Understanding Algonquian Indian Words (New England)-revised ed.

Moondancer Strong Woman

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data OBrien, Francis Joseph, Jr. (Moondancer) Jennings, Julianne (Strong Woman) Understanding Algonquian Indian Words (New England). p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Algonquian Indian languages (Massachusett and Narragansett) Dictionary 2. Algonquian Indian languages (Massachusett and Narragansett) Grammar.

I. The Massachusett Language Revival Project. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 96-85223

SECOND PRINTING (corrected and revisedApril, 2001) The Massachusett Language Revival Project is made possible [in part] by a grant from the Rhode Island Committee for the Humanities, a state program of the National Endowment for the Humanities.

The views expressed in this book do not necessarily reflect the views of either the Rhode Island Committee for the Humanities or the National Endowment for the Humanities. The Aquidneck Indian Council is solely responsible for its contents. The Massachusett Language Revival Project is also made possible [in part] by a grant from The Council of Elders, Mashantucket Pequot Tribal Nation. Copyright 1996, 2001 by Moondancer and Strong Woman, Aquidneck Indian Council, Inc.,12 Curry Avenue, Newport, RI 02840-1412, USA. E-mail: moondancer_Nuwc@hotmail.com. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the Aquidneck Indian Council, Inc. Printed in the United States of America.

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CONTENTS

List of Illustrations iii

Foreword by Tall Oak iv

Foreword by Moondancer Strong Woman v Preface vi

Background vi

Algonquian Languages vii

The Massachusett Language Revival Project vii

Aquidneck Indian Council ix

Understanding Algonquian Indian Words (New England) ix

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS x

ABBREVIATIONS AND OTHER CONVENTIONS xii

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK xiv

PRONUNCIATION GUIDE xvi

INTRODUCTION xxiv

Background xxiv

The Massachusett Language xxvi

Approach to Language Revival xxviii

Structure of Book xxviii

Part I xxviii

Part II xxx

Part III xxx

I. ALGONQUIAN WORD ELEMENTS AND MEANINGS (NATICK-MASSACHUSETT

AND NARRAGANSETT) 1

II. EXAMPLES 73

Earliest Recorded Indian Dictionary, Wm. Woods 1634 Nomenclator 74 Selected New England Place Names 79

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Conversational Lesson Sheet 81 Keihtanit-m (Poem) 84 Wampanoag Prayer 86 One of The Longest Indian Words Ever Recorded In The New England

Algonquian Languages 89

Sample of Wampanoag Langauge: A Deed for Land Sold in 1700 91 Translation Exercise 94

III. INTRODUCTION TO THE GRAMMAR OF NATICK-MASSACHUSETT 96 The Indian Grammar Begun by John Eliot 97

GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS 108

SOURCES 116

ENGLISH INDEX 120

About the Authors

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Front Cover, Southern New England, Wm. Wood map, 1634

Figure 1. Southern New England Tribal Territories circa 1630 xxv

Figure 2. Southern New England Indian Settlements and Reservations after 1674 xxvi

Figure 3. Facsimile Title page, A Key into the Language of America, Roger Williams, 1643 1

Figure 4. Facsimile Title page, The Holy Bible (first ed.), John Eliot, 1663 1

Figure 5. Facsimile Title page, The Indian Grammar Begun, John Eliot, 1666 96

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FOREWORD by

Tall Oak My interest in the story of our People here in southern New England did not burn into the passion I now have until I was already in my senior year in high school (1955) when I stumbled on a little old book in our school library entitled A Key into the Language of America by Roger Williams. It was like finding buried treasure! I had no idea such a book had ever been written and couldnt believe I had access to such a prize! Once I picked it up, I became completely fascinated with the treasure house of information it was filled with and soon found myself transported back in time as I began to absorb the contents of each page with a thirst I could not quench. It opened my eager eyes to the beauty of a language and a way of life that had been taken away from us for so many, many years. My dream of repossessing what should have been never been take away had begun! Through many years of research and being blessed with the opportunity to meet many traditional people from Alaska to South America, I have been able to participate in a revival which continues today in southern New England in ways I never dreamed would be possible. I soon became aware that the world-view of a people and the thought processes of their minds are all embodied in the language that they used to communicate with each other. I then began to see that in order to really understand our people and our history, you have to develop more understanding of the language which was the soul of our people. This was all part of that circle which had been broken and definitely needed to be repaired. As I continued to accumulate all the information I could, it wasnt until I was married and became the father of my sons, all of whom have Algonquian names, that I saw what I thought would be an ideal strategy in realizing my dream. Believing that a language can only be brought back to life by being used regularly and understanding that children, having less inhibitions, can learn a language more easily than adults, I decided to utilize those capabilities I had with my three young sons, who ranged in age from pre-school to the early elementary level. Although they soon developed some proficiency in the language, I eventually tempered my idealism with enough reality to realize that any serious revival of the language was going to take a lot more time and effort than I had been able to put into it, so my dream of that revival was put on hold -- indefinitely. All of the time and effort that Strong Woman and Moondancer put into this Project might now make this dream of revival more possible. It is with this hope that I have agreed to become a consultant on this project. The dream is still alive and the contribution is ready to be made. Tall Oak Mashantucket Pequot and Wampanoag May, 1997

