. of characters (with spaces): 45 307

Number of pages: 16

Florian da Silva

CPR: 060391-3701

Copenhagen Business School 2015

Abstract

This internship report forms part of my master degree MSc BLC Business and Development Studies

at Copenhagen Business School. This paper is based on a six months internship at the United Nations

Development Programs (UNDP), Global ICT Advisory (GIA) from February to the end of August 2015.

A case study has been applied on various green energy projects of offices operating located in Sub-

Saharan Africa. Through a review of the existing literature, participant observation and interviews,

the fields of renewable and sustainable energy are explored. More precisely, the research question

is: what are the challenges and drivers of solar energy projects of UNDP country offices (COs) in Sub-

Saharan Africa, and to what extent potential outcomes can be achieved. The paper describes the

experiences of six COs which are at various stages in their venture, namely UNDP offices of Eritrea,

Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, Senegal and Niger.

Lack of reliable power in a number of UNDP COs has proved to be a big challenge which has

disrupted operations regularly, subsequently impacting on delivery. To address the situation, most of

the country offices affected have resorted to installing diesel generators for backup purposes.

Generators are not sustainable due to a number of reasons, top of which are high running costs and

air pollution. Green energy can offer a secured sustainable electrical power. Namely, solar

photovoltaic energy (PV) is an interesting alternative as the Sub-Saharan region is naturally endowed

with abundant deposit of solar energy. Besides providing with better energy security, PV system for

country offices allows cleaner and greening of field UNDP’s operations, which complies with the

larger goals of sustainability of the UN. In addition, this can elevate savings on energy expenditures

over time. On the other hand, PV energy has proved to induce large investment costs and limited

electrical capacity which often lead offices to inquire into hybrid system, more pragmatic but with

partial PV coverage. COs have their budget constrained by reduced and decentralized funds which

make it increasingly difficult to finance such projects. Besides, lack of local capacity to install and

maintain the PV system can be problematic in the region. Finally, evidence points to a lack of

cooperation between various initiatives throughout the organization. However, a progressive

expansion of a hybrid PV system supported by local skilled partners and combined with the

implementation of energy efficiency measures have showed greater energy supply reliability as well

as reduced carbon footprint, in the case of UN Eritrea.

This paper also reflects on my internship and its contribution to my master degree. In particular, the

perspectives on managing sustainable energy projects in a multilateral development organization

have been interesting and relevant. It is rich practical learning experience and complement to my

other courses in the master program, and a major step in my professional development.

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I would like to thank all the people who made this paper possible, especially the interviewee and

colleagues at UNDP in Copenhagen, New York, Asmara, Niamey and Dakar.

Table of contentAbstract.................................................................................................................................................2

I. Introduction..............................................................................................................................4

II. Research Question ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..5

III. Literature Review.......................................................................................................................6

3.1 Development aid, the role of the UN and the Millennium Development Goals..........................6

3.2 Renewable and sustainable energy.............................................................................................6

3.3 Sub-Saharan Africa and sustainable energy.................................................................................7

3.4 Policy, business environment and local capacity.........................................................................8

3.5 Economic considerations and environmental impacts................................................................8

3.6 Limitations in the use of Photovoltaic System.............................................................................9

IV. Methodology.............................................................................................................................9

4.1 Research methods and interview subjects..................................................................................9

4.2 Reflections on the methods used..............................................................................................10

V. Findings ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………11

5.1 UNDP Eritrea – Project background and description.................................................................11

5.2 UNDP offices of Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia – Solar power in the midst of Ebola Crisis. . .12

5.3 UNDP Senegal, Dakar Liaison Office and UNDP Niger – On the waiting line..............................13

VI. Analysis/Discussion..................................................................................................................13

6.1 Energy situations in UNDP country offices.................................................................................13

6.2 Drivers of solar energy project......................................................................................................14

6.2.1 Solar energy enabling business continuity..............................................................................14

6.2.2 The debatable environmental motive....................................................................................14

6.2.3 Cost-saving potential..............................................................................................................15

6.3 Challenges, barriers and paradox..................................................................................................15

6.3.1 High costs and limited power capacity...................................................................................15

6.3.3 Local Workforce......................................................................................................................16

6.3.4 Lack of cooperation across UNDP...........................................................................................16

6.3.5 The budget constraints in UNDP.............................................................................................16

6.4 The paradox of UN larger sustainability goals...............................................................................17

6.5 Main issues of the paper...............................................................................................................18

VII. Conclusion and reflections on the internship.......................................................................18

7.1 Summary of findings..................................................................................................................18

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7.2 Reflections on the internship.....................................................................................................18

Appendix 1 : List of commonly used abbreviations.............................................................................20

Appendix 2: Figures of Power Generation Capacity and Electricity Prices Worlwide and in Sub-Saharan Africa.....................................................................................................................................20

Appendix 2: Solar Irradiation Map of Africa........................................................................................24

Appendix 3: Solar cell efficiencies........................................................................................................25

Appendix 4: Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Cells, $/watt...................................................................25

Appendix 5: Top focus area of UNDP in Africa …………………………………………………………………………………26

Appendix 6: Shares of Focus Areas in UNDP’s Programme Expenditure for Sub-Saharan Africa.........27

Bibliography.........................................................................................................................................28

Interview subjects...............................................................................................................................31

I. IntroductionSub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is in the midst of an energy crisis. The region has the lowest power

generation capacity worldwide, and its capacity growth has stagnated. In spite of an unreliable

supply of electrical power throughout the continent, the average price of power in SSA is still double

that in other developing regions (Eberhard et al., 2011). Overall, this dire situation has constrained

economic growth and development in the region (see appendix 2).

