UNDERSTANDING RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS1999 Wolfe, David A. Child Abuse (2nd Edition): Implications for Child Development and Psychopathology.

2007 Miller-Perrin, Cindy L. & Perrin, Robin. Child Maltreatment: An introduction

A combination of individual, relational, community, and societal factors contribute to the risk of child maltreatment. Although children are not responsible for the harm inflicted upon them, certain individual characteristics have been found to increase their risk of being maltreated. Risk factors are contributing factors—not direct causes.

Risk Factors

Three Types of Risk Factors Fixed marker risk factors cannot be demonstrated to change.

For example, belonging to a disadvantaged minority group is a risk factor for low academic achievement (Reynolds, Weissberg, & Kasprow, 1992), but such membership cannot be changed; therefore, minority status is a fixed marker risk factor.

 Variable marker risk factors can be demonstrated to change, but when changed, does not necessarily alter the probability of the outcome. For example, a mother's failing to graduate from high school is a risk factor

for a child identified as having a disability (Finkelstein & Ramey, 1980). However, simply awarding a diploma to a mother at the birth of her child ultimately will not change her child's educational trajectory; therefore, maternal possession of a high school diploma is a variable marker risk factor.

 Causal risk factors can be changed and, when changed, they alter the risk of outcome. For example, high-quality child care for infants has been demonstrated to

increase children's academic achievement (Berlin, Brooks-Cunn, McCarton,& McCormick, 1998); therefore, low-quality child care is a causal risk factor. Causal risk factors include certain child (e.g., cognitive deficits, early behavior and adjustment problems) and family characteristics (e.g., parental psychopathology, poor parenting practices). For example, parent management training has been found to improve the social functioning of children at risk for E/BD (Patterson, 1982).

Examples of Risk Factors for Child Maltreatment

Disabilities or mental retardation in children that may increase caregiver burden

Social isolation of families Parents’ lack of understanding of children’s needs and child

development Parents’ history of domestic abuse Poverty and other socioeconomic disadvantage, such as

unemployment Family disorganization, dissolution, and violence, including intimate

partner violence Lack of family cohesion Substance abuse in family Young, single nonbiological parents Poor parent-child relationships and negative interactions Parental thoughts and emotions supporting maltreatment behaviors Parental stress and distress, including depression or other mental

health conditions Community violence

Protective factors help the family and child resist or ameliorate risk. Protective factors moderate the effects of risk factors. They may lessen the risk of child maltreatment.

Protective Factors

Examples of Protective Factors Against Child Abuse Supportive family environment Nurturing parenting skills Stable family relationships Household rules and monitoring of the child Parental employment Adequate housing Access to health care and social services Caring adults outside family who can serve

as role models or mentors Communities that support parents and take

responsibility for preventing abuse (DHHS 2003)

Wolfe Transitional Model of Child Physical Abuse

The model expands on the ecological model of Belsky, which integrates ontogenic (individual), microsystem (family), exosystem (community, neighborhood), and macrosystem (societal) levels of factors associated with child maltreatment to encompass developmental effects and the transactional process of the abuser, the abused, and the family ecology.

One of the benefits of a transactional or process model is that it leads to intervention points and highlights the importance of risk and protective factors to moderate the trajectory of child abuse.

Source: Wolfe, David A. Child Abuse (2nd Edition): Implications for Child Development and Psychopathology. 1999

How Risk & Protective Factors Interact with an Ecological/Transactional Model of Child Physical Abuse

Stage 1: Reduced Tolerance for Stress & Disinhibition of Aggression Destabilizing (Risk) Factors

Poor child-rearing preparation Low sense of control and predictability Stressful life events Acceptance of physical punishment of children

 Compensatory (Protective) Factors Socioeconomic stability Social supports and healthy models Supportive spouse Success at work and school

Stage 2: Poor Management of Acute Crises and Provocation Destabilizing (Risk) Factors

Conditioned emotional arousal to child behavior

Multiple sources of anger and aggression Belief that child’s behavior is threatening or

harmful to parent Compensatory (Protective) Factors

Improvement in child behavior Community programs for parents Coping resources

Stage 3: Chronic Patterns of Anger and Abuse Destabilizing (Risk) Factors

Child habituates to physical punishment Parent is reinforced for using strict control

techniques Child increases problem behavior

Compensatory (Protective) Factors Parental dissatisfaction with physical

punishment Child responds favorably to non-coercive

methods Community restraints/services