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FOREWORD by

Moondancer Strong Woman The Indian Spirit is alive today throughout Turtle Island. In New England, one of the principal manifestations of the ancient ones is the names they have left for many things -- foods, animals, clothing, states and cities, lakes, mountains, and so on. For example, one can note the names Wampanoag and Narragansett, succotash and squash, moccasin, wampum, toboggan, Connecticut and Massachusetts, opossum and raccoon, Mashantucket, Winnepesaukee, and many more, all of which are common names taken over from our New England Indian heritage. It is important to know how to understand these words which are derived from the Indian tongues once heard in these woods, fields, lakes and mountains for thousands of years before the keels of the European boats grated harsh against the sands of these shores. No one knows for sure how to pronounce the original Indian words from the extinct languages of southeastern New England since there are no detailed recordings of the speakers. But we can begin to gain reading and writing fluency from the written records we do have. Analysis of similar existing Algonquian languages in New England may help in reconstructing the pronunciation and talking style of the extinct languages. This book by Moondancer and Strong Woman is the first in a planned series of non technical works initiated by the Aquidneck Indian Council. The program The Massachusett Language Revival Project is designed to introduce the Indian languages of New England at an elementary level, particularly the language Massachusett. The first volume, Understanding Algonquian Indian Words (New England) is a primer (very elementary and introductory work), focusing on word-analysis skills, or the ability to break words down into their primary roots and other parts. For example the words Wampanoag and wampum both share the common root wmp meaning white which comes from the American Indian language Massachusett. Moondancer and Strong Woman have compiled a selection of important roots and combining stems and prefixes/suffixes as well as phrases and whole sentences. The word elements contained in this book are provided for those interested in understanding the meanings of various Algonquian language words that are spoken or were spoken in New England by Eastern Woodland American Indians. Another purpose of the book is for readers to be able to understand the present, often mangled, words through out New England that come from "Pure Indian" (such as Mystic, Horseneck, Swampscott, Sheepaug, Wicaboxet, and hundreds more). By using this book and practicing reading of known books, poems and the like (such as given in this book) a person can begin to understand this complex language. A person will also be able to recognize many Indian-based names so prevalent in our culture. Thus, Understanding Algonquian Indian Words (New England) will be of interest to all people who find languages a fascinating invention of human beings. Since the first edition of our book, we have published several other books on the language and culture of regional peoples. A Massachusett Language Book, Vol. 1 contains several vocabulary listings arranged topically. Our two Narragansett books offer a dictionary for Roger Williams A Key into the Language of America, and a re-translation of A Key supported by 1,000 footnotes. Recently we have produced an audiocassette tape of songs and chants in the language, sung by Strong Woman. See SOURCES. The Wampanoags have made tremendous strides in bringing back their lost language. See, for example, Jessie Little Doe Fermino, 2000, An Introduction to Wampanoag Grammar. Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. (Unpublished Masters Thesis.)