Meanwhile, the race for renewable energy is accelerating (Randall, 2015) and prices of solar and

wind power keep dropping (Economist, 2015) and are now cheaper than grid electricity in many

areas of the world, notably in Africa. Under these circumstances, for many African countries, the

development and harnessing of the greater availability of renewable energy sources (RES) is

becoming increasingly interesting. Due to unreliable national grids, UNDP Country Offices (COs) in

SSA are forced to rely on fuel generators, which result in high costs and pollution (Shaahid, 2009). In

late 2008, UNDP Eritrea installed its first solar panels in order to cope with an urgent energy crisis. In

2014, The Global ICT Advisory (GIA) unit of the UNDP launched its “green energy solutions” in order

to address COs’ energy needs. This started during the Ebola crisis in Serra Leone, Guinea and Liberia

and is now extending support to COs such as Niger and Senegal.

This report is based on my internship in the UNDP within its GIA unit in Denmark from February to

July 2015. As an intern in GIA, I got the chance to be part of the Green Energy team to support many

COs in various issues, such as; information, design and procurement related to solar energy projects.

I wish to draw on research from these projects in order to reflect upon my experience and try to

understand the challenges and drivers of solar energy projects of UNDP COs in Sub-Saharan Africa,

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and to what extent potential positive outcomes can be achieved. The paper describes the

experiences of six COs which are at various stages in their venture, and that I considered

representative of the diverse contexts in the SSA region; namely UNDP offices of Eritrea, Sierra

Leone, Liberia, Guinea, Senegal and Niger.

The structure of my paper will be as follows: First I will formulate and justify my research question.

After that I will review the literature on development aid; the UN and their roles in sustainability;

renewable and sustainable energy development. The following section will describe and reflect on

my choice of methodology. After that I will briefly describe the backgrounds of the chosen green

energy initiatives. Then, I will provide an analysis of my paper, where I present the main findings.

Based on this analysis, a discussion will be drawn regarding the link between the findings and the

existing literature as well as the main issues of the paper. Finally in my conclusion, I will summarize

the main findings, discuss and reflect on my experiences from the internship and its contributions at

academic and professional levels. In the appendix, I have included a list of the main abbreviations

used throughout the paper, solar cells efficiencies and price graphs, figures of Power Generation

Capacity and Electricity Prices in Sub-Saharan Africa and a solar irradiation map of Africa. The

bibliography and the interview subjects are attached in the end of the document.

II. Research Question

As this is an academic report reflecting on my internship, I have chosen to write about a topic related

to the current projects implemented and ongoing at UNDP GIA which were my main assignments.

Hence, I chose to write about the green energy projects for their relevance within energy

development and sustainability. In this regard, I have expanded my knowledge within renewable and

sustainable energy i.e. technologies, application and energy policy, topics that were not covered

thoroughly during the courses of my master degree. With this in mind, I have tried to answer the

following research question:

What are the challenges and drivers of solar energy projects of UNDP country offices in Sub-Saharan

Africa, and to what extent potential outcomes can be achieved?

In order to answer this, I have looked at the literature on development aid, renewable energy, the

UN, UNDP and their role in sustainable energy development. Furthermore, I have used participant

observation and interviews from my internship at UNDP. However, it is unrealistic to inquire into this

without undertaking proper research on the projects themselves. Thus, I have also sought to

describe the green energy initiatives in the analysis, whilst I will focus more on the main research

question in the discussion.

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III. Literature Review3.1 Development aid, the role of the UN and the Millennium Development GoalsThe definitions of aid matter, as a lack of clarity can persist between various notions of

“development aid”, “foreign aid” or “development assistance”. Against this backdrop, Riddel (2007)

defines “development aid” as to “all aid provided or used for development purposes”. It consists in

ensuring that a country can develop, notably through infrastructure, local capacity building,

democratization (UNDP, 2014)

Multilateral organizations, such as the UN, are formed between groups of nations in order to work

on issues related to all the member countries (GENI, 2014; Aid/Watch, 2010). Simply put,

multilateral aid is official development assistance (ODA) provided by multilateral organizations to

one or many recipient countries (Riddell, 2007). It represents approximately 30% of all ODA (Riddell,

2007). UNDP, with a global presence in more than 160 countries, is one of the largest UN agencies,

and plays a pivotal role in the UN system as the UN’s global development network. UNDP’s focus is

on democratic governance, poverty reduction, crisis prevention and recovery, energy and

environment (United Nations Foundation, 2015). Formed in 1966, its role has expanded to the

principal UN in-country agency responsible for coordinating all UN activities. In recent years, UNDP

has taken the lead on connecting and aligning UN aid activities more closely with the policies,

strategies and needs of the host countries (Riddell, 2007; UNDP, 2015). However, the world of

multilateral aid is one of the most complex, characterized by overlaps of role and responsibilities

between and across agencies. In particular, the UN aid system is known to be a constellation of

numerous agencies, funds and programmes (Riddel, 2007).