May, 1997 April, 2001 Newport, RI

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PREFACE

Background Latin and ancient Greek are dead languages. Many people spoke these languages a long time ago. No one speaks Latin or ancient Greek today. Only a handful of people read Latin or ancient Greek poets, philosophers and statesmen. But you can study Latin and ancient Greek in schools and learn to pronounce Latin and ancient Greek words. But no one is sure how the Romans spoke Latin or the Greeks spoke Greek. Latin and ancient Greek are important for learning English because a good percentage of the words in English dictionaries are derived from Latin and ancient Greek roots* . Ask any medical or nursing student or medical secretary how important Latin and ancient Greek are for their professions. For example, take the word

pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis which is a real word based on Latin and Greek roots. Roughly the word means the condition of having glass-like dust particles caught in the lungs from a volcanic eruption. One word expresses so much! The medical student learns to break this very long word down into its basic roots and other combining elements (prefixes, suffixes, etc.) to understand and remember it. Lets see how we can break the code of this word. Breaking it up into the basic parts:

pneumono ultra micro scopic silico volcano coni osis

Look at the following table for the essential meaning of each part:

pneumono = lungs ultra = beyond

micro = very small scopic = see silico = glass-like

volcano = volcano con = with osis = the condition of

The Greek elements are written in English. Forget for now how you pronounce this monster-word. Forget for now that volcano is a noun (referring to a person, place, thing or idea). Forget all technical matters dealing with grammar. Lets focus only on the meaning of this word. Now if we take the word elements in the left hand column of the table we created and string them together we get a clue to the meaning of

pneumono ultra micro scopic silico volcano coni osis

lungs + beyond + very small + see + glass-like + volcano + with + condition of

* A knowledge of 14 Greek and Latin roots would help readers to recognize over 14, 000 words in the English language.

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Stringing the meanings together, and clumping the meaning of each part into larger whole units of meaning, and imposing an ordering (that students learn) tells us how you get the essential meaning from the list. Now we know a very big word. But we also learned something else because the roots and other combining elements (pneumono, etc.) show up in very many medical words one finds in a medical dictionary, a doctors report and so on. So if you now see the word pneumonia, you have a good clue that pneumonia has something to do with the lungs. The beginning student of medical terminology who is taught these eight roots has knowledge of all words using them. Thats what makes doctors so smart (and rich). The words, ideas, thoughts, feelings expressed in the Algonquian Indian languages present the same challenge to understanding them that pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis presents to the medical student. Interestingly, in medical courses students are taught their Latin and Greek roots (etymology) first before they learn the language of medicine. Without the roots, students would never remember the language of their profession. So, pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis can be understood by word-analysis. Now, to spill another one, take the following hyphenated word from the Indian language Massachusett: nup-pahk-nuh-t-pe-pe-nau-wut-chut-chuh-qu-ka-neh-cha-neh-cha-e-nin-nu-mun-n-n o k.

This 61-letter word means our well-skilled looking-glass makers (Trumbull, 1903, p. 290). Such a word can be analyzed with the tools learned in this book. Our approach is the same basic one used to understand pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis.

Algonquian Languages

Now suppose you give yourself the challenge of learning another dead language such as any of the extinct American Indian languages in southern New England (Narragansett, Massachusett (no s on end) or Pequot-Mohegan, among others). There are several types of books and other materials on the Indian languages of New England (called Algonquian languages) particularly those dealing with the extinct languages of southern New England. Some of the books are more than 300 years old. These books can tell you something about how the language sounded, the meanings of the words, and the syntax (grammatical rules for making words, phrases and sentences). But you dont really know how the musical spoken word really sounded or how hand gestures and other body language was used to communicate thoughts and feelings. Most of these books are not available to most people. Some books are available in scholarly libraries but are understandable to only a handful of people in the world. Other books are phrase books with no instruction on how to make new words, phrases or sentences. Still others are place name listings of towns, cities and so on in New England. Such Indian place name books tell you something about the roots and other important word elements of Algonquian words. But they are not readily available either in our public libraries. You are frustrated! The language experts must make a living also. Some seem too busy to help you to the extent you need, or are helpless themselves because they are like the Latin or ancient Greek teachers -- they have some knowledge, but not certain knowledge. Also, Algonquian languages are very strange, very complicated and most beautiful, almost like poems. You are almost afraid to try to pronounce them, either for fear of making mistakes or out of reverence for the ancient ones.

The Massachusett Language Revival Project

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All of this was the womb in which began The Aquidneck Indian Councils The Massachusett Language Revival Project. Let us tell you some background about this project. As mentioned, one major Indian language group of southeastern New England is referred to by linguists as Massachusett. The Massachusett Language Revival Project is designed to assist in the reconstruction and revival of this extinct American Indian language to the extent humanly possible. We must start with the basics and proceed carefully and slowly. Our task is like micro-surgery on a language, and like micro-surgery, one needs skill, patience and love for what one is doing. The Massachusett language was once spoken fluently in what are now the States of Massachusetts and Rhode Island as well as other places in New England. According to linguists and historians, the Indians speaking the Massachusett language are called by scholars the Massachusett Indians, the Pokanoket Indians, The Nipmuck Indians and the Pawtucket Indians (see Trigger, 1978, or Goddard and Bragdon, 1988, or Bragdon, 1996, for other information [sometimes not always clear to the non specialist]). Thousands of Indians spoke this language before the coming of the bacilli and the Bible, plus an untold number who spoke different dialects of Massachusett or could understand it to some degree. Go to our Figure 1 in the Introduction to the book for a map showing these peoples aboriginal general locations along the coast of southern and middle New England. Various dialects of Massachusett were once spoken in Rhode Island and Massachusetts by peoples of different Tribes, each showing regional variation, but together constituting a single language -- Massachusett of the Eastern Algonquian language family. One dialect of Massachusett (called Natick) was extensively studied and documented by the missionary The Reverend John Eliot in the 1600s. It seems that he learned to speak the local oral language from Job Nesutan, a devoted Indian tutor and servant for 35 years, and he studied its grammatical structure. Eliot began preaching to the Indians in their language which very much impressed them. Later he and Job Nesutan (and other Indians) undertook an ambitious project designed to convert Indians to Christianity. Eliot and Job Nesutan (and other Indians ?) translated every word of the Holy Bible into Massachusett, and Eliot set about to teach the praying Indians how to read words in their own language, and then instructed them in the reading of the Holy Bible written in Massachusett. Eliot is considered by some as one of historys most gifted linguists. Job Nesutan and the other Indians must not be forgotten either, for they taught and assisted Eliot. Although Natick was the dialect of the language Massachusett that was documented by Eliot, and given that no two dialects of the same language are completely interchangeable, nonetheless Natick-Massachusett is the logical place to begin in reconstructing and reviving some the Indian languages of southeastern New England.* In days of old, an Indian who spoke Natick-Massachusett could be understood throughout the areas of what are now the States of Rhode Island and Massachusetts (Gookin, 1792). Many Indians in New England spoke two or more Indian languages, according to scholars like Kathleen J. Bragdon (1996). After The King Philips War (1675-1676) , English and English ways were urged among all the Indians. Because the very small number of surviving Indians were discouraged, by love or by force, from using their mother tongue, it died out. It is believed that the language Massachusett (and all Indian languages of southern New England) became extinct sometime in the 1800s (Huden, 1962; Goddard, 1978). Today, among most of the descendants of the ancient American Indians of southern New England, all that survives of this unwritten Indian tongue are a handful of phrases handed down over the generations (Good morning, Peace be to you, I love you, and the like; some can recite the Lords Prayer in the language). Heated debates are heard at powwows over the roots and derivations of New England place names derived from Algonquian languages. However, what little they have of this language, they do not want to lose. They are keenly aware of what has been lost, and are very desirous of reconstructing and reviving all aspects of their culture (excluding the War Dance and related activities), including the language(s) of their ancestors.

* Narragansett is an Algonquian language once spoken by Narragansett Indians (in present-day Rhode Island) and understood throughout New England. Narragansett is also extinct, and shares many features with Massachusett. Roger Williams wrote a famous Narragansett language phrase book in 1643. A technical problem is that Narragansett does not enjoy the linguistic knowledge we have from Eliots missionary work, and the subsequent technical work done on Massachusett. We treat Narragansett in our later books, Indian Grammar Dictionary for N-Dialect (2000) & Introduction to the Narraganett Language (2001). To some Indians, this war is called The Great Matriotic War (fight to keep Mother Earth).