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have been articulating, pledging all nations to commit

themselves to eradicate extreme poverty, food security and among others, to ensure environmental

sustainability. (Riddell, 2007). Terrapon-Pfaff et al., 2014 argue that it is widely acknowledged that it

will not be possible to achieve the MDGs without expanding energy access. Indeed, climate change

and global poverty are interrelated and linked to energy. Likewise, the goals of sustainable energy

for all and climate neutrality are highly interlinked (Osborn et al., 2015). Hence, a global consensus is

emerging; not to include energy considerations in development projects will severely limit the ability

to achieve sustainable development (Terrapon-Pfaff et al., 2014).

3.2 Renewable and sustainable energy A given energy source is referred to as renewable as they are regenerated over a cycle that is limited

to a human scale, unlike fossil fuels and uranium. Hydropower, wind power and solar power are all

forms of energy that are created by the sun’s rays. (Lefebvre, 2013). Dincer (2000) sees renewable

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energies (RE) as key to sustainable development, since they have negligible impact on the

environment and are an infinite energy source. Regarding solar power, one must distinguishes

thermal systems – used to heat buildings and water and often considered energy efficiency

measures - from photovoltaic (PV) systems, which convert sunlight into usable energy and thus

generate electricity (Lefebvre, 2013; McKay, 2008). This paper will only deal with PV systems.

3.3 Sub-Saharan Africa and sustainable energyIn many Sub-Saharan (SSA) countries, the national grid is often absent or interrupted due to

frequent outages. (Dincer, 2000; Sokona et al, 2012; Bugaje, 2006). In a World Bank paper on Africa’s

Power Infrastructure, firms identify power as a major constraint for doing business (Eberhard et al.,

2011) , and electricity outages have constrained economic growth and slowed development in the

region (Mohammed et. Al, 2013). Businesses and organizations experience significant losses such as

damaged equipment or forgone opportunities, due to frequent power outages (Eberhard et al.,

2011). In order to cope with such situations, many businesses, households and organizations are

thus forced to buy diesel generators (Erdin, Uzonolgu, 2012). Fossil fuels are unsustainable as it

implies high carbon emission, expensive running costs, as well as additional costs of access,

transportation and storage (Bugaje, 2006; Olayinka et al., 2014). In light of this, several scholars in

the literature consider REs as reliable and sustainable energy supply alternative to grid connexion

and self-powered generators (McKay, 2008; Sokona, Mulugetta, 2012). More specifically, solar

energy is expected to play a considerable role in meeting future global energy needs, especially in

developing countries (Olayinka et al., 2014). SSA is naturally endowed with abundant solar energy,

which can constitute a potential energy source according to Mandelli et al. (2014) and even solve its

energy problems (Bugaje, 2006). This illustrates well the energy paradox of the continent;

“addressing power needs in Africa’s resource-rich countries” (Lior, 2011).

The harnessing of solar energy can have significant socio-economic benefits (Mohammed et al.,

2013). This includes diversification and security of energy supply, provision of significant job

opportunities, reduction of the dependency on fossil fuels and unreliable grid connexions (Madelli et

al., 2014; Tsoutos et al., 2005).

For two decades, much attention has been given to PV electricity as a technological alternative to

the grid in providing basic electricity services, both through electricity for light, but also for smaller

appliances like cookers, TVs, etc. for rural communities in developing countries (Mulugetta et al.,

2000). However, studies related to the sustainability of administration of organization with

development purpose (e.g. a UN office operating in the field in SSA) have not been addressed by the

literature. Yet, Bugaje (2006) reckons that the use of solar energy for administrative sustainability is

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critical for development purposes. By introducing solar energy, an organization such as UNDP could

maintain and increase energy security, which might ensure administrative capacity for programme

implementation.

3.4 Policy, business environment and local capacityDue to the energy paradox of SSA – a RES-rich continent affected by energy crises – one of the major

obstacle for resource-rich African energy development, is the difficult and unpredictable business

environment in Africa (Lior, 2011). Lior (2011) mentions that unsatisfactory institutional systems and

poor infrastructures cause high risk of doing business and are major obstacles to investment in

potentially highly lucrative energy fields. For example, government policies and incentives in Nigeria

have not supported investors in the exploitation of solar energy, which are fundamental to long-

term sustainability of these projects (Olayinka et al., 2014). Rather, many scholars in the energy

policy literature argue that policy makers should focus on building local capacity through training on

solar energy technology, implement financial and subsidy incentives to individuals, communities and

organizations to foster investment in this field (Bugaje, 2006; Mulugetta, 2000). The weak local

industry in the RE field is a direct consequence to lack of supportive institutions. Scholars such as

Bugaje (2006) reckon that the lack of local capacity for installation and maintenance is a major

barrier to the successful development of solar projects. Olayinka et al. (2014) reports that there is

often inadequate skilled personnel across Nigeria, and many projects have been executed by

inexperienced technicians. In Zimbabwe, Muguletta et al. (2000) noted that the lack of a trained

workforce for installing and maintaining the equipment have severely curtailed solar projects.

3.5 Economic considerations and environmental impacts Tremendous progress has been made on PV energy, which is six times more efficient today than it

was 30 years ago (Riley, 2014; see appendix 3). Overall, PV technology has become more efficient

and more affordable with lower initial costs and almost negligible maintenance costs (McKay, 2008,

Dincer 2000; Bugaje 2006). Furthermore, Riley (2014) reckons that the cost of per kilowatt peak

(kWp) has significantly plummeted over the last 2 years and prices are likely to fall further, thanks to

further cost reduction and improved efficiency (Shaahid, 2009; Erdinc, Uzunoglu, 2012). However,

other scholars in the RE literature consider the initial investment cost of a PV systems as high, with

long payback time, especially from a developing country’s perspective (Olayinka et al., 2014).

Although PV energy is widely seen to have a positive environmental impact (Shaahid, 2009;

Lefebvre, 2013) and as one of the most suitable RE technologies for an urban environment, the

production of PV cells and batteries is highly energy intensive, requiring large quantities of raw

materials and time (Tsoutsos et al., 2005). In addition, waste management of PV panels and batteries

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is another environmental issue. Some scholars are concerned with the health effects of chemical

substances while others are concerned with the environmental impacts, especially in regards to

battery components which contain heavy metal content and have a relatively short life span

(Tsoutos et al., 2005).

3.6 Limitations in the use of Photovoltaic SystemThe main common drawback of PV energy is the dependence on weather conditions (Erdinc,

Uzunoglu, 2012). Solar insolation varies not only seasonally but also at different times of the day

(Riley, 2014; Shaahid, 2009). On top of that, the panel’s efficiency decreases as temperature rises

(McKay, 2008). The energy production capacity is also lowered by a given low efficiency rate of PV

cells (Lefebvre, 2013). Thus, REs such as wind and solar energy often only provide small to modest

capacity systems, which gives flexibility in terms of speed of construction and deployment, but need

to be combined with other energy sources in order to meet the energy demand (Bugaje, 2006;

Mandelli et al., 2014). The variability and intermittency issues of PV energy can be overcome by

combining it with generator back-up as well as energy storage through the use of a hybrid

alternative energy system (Erdin, Uzonolgu, 2012). Systems that integrate PV systems with

generators show complementarity in terms of capital cost, running cost and power availability, and

have already picked momentum in developing countries (Shaahid, 2009). The addition of energy

storage units i.e. batteries when there is shortcoming is relevant in many SSA countries (Bugaje,

2006) and a number of these hybrid installations are being disseminated across the world (Olayinka

et al, 2014). These combinated systems are a reliable source of electricity and provide a higher

degree of flexibility (Shaahid, 2009). However, one of the main issues related with the application of

such hybrid alternative energy systems is the sizing of its components such as the production

capacity of PV and generator, that supplies electricity in all conditions (Erdinc, Uzunoglu, 2012) at

the lowest cost. Furthermore, battery energy storage technologies are expensive and involves

complex usage and costly maintenance (Shaahid, 2009).

IV. Methodology4.1 Research methods and interview subjectsIn order to answer my research question, I have used participant observation, as well as semi-

structured and structured interviews. Firstly, through my experience as an intern in UNDP GIA, I was

able to draw on real work experiences in relation to the green energy projects. With regard to these

initiatives, I was assigned the tasks of communicating and coordinating internally within the UN

about this topic. This allowed me to get first-hand experience through meetings, internal

documents, email exchanges and informal conversations. Secondly, I was able to conduct semi-

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structured (in person) and structured (via skype and lync calls) interviews with my colleagues in

Denmark and abroad. I conducted semi-structured interviews in Copenhagen with the following

people: Gerald Demeules, the manager of GIA; Blessing Kabasa, telecommunication associate and

the main communication person between the West African COs; In addition, I was also able to do a

semi-structured interview with Anne Fernqvist, external consultant working in the Greening Office at

the Headquarters in New York via Lync call, and a fully structured interview with Tedros Abraha,

head of the ICT department of the UN compound in Asmara, Eritrea via skype call.

4.2 Reflections on the methods usedParticipant observation works best when the phenomenon of investigation is observable in an

everyday life setting; when the researcher is able to gain access to this setting; the situation is

suitably limited in size; and the research problem can be addresses with qualitative data.

Furthermore, it is generally practiced as a form of case study, involving the detailed description and

analysis of an individual case (Jorgensen, 1989). Given the small number of staff members at GIA in

Copenhagen, the extensive work involvement of the interns and the limited scope of this report,

participant observation proved to be a suitable method for this type of research. As a participant I

held the role of an insider, getting access to a large share of information within the organization. As I

was interning amongst a small group of colleagues with six staff members and nine interns, who all

maintained a close relationship at work, it was rather easy for me to collect data. On the other hand,

I have only experienced the project as an insider on one end of the project. Had the scope of this

research been larger, it could have been interesting to do field observations in one of the COs in

West Africa or in Eritrea as well. Besides, since the solar energy projects through GIA are still at an

early phase of development, it could have been interested to conduct the research at a later stage.

Secondary data has also been extensively used both during my internship and for information on the

topic, such as solar panels business cases, energy guidelines, greening proposal, pamphlets and

internal (non-confidential) documents. Some of these documents will in their nature be biased, as

they are aimed at being both informative and optimistic about UNDP.