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Thus we have some information about parts of this language, not only from Eliot, but also from scholars, both remote and proximate, who wrote dictionaries, etc. There exists today an elite band of scholars who work in this subset of a subset of theoretical and applied linguistics. Well-known scholars in the field helped us. They feel sure of the technical feasibility of reconstructing and reviving parts of the language with a great deal of painstaking work and cooperation among Native Americans, Indian language experts and funding agencies. Indians and language scholars are beginning to work together on this revival project. With the right assistance from Indian language experts and funding agencies, we expect to see in the future a degree of fluency in the language which will be a significant improvement over what now exists. Many people agree with us. Now, allow us to quote one of the many consulting scholars to our project, Professor Kenneth L. Hale, linguist of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), a man who gives generously of his time and efforts to Native Americans. Quoting Prof. Hales theory of language revival, taken from Keeping our Words (The Sciences, Sept./Oct., 1994):

No case is hopeless, Hale says. Just as Hebrew was revived as a spoken language in the nineteenth century, extinct native languages might return in the twenty-first century. Take Mohican, he says. There arent any speakers in that language, but you could take books and deeds published back in the 1600s, and from what we know about comparative Algonquian, you could figure out pretty closely what it sounded like. People could learn it and begin to use it and revive it. (p. 20)

How much of this ancient tongue Massachusett can be brought back is an open question. Can Indians in New England speak, read and write Massachusett as fluently as they speak English today? The Aquidneck Indian Council and its brothers and sisters and friends are committed to trying to do what can be done. Only time will tell and only the Creator knows for sure what will happen.

Aquidneck Indian Council Our involvement is based on ancient Indian spiritual (religious) tradition -- if you have something to share, you are obligated to share because moral and social standing is derived from how much you give. No one must go hungry for lack of food or language. In principal, all men are brothers and fathers, all women are sisters and mothers. The Native American community supports our efforts and counts on us to complete our tasks. Our book is by Indians for Indians (and others). This is a very important point. The Aquidneck Indian Council is an independent, non profit, tax-exempt corporation. Our purposes are educational and cultural. We are committed to reviving and preserving the ancient traditions of New England Indians. We believe very strongly that American Indian heritage has much to offer to all peoples of the earth. We share our proud traditions and customs with all. The founding leaders of the Council are all descendants of the aboriginal peoples of North America.

Understanding Algonquian Indian Words (New England)

Understanding Algonquian Indian Words (New England) is the first in a planned series of non technical works designed to introduce the languages of southeastern New England at an elementary level with emphasis on the language Massachusett. The first volume is a primer (very elementary and introductory

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work), focusing on word-analysis skills*, and a very brief introduction to the complicated grammar of Massachusett

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are grateful for the enthusiasm and encouragement we have received from the Native American and non Indian communities for this historic project. We trust that others will be motivated to take up the torch light and help bring back the living languages of New England Indians heard in these woods, fields, lakes and mountains for thousands of years. Our financial funding came from three sources. The Aquidneck Indian Council has invested so far over $25,000 of its own meager resources in the form of cash and in-kind services for The Massachusett Language Revival Project. Chairman Richard Skip Hayward and The Council of Elders of the Mashantucket Pequot Tribal Nation were the first to give us a grant to purchase books and other supplies for us to begin our long journey.

Nwomantam kehchisog kah kehchissquaog A great deal of acknowledgment must also go to the Rhode Island Committee for the Humanities, a state run program of the National Endowment for the Humanities. The entire committee of R.I.C.H. as well as Executive Director Dr. Joseph Finkhouse and Deputy Director Jane H. Civens believed in our project, encouraged us, funded us, and helped in many other ways.

Kuttabotomish, tomppauogen Many of our friends in the Native American community of New England as well as recognized scholars have helped us in one way or another to make this book a reality. Our friend, Professor Shepard Kretch III of The Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology, and Anthropology Department, Brown University, was very kind in sending our original ideas to Dr. Kathleen J. Bragdon (noted ethnohistorian and Massachusett language expert). Dr. Bragdon offered much valuable technical assistance and stressed the importance of the project and gave us much needed encouragement. Tall Oak, who served as one of our Principal Humanities Scholars on the project, has encouraged us and helped us immensely from the beginning. Tall Oak serves as one of our Councils wauontam (wise man, councilor). Our heart-felt thanks to Tall Oak for his kindness and love. Karl V. Teeter, Professor of Linguistics (Emeritus), Harvard University, is a Principal Humanities Scholar on the Massachusett Language Revival Project. Prof. Teeter helped in many ways on the technical linguistic matters. His assistance was invaluable, and his friendship is cherished. Our children Brian (Feet Like Thunder) and Julia (A Great Voice), and newly born Lily-Rae (Little White Flower) helped us as only young boys and girls can help their parents who are doing grown-up stuff. This book is our legacy to them. Others who have helped us in one way or another include the following institutions and individuals: Rhode Island Indian Council Massachusetts Center for Native Awareness Massachusetts Council on Indian Affairs Widener Library, Harvard University Plymouth Colony Archive Project John Carter Brown Library University of Pennsylvania University of Rhode Island * Word-analysis means the breaking down of a word into its parts and the recognition of the original meaning of each part. For example the word preliterate has a prefix (pre = before) and a root (litera = a letter), to give the meaning of preliterate as before writing. Also, the word docile contains the root (docere = to teach) and a suffix (ile = capable of) to give the literal meaning of docile as capable of teaching.