Conducting interviews is a great way to get valuable information, and allows the subjects to talk

freely about a topic (Kvale, 2007). Given the small amount of people involved in this project, I only

needed to conduct a few interviews in order to get the necessary data. The semi-structured

interviews with my colleagues in Copenhagen gave me a lot of valuable information and our close

relationship as colleagues allowed us to have an open and reflective conversation. The semi-

structured interview with Anne Fernqvist has provided me with fruitful insights regarding her

experience on various green initiatives from a corporate perspective. The structured interview

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through lync with Tedros confirmed the actual usage of solar energy on the ground and how it has

been successful in achieving targets. That being said, as I was interning and thus representing the

UN, the answers given to me through the interviews may have been positively biased to a certain

extent, which is a risk when doing research at one’s own work place (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe, &

Jackson, 2012). With qualitative research there are several ethical considerations to be made. Firstly,

it is important that the researcher informs the subjects about the overall purpose and design of the

research beforehand, as well as possible benefits and risks of participating in the project. This is

known as informed consent (Orb, Eisenhauer, & Wynaden, 2000; Kvale, 2007), and was given to me

by all subjects prior to the research. Secondly, it is also important to consider confidentiality (Kvale,

2007), especially in this project where I have noticed that one of the interviewees have wished to

remain anonymous. Thirdly, it is important to avoid the abuse and exploitation of people, especially

those in a vulnerable position (Orb, Eisenhauer, & Wynaden, 2000). I have been especially careful

with taking up too much time of the staff, given their busy work schedules. Finally, the issue of

beneficence, or preventing harm, is important (ibid) This is even more complicated when doing

fieldwork in the organization in which one works (Kvale, 2007). I sincerely respect my colleagues at

UNDP and the work that they do, and therefore it has been important for me not to put them in a

bad light through my research. However, I wish for my research to be as accurate and objective as

possible. This ethical issue will influence my work, as my research can never be completely objective

when I study the organization in which I am employed.

Due to the specificities of each particular project, the findings in this paper are most likely not

generalizable towards other cases of sustainable energy projects. For more extensive research in the

future, it could be interesting to compare and contrast several projects within this topic.

V. Findings

5.1 UNDP Eritrea – Project background and description

Under the impulse of UNDP and other agencies, the UN compound of Eritrea began to consider

sourcing the abundant solar energy to power the office in 2008 when the capital of Asmara was

faced with serious power outages lasting several hours on a regular basis over the year. Meanwhile,

installed diesel generators lacked sufficient capacity to meet the requirements. However, the initial

solar system installed was of very limited capacity. By 2011, the energy crisis worsened, with entire

days of outages which none of the generators or the PV system could cope. This had severely

incapacitated the UN organizations functions during that period (Tedros Abraha, 2015) e.g. the

satellite connection and radio room operations would go silent. Realizing the seriousness of the

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issue, the staff began to consider scaling-up its PV system to power most of its offices. Consequently,

more panels and batteries were added, supplying continuous electricity for essential users such as

finance, ICT, the management, communication units. Besides, energy efficiency measures have been

implemented among staff in order to reduce the critical loads and save electricity consumption. Both

installation and maintenance have been contracted with a local service provider that frequently

ensures the well-functioning of the system.

Main findings

UN offices in Eritrea were clearly energy security – driven through its greening initiative, when

regarding the urgent need to address the multiple energy crises that affected them since 2008.

Giving the affordable price of the Eritrean electricity grid, there was no specific financial motive

behind this project, although Tedros Abraha (2015) acknowledges that there surely is a relative cost

reduction. The main achievements are the minimized use of the fuel generator which in turn reduce

CO2 emissions close to zero and improved workflows and efficiency of the UN offices.

There are several features that contributed to this success. As the initial investment cost is a major

issue, a gradual approach towards expansion was necessary. UN Eritrea started installing a small

hybrid system and gradually expanded as funds become available. As solar energy is not sufficient in

terms of production capacity and thus environmental neutrality, energy efficiency measures have

been taken in order to downsize ICT and users’ carbon footprint, notably through trainings and

installation of energy efficient equipment. Last but not least, the local capacity of specialists in PV

systems was surely crucial for UN Eritrea. Indeed, the energy crisis triggered the development of a

local industry and expertise in the RE field in Asmara (Tedros Abraha, 2015).

5.2 UNDP offices of Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia – Solar power in the midst of Ebola CrisisInitially, the GIA has started the Green Energy Project as a crisis-response to the Ebola Virus Disease

(EVD) outbreak, through the deployment of solar energy systems to Guinea, Liberia and Sierra

Leone. These countries have very unstable grid and thus rely continually on fuel generators (Kabasa,

2015). Given this brutal context of EVD, the goal of the project was to provide a stable and green

energy that in turn allows the COs workflows to be as unimpeded as possible in order for them to

spend their efforts on reducing EVD through coordinated efforts across the world (Demeules, 2014).

This project has been entirely financed by UNDP’ security budget at headquarters in New York

(UNDP, 2014). A Danish private solar vendor has been chosen to set up the panels with UNDP staff.

Beyond the EVD context, these solar powered systems are considered crucial for day-to-day

electricity problems (UNDP, 2015).

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Main findings

Although overall staff have expressed appreciation for this valuable deployment of large PV system

(UNDP, 2015), the results so far are still mitigated as the limited capacity of the systems brought

deception. Indeed, the current installations in the three COs are partially working and solar

utilization is not maximized, with generators still running every day. (Demeules, 2015).

During the installation, the main challenges was the short time frame for planning the project, in the

rush of the Ebola pandemic. Ample planning and management are essential when considering

sustainable energy projects (UNDP, 2015). Therefore, too little information was readily available (e.g.

absence of formal, comprehensive site survey), which have led to non-optimal sizing and design of

the systems which are not fully integrated in the buildings (UNDP, 2015). Due to the lack of a local

industry and expertise (e.g. electricians and steel fabricators) and the urging context of EVD crisis, all

resources such as PV systems and manpower had to be exported for the installation and

implementation of the hybrid PV system. Furthermore, the integration of the PV system with other

power sources such as generators has not been completed in Sierra Leone and Liberia (UNDP, 2015).

5.3 UNDP Senegal, Dakar Liaison Office and UNDP Niger – On the waiting lineA few months after the support of GIA to the Ebola-affected COs, other COs were showing interest in

solar energy systems, amongst others UNDP Niger, Senegal and Dakar Liaison Office (UNDP/OIST GIA

unit, 2014). A PV system could benefit them as grid electricity is costly and unreliable, with several

outages per month and intense shortages periods from April to July in Niger for instance. Therefore

they all rely on generators, which increases the energy expenditures through expensive oil price, and

the maintenance costs of the generators. These three offices have expressed strong interests in solar

solutions, yet they are faced with lack of funding, since their budget are being reduced.

VI. Analysis/Discussion6.1 Energy situations in UNDP country officesEnergy crises in SSA countries as studied by a number of scholars such as Dincer (2000), Sokona et al.

(2012) are clearly tangible at all UN offices interviewed although with some nuances. For instance,

the Eritrean network is experiencing outages several times over the year (Abraha, 2015) whereas

UNDP Niger’s ICT manager Niandou Habibou (2015) mentions that “long periods with no grid

electricity strike the office mostly from April to July”. The worst case is UNDP Liberia, where the grid

connexion is almost non-existent (Kabasa, 2015). Thus, the reliability of the grid, through frequency

and duration of outages, varies across SSA. As reflected by Erdin & Uzonoglu (2012), all interviewed

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COs are forced to rely on a generator with high running costs (Niandou, 2015) and many other

indirect costs. Abraha (2015) emphasized the issues of accessing and transporting the fuel to the

office. Furthermore, old or inappropriately maintained generators bear a fire risk which may harm

staff and assets (Fernqvist, 2015) An example is Senegal which lately lost devices and equipment

(Fall, 2015, personal conversation).This is in line with Bugaje (2006) & Olayinka (2014), who argue

that besides being polluting, generators are associated with many high costs like running costs,

transportation, storage and access. Furthermore, the type of engine used is often a non-optimal e.g.

oversized generator, like in Sierra Leone and Liberia. This reduces their lifespan and increases

maintenance costs (Kabasa, 2015), a caveat which is emphasized by Shaahid (2009). However, the

literature does not report the noise of the use of generators, clearly stated as problematic by the

staff and affecting their well-being (UNDP, 2015).

6.2 Drivers of solar energy project

6.2.1 Solar energy enabling business continuity

Against this background, ensuring energy reliability is clearly emphasized by staff from all offices as

the most important outcome from a solar project. This can be linked to the literature in the need for

power system decentralization to achieve better reliability (Madelli 2014; Tsoutos 2005). Enhancing

energy reliability should improve in turn the workflow of operations (e.g. quality of delivery and

project implementation) notably through the well-functioning ICT equipment (UNDP, 2015).

However, the positive outcome of improved energy reliability on workflow of business operations is

not addressed in details by the literature. Most of the scholarly focus areas have been in the

outcomes of RE and energy reliability for the poor through rural and villages electrification and

provision of basic electricity services (Mulugetta et al. 2000). Yet, in its review of RE for sustainable

development in Africa, Bugaje (2006) mentions the importance of RE for administrative sustainability

that allows sufficient capacity to ensure programme implementation.

6.2.2 The debatable environmental motive

Undoubtedly, the solar energy projects aim at reducing the carbon footprint of UNDP’s operations

(UNDP, 2015). As RE scholars argues, PV systems have zero CO2 emissions and are using the infinite

solar energy potential (Lefebvre, 2013; McKay, 2008). With this regard, there is clearly a strong

motivation among interviewed staff and according to the experiences from Anne Fernqvist (2015)

“PV technology has become attractive within UNDP offices, and staff motivation is a major driver in

its implementation”. However, Gerald Demeules (2015) expressed his concerns about the polluting

and resource-intensive production of PV panels. Moreover, once the lifespan of the panels expires,

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there is no possibilities of recycling, as the equipment contains toxic components. This finding is in

accordance with Tsoutos (2005) study of environmental impacts of PV energy.

Besides, becoming climate neutral cannot simply be limited to the installation of solar powered

system. According to my interview with Fernqvist (2015), the implementation of comprehensive

energy efficiency measures among the staff must be undertaken (e.g. saving electricity consumption,

sustainable waste management practices).This is in accordance with the literature, as buildings are

the biggest single contributor to world greenhouse-gas emissions (Lior, 2011). UN Eritrea has

instituted changes on heavy energy consuming equipment in addition to its solar PV system. The

integration of RE with energy efficiency is seen as necessary to achieve greater sustainable

development according to Bugaje (2006).

6.2.3 Cost-saving potential

During my interviews I observed that one driver for COs is to reduce energy expenditures in the

undertaking of a PV project. The levelized cost of PV i.e. net present value of the unit-cost of

electricity over the lifespan of the panels, is on average of $0.12 per kWh (US Energy Information

Administration, 2015). On the other hand, the price of power provided by the grid in Senegal is of

$0.24 per kWh. Power from generators is much more expensive than grid power, around $0.4 per

kWh (see appendix 1). In this sense, the levelized cost of PV is quite competitive for most of the

studied COs. However, UN Eritrea clearly mentioned that there was no specific financial motive

behind its green initiative, since the national grid provides affordable electricity at about $0.06 per

kWh, twice lower than the regional average. That being said, Abraha (2015) admitted that Eritrea

has increased savings on energy expenditures since the solar system is operating.