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National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution Rhode Island Historical Society Library Rhode Island State Council on the Arts Rhode Island Foundation Expansion Arts Aquidneck Indian Council Members of the Board, Council & Friends and Contributors Seekonk Historical Society Rhode Island Public Libraries Massachusetts Public Libraries Mashantucket Pequot Museum and Research Library Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology, Brown University The Norman Bird Sanctuary, Middletown, RI Public Schools in Newport Public Schools in Middletown Narragansett Indian News Los Angeles Times Newport Daily News Providence Journal New York Academy of Sciences Indian Country Today Whispering Wind Magazine American Indian Culture and Research Journal Enokwin Journal of First Native American Peoples Lincoln Out-of-Print Book Search Dream Edit, Newport, RI Tribal Councils of Narragansett, Mashpee, Gay Head, Eastern Pequot, Quinnipiac, Wutuppa, Hassanamisco

Nipmuc, Quinsigamond, Chaubunagungamaug Nipmuc, Assonset, Seaconke-Wampanoag, Dighton, and others Darrel Waldron, Executive Director, Rhode Island Indian Council Kenneth L. Hale, the late Ferrari P. Ward Professor of Modern Languages and Linguistics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology George Aubin, Assumption College Philip S. LeSourd, Indiana University Lorraine Baker (Healing Woman), Council Treasurer, and Project Financial Officer Charles Weeden (Great Bear), Council Publicity Coordinator Iron Thunderhorse, Quinnipiac Tribal Council Grand Sachem Orman talking Turtle (Narragtansett) and Maliseet friends, Tobique Band, N.B. Chief Eagle, Sagamore Tribal Council, MA Peter Lenz, Maine Historian Mary Benjamin Maine Biographer Steven Baker, Council Photographer Guy Perotta & Charles Clemmons, Co-producers and Native American actors, Mystic Voices: the Story of the

Pequot War Galen Silvia Kinkos Copies of Middletown, RI Micro Image III, Inc., Everett, MA. The Smithsonian Institution kindly allowed us to reprint the maps shown in our INTRODUCTION, taken from Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 15 (Northeast), 1978. We are grateful to The John Carter Brown Library for permission to reprint John Eliots The Indian Grammar Begun which appears in Part III. We thank Plymouth Colony Archive project for permission to use Woods Map [front cover], the University of Pennsylvania for permission to use Figures 3, 4 & 5. Any errors remain solely those of the authors. We would appreciate hearing from readers who spot errors in the book or otherwise desire to improve this book in future editions. We are very proud of our heritage. Our ancestors were born on this land. Nttauke, Nissa Wnawkamuck. We want to share our gifts with others so that New England Indian culture and language will continue to exist. The language of a people is very important because it tells us how people thought of their world and lived in it. May the Indian People live !

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ABBREVIATIONS AND

OTHER CONVENTIONS Very few abbreviations and symbols are used in the book, except for the following. Abbreviation Meaning cf. compare with

e.g. for example

etc. and so on

i.e. specifically, that is to say

Narr. Narragansett language

p. page

pp. pages

Symbol Meaning or Meanings

= equal sign used to indicate has the meaning: e.g., neetompas = my sister

? authors not sure of something

(1) first meaning of a word; e.g., ke (1); ke (2) is second meaning, etc.

- ist use: separation of singular-plural terms; e.g. hnck-hnckock is written to give the meaning for one goose as hnck, and hnckock for many geese. Likewise, the word qussuck-quanash stands for the words qussuck = one rock and qussuckquanash = many rocks. 2nd use: for hyphenating roots like s-s-k (rattling sound, like a snake, gourd, etc.) or t-op, and prefix/suffix terms, such as: -ash, and compound terms such as keht- or -unk or -antam. Roots such as min or uhq are not hyphenated. 3rd use: to indicate different definitions of some words; e.g. the word -hogk has two different meanings listed in Part I.