6.3 Challenges, barriers and paradox

6.3.1 High costs and limited power capacity

The main barrier according to all office interviews and Demeules (2015) in the acquisition of a PV

system is the high initial investment costs: “in West Africa a solar solution system that supplies 100%

of the energy needs of a compound of 100 persons would be up to half a million of USD.” This is the

main reason why all offices are delaying the acquisition and deployment (e.g. Niger) or expansion of

their PV systems (e.g. Liberia, Eritrea, Guinea). This contradicts with many scholars in the RE field

(McKay, 2008; Riley, 2014) that see PV energy as affordable. Although Bugaje (2006) reckons that PV

energy has become cheaper than decades ago, it is still considered very expensive in the SSA region.

Although being a fierce supporter of PV systems, Demeules ( 2015) as well as many scholars

(Lefebvre, 2013; McKay 2008), acknowledges the limited efficiency of PV technology. This is

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interlinked to the intermittency issues addressed by Uzunoglu (2012), and often limits PV energy to

provide enough capacity for the whole offices, as experiences of offices in Sierra Leone and Eritrea

showed.

6.3.3 Local Workforce

Local partners are shown to be essential with regards to maintenance and technical support once

the installation is completed, as mentioned by scholars such as Bugaje (2006). This might explain the

success of UN Eritrea in installing and implementing their PV system, as most work has been done by

local private company. Offices in Liberia, Guinea and Sierra Leone have met difficulties in finding

reliable partners to take over the maintenance. Indeed, Muguletta (2000) and Olayinka (2014) noted

that the lack of a qualified onsite workforce can curtail PV projects. Nonetheless, the timing issue in

this context of crisis made it even more difficult for COs to find local workforce (Kabasa, 2015). Even

though this lack of capacity can be found across many SSA countries, this should not be generalized.

UN Eritrea has for instance easily found a reliable and skilled partner in Asmara as the local solar

industry has developed in recent years after the energy crisis that started in 2008 (Abraha, 2015). At

a policy level, Demeules (2015) reckons that the weak local capacity in the solar industry is due to

poor institutional systems, such as a lack of financial and market incentives given by the government

to support the development of this industry. This clearly reflect upon the view of scholars such as

Bugaje (2006) and Mulugetta (2000) that invites governments to focus on these areas in the field of

RE.

6.3.4 Lack of cooperation across UNDP

During my internship, I have remarked a general lack of awareness and cooperation between the

various ongoing solar energy projects and experiences. Projects and support from GIA were to some

extent overlapping with those of the headquarters and some of regional funds, which could confuse

COs. This might be due to the decentralized system of the UNDP. Anne Fernqvist mentioned during

her interview that PV systems have become attractive for reasons such as cost savings, security, staff

well-being and greening, and as such cutting across various teams and disciplines in a decentralized

fashion. This can be linked to Riddell’s (2007) claim that multilateral organizations such as the UNDP

tend to lack cooperation and harmonization, which results in complex overlapping activities and

responsibilities between and across agencies. However, the author, and Demeules (2015) rightly

argue that competition between projects and agencies is positive as it brings innovation and higher

performance. Moreover, GIA’s recent green energy services fills a gap as the unit is making an

inventory of all existing projects. In order to centralize and facilitate the procurement of PV systems

for UNDP COs, GIA is currently establishing a corporate long-term agreement (UNDP/GIA, 2015).

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6.3.5 The budget constraints in UNDP

According to one of my interviews that decided to remain anonymous, it seems that budget planning

insecurity and lack of coordination among different funding sources causes challenges for cross-team

investments such as PV systems. Since funds arrive at different times of the year, with various

conditions, budgets of COs are often constrained and approved late in the operational year, which

constrain the time to procure and implement the project. This is contradictory to patient planning,

design and sizing of such a solution, as suggested by Mulugetta (2000). This results in unsustainable

projects, as the experience of GIA showed during the outbreak of Ebola crisis, when an emergency

budget was given to deploy solar panels in the three Cos. Planning of the installation has been done

over a shorter than normally required period which resulted in undersized and partially functioning

installations (Kabasa, 2015). Interestingly, this issue led the interview with Kabasa (2015) to discuss

of an alternative funding opportunity, where the UN could for instance, in the future, look into funds

through private partnerships, yet to be addressed with ethical considerations.

Besides, funds granted by donors have been reduced for the last couple of years, which in turns

decreases the budget of COs every year as mentioned by Habibou (2015). Thus, Kabasa (2015)

emphasizes the need to set priorities, in the face of budget restrictions. Specifically, when looking

into the overall budget allocation per focus area in SSA, on the 4 major focus area of UNDP, only 11

percent is spent on environment & sustainable development, while 45% is aimed at poverty

reduction and 25% at democratic governance (UNDP, 2015). In the contexts of SSA, the priority given

to other focus areas over energy and sustainability is surely justified. In sum, Fernqvist

(2015) concluded that success of greening projects hinges upon support by individuals throughout

offices and decision levels and thus priorities set by management staff.

6.4 The paradox of UN larger sustainability goals

The extensive use of fuel generators to power the UN offices is largely spread across the SSA region,

and clearly contradictory to the organization’s overall goals of energy sustainability and combat

against climate change. It seems that the UN sustainable development goals praise the countries and

people to achieve something that its administration itself does not achieve. On top of environmental

considerations, some serious issues remains regarding the broader sustainability of UN operations.