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* see footnote, bottom of page

see footnote, bottom of page see footnote, bottom of page

a sound or sounds usually written or spoken where is; e.g.,

mtah = tahem( . Dont confuse the symbol with the symbol (accent mark) such as seen in the word wtu

literal meaning of a word, phrase, sentence; e.g. misqushim = red fox .

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HOW TO USE THIS BOOK Here we give an explanation of how to read the entries in Part I and the Index of the book. In Part I, we give a short list of words, phrases, sentences along with their roots and stems, references to other words, some examples, and sometimes additional information. Each entry has some information like this, but not all entries have all the information because it doesnt exist, or would take up too much space.

Reading Entries in Part I We want to make sure you know how to read the entries when you look up a word. We try to keep it simple. Here are three examples just as they appear in Part I of the book:

agwe (agwu, ogwu) under, below (e.g., agwattin = under a hill)

mituck-quash (mehtug-quash)(see mtugk, -quash)

tree-trees

misqu (Narr.) (it is) red (e.g., misqushim = red fox), animate form

The Algonquian words are on the left-side of the page, and the English translations are on the right-side of the page. Algonquian words are always written in the slanted-italic-style (like agwe). The Algonquian word agwe is given in the first example. In parentheses we show that two variant spellings of agwe may be seen in other written sources (agwu, ogwu). Next we know that agwe is a Massachusett language word (because we dont give the Narr. abbreviation). The meanings of the word agwe are under, below. An example of agwe in a phrase is, agwattin = under a hill. The second example shows a singular and plural word for the noun tree. The Massachusett language entry is mituck-quash (mehtug-quash). In parenthesis is an alternate spelling of the words which may show the pronunciation of a different dialect (?), or spurious missionary recordings. The word mituck by itself means tree, and when you drop the hyphen, close up the whole word, you get the plural, mituckquash = trees. Now we say (see mtugk, -quash) where we give roots for tree and tell you about the plural marker -quash. No examples are given here. The third example shows a Narragansett word misqu meaning red . As an example of misqu used in a Narragansett-language phrase, misqushim = red fox. If you look up misqushim, youll see that misqushim literally means red animal. The accent symbols, for readers who want to have a rough idea of the sound of the words, can be found in the next section, PRONUNCIATION GUIDE. No accent mark means that the word is pronounced as written with an equal emphasis on each syllable. In this book we dont concentrate on accurate pronunciation (a difficult matter when no fluent speakers exist).

Notes on Using the Index

The English language Index at the back of the book is the key to this book. The Index should be used to find roots, phrases and sentences for Part I. For example, to find the Massachusett phrase for good morning, the reader finds good morning in the alphabetical Index in the back of the book where the page number is given for finding the phrase in Part I. Turning to the indicated page number the reader searches the page until mohtompan wunne (good morning) is located. There the roots are given and the reader is told to see related terms to help understand as much as possible about the words. Want to know the word for red ? The Index shows that red can be found in many places of the book (by itself, in another word like red-fox, in a phrase, or in a sentence).

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Look in all places of the book until satisfied. Write down notes, page numbers etc. to help you remember. Thats how we all learn new words. The main thing is: be patient, have fun, and grow. When you speak your mother tongue you are worshipping the ways of your ancestors. If the reader has learned the word hopunck, find hopunck in Part I to learn that hopunck = a tobacco pipe (a Narragansett word). Note that very few derivations of Narragansett words seem to have been passed down. Lastly, to supplement the vocabulary in Part I, we give the meanings for about 150 other words, phrases, sentences. These terms are defined in the Index itself (e.g., hair = meesunk). One other reason for giving this listing is so that readers may further practice word analysis; after you have read something about the grammar in Part III, you should be able to recognize parts of some of the words, etc. in the Index. Since this book is not meant to replace existing dictionaries, but give only a small number of words with which to start off with, we give only a very modest amount of the vocabulary. The Massachusett Language Revival Project will help make available the extensive dictionaries people need for learning their language.