The COs are frequently confronted by time, costs, equipment, work efficiency losses resulting from

power outages and generator use (World Bank, 2011). With a sustainable power supply, COs could

17

invest more of its time and budget on their development agendas in the country with direct impacts

on poverty reduction and democratic governance.

Regarding the cases of the EVD intervention; why did it take a disaster for this equipment to be in

place? Clearly the Ebola crisis boosted the solar project for these COs, and without the spread of EVD

in these countries, they would probably not have received the funds and support needed. What

about COs in other developing countries such as in Niger and Senegal that are also clearly affected

by dire energy situation, will it take a disaster or a crisis for them to be supported with sustainable

energy systems? Clearly, the short-minded crisis management approach to Ebola is what has

boosted the energy support for the COs of Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia. Moreover it is becoming

increasingly more difficult for COs to spend their annual budget in a sustainable and long term

perspective. Alternatively, could the UN try to explore the financing of their operations through

commercial entities? Although such partnerships could potentially lead to a sustainable avenue of

UN operations’ financing, these in turn raise a certain amount of ethical issues regarding the nature

of the UN.

6.5 Main issues of the paperAlthough the scope of this study was limited, I have tried to include various aspects of the projects

such as technical, environmental and institutional in order to capture the diversity of my experience.

This holistic approach is ambitious and thus challenging in addressing all aspects with consistency in

a small paper. The review of RE literature, which I was unfamiliar with, has also proved to be

challenging when inquiring into my research with relevance.

VII. Conclusion and reflections on the internship7.1 Summary of findingsIn this essay I have described various solar energy projects for COs across the SSA region. The main

drivers for such projects are threefold; to increase the reliability of energy supply, to lower the

carbon footprint of UNDP’s operations and to save on energy expenditure costs. There is clear

evidence from UN Eritrea that have already installed and implemented its project, that these targets

have been relatively fulfilled. The inherent limited power generation capacity of PV technology

makes it difficult for a given CO to become fully solar powered. But studies as well as ongoing

experiences show that a hybrid alternative system is best adapted to reality yet with partial solar

usage. The implementation of energy efficiency measures in the offices along with the solar energy

system has provided good results in terms of solar utilization and carbon footprint reduction at UN

Eritrea.

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In terms of barriers, evidences point out the large investment costs of PV technology and the lack of

budget resources. Indeed COs have their budget constrained by increasingly reduced and

decentralized funds which make it increasingly difficult to finance such projects. Besides, lack of local

capacity to install and maintain the PV system can be problematic in the region. Finally, I remarked a

lack of cooperation between various initiatives throughout the organization. In this light, GIA’s

recent services and support in green energy solutions seem welcome and timely fortuitous to

harmonize and step up sustainable energy projects across COs.

In terms of methodology, participant observation and interviews have given me enough data to

answer my research, but the bias that comes from researching one’s own employer needs to be

taken into consideration.

7.2 Reflections on the internship Being part of GIA’s green team, through my internship and the research for this essay, has been an

extremely valuable part of my master studies. Having studied international development and aid

practices for a year during my master, it was interesting to experience it in ‘real life’ and compare it

to my expectations. The complexities of a multilateral development project were evident also in this

case study. Having said that, I was positively surprised by the frequent communication and good

coordination between the staff in West Africa and Copenhagen. This contradicts a lot of the aid

critique often highlighted in our course literature. This research has allowed me to gain further

knowledge within the fields of renewable and sustainable energy, topics that have had minor

importance in my other master degree subjects. The role of RE in international development has also

been an important learning component, and a topic that I believe will be increasingly relevant in aid

agendas of coming years. Writing this report has been a great practice for me. I now feel better

prepared for writing my master thesis. This internship has given me a practical experience that

complements my courses in business and development studies. It has provided me with a rich

context for learning experience as I have learned more about the day-to-day life of working in a

multilateral organization, and I have created a network of contacts for myself within the UN system.

The time spent at UNDP has made me grow as a person and a young professional, and I am

motivated to continue to work in the field of multilateral aid and development in the future, if the

opportunity comes along.

For more reflections on my internship, see the attached form.

19

Appendix 1 : List of commonly used abbreviations

● United Nations (UN)

● United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

● Office of Information Systems and Technology (OIST)

● Information and Technology Information (ICT)

● Global ICT Advisory (GIA)

● Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)

● Country Offices (COs)

● Renewable Energy (RE)

● Renewable Energy Source (RES)

● Photovoltaic (PV)

● Ebola Virus Disease (EVD)

● Kilowatt peak (kWp)

Appendix 2: Figures of Power Generation Capacity and Electricity Prices Worlwide and in Sub-Saharan Africa

20

21

22

Source: World Bank Publications (2011)

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Appendix 2: Solar Irradiation Map of Africa

Source: SolarGIS © 2015 GeoModel Solar

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Appendix 3: Solar cell efficiencies

Source: National Renewable Energy laboratory (NREL) (2015), United States Department of Energy

Appendix 4: Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Cells, $/watt

Source: Bloomberg, New Energy Finance, 2014

25

Appendix 5: Top focus area of UNDP (2012)

Source: UNDP website http://www.er.undp.org/content/dam/eritrea/docs/UNDP%20Africa%20Brochure%202013%20En.pdf

26

Appendix 6: Shares of Focus Areas in UNDP’s Programme Expenditure for Sub-Saharan Africa

Source: UNDP in Sub-Saharan Africa Brochure

http://www.er.undp.org/content/dam/eritrea/docs/UNDP%20Africa%20Brochure%202013%20En.pdf

27

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