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PRONUNCIATION GUIDE

Guide to Historic Spellings & Sounds in Massachusett-Narragansett1 (Mainland Dialects from Records of 1600s & 1700s)

STRESS AND PITCH MARKS

STRESS (Accent) LANGUAGE (primary or main stress) Massachusett & Narragansett (secondary stress) Historic records seem to omit

PITCH (Tone) LANGUAGE (high or rising) Narragansett ? (low or falling) Narragansett ? (rising, then falling) Narragansett [in Massachusett ^ symbol is for nasals , , ] m (pause, hesitation) Massachusett & Narragansett

SYLLABLE STRESS

Stress (or emphasis or accent) typically falls on syllable or syllables marked with special symbols (e.g., wtu stresses first syllable with primary/main stress; ew stresses second with a low/falling tone; wuskwhn has main stress & low pitch; a stresses a and ). Most Massachusett words seem to have no stress marks indicating that no special stress on any one syllable exists [e.g., nippe, askk, mehtugq]. When in doubt about stress, the following rules of thumb may be used :

for 1 syllable, no stress for 2 syllables, stress first syllable (w-tu)

for 3 syllables, stress second syllable (wos-k-tomp) for more than 3 syllables, stress near middle or end of word (we-at-chim-mn-eash)

These are only rules of thumb (or tongue) and do not apply for all words. More complicted rules exist for accent structure (see Goddard, 1981).

1 This section selected from A Massachusett Language Book, Vol. I (1998).

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VOWELS & CONSONANTS (true phonemes). See the list below for other vowel spellings & sounds.

{

4444 34444 21321

44 344 2143421

y w.

tte,tt,sh t s pn mk h ch conson-1

y

LONGSHORT

______________________________

o oo o ee au

CONSONANTS-12

VOWELS-6

Partial List of Spellings & Sounds < < < <

SPELLING (from John Eliot & others)

APPROXIMATE SOUND (Some are uncertain)

a [as in wadchu (wachuw)] a in sofa (or) ah [short or long version]

aa [as in waantamonk] long ah [sometimes aa written as a] [as in nsh (nosh)] long ah

a ]mekawawin [as ) a in ale (or) a in father a( [as in ap( ] a in abet [as in nmaus] a in French word blanc ( is a nasal sound) (or, perhaps)

ah [long vesion] a a in knave (nasalized). a is rarely seen. [as in pesik] a in arm (rarely seen)

ae [word middle or ending] e in he (or) a in am

e [word middle or ending as in agkome (akomee)]

ah-ee (long ah)

ag [as in tannag (tanok)] ak as in clock

ah [word ending] long ah

ai [as in naish (nosh)] long ah (or) ai in mail

aih [as in nuppaih (nupoh)] ah [long version]

am, an, m, n [after consonant as in sampwe (spwee)]

a in French blanc (nasal sound)

ash [word ending for plurals as in hassenash] arsh in harsh (silent r)

ass [word ending for some plurals, Narragansett] ahs

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au [as in hennau (henw)] ow

a [as in ake (ahkee), Narr.] long ah [a rising-falling pitch]

a, u [as in nesusuk (neessuk)] nasal sound as a in French blanc

a [as in a] ah-ou ( is oo in boot)

b, bp [word middle after vowel as in kobhog (kophak)]

b or p in big (or) pig (a sound between b / p)

b, bp [word ending] b or p in big (or) pig (a sound between b / p)

ca, co, cu k-sound like call, cold, cut

cau cow (or) caw (see kau)

ce, ci

s-sound in cede, civil, acid sometimes z- or sh-sound as in sacrifice, ocean

ch [word beginning and after h] ch in chair

ch [word middle & word ending after vowel] ch in much, etching

cha [word beginning] cha in cha-cha cha, che, chi [word middle & ending, as in schem

(steum)] tee-you [fast tempo] (a complex sound between ch & t)

che, chee chee in cheese

chu [word middle following vowel or word ending as in wechu (weeteuw)]

tee-you [fast tempo] (a complex sound between ch & t). chu is rarely seen with this sound as a word ending; see next entry for more common sound with this word ending.

chu [word ending as in wadchu (wachuw) & meechu (meechuw)]

chew

ckq [word middle as in Narr., muckqutu (mukweeteuw)]

qu as in queen (see kq)

dch, dtch [word middle & word ending after vowel] ch in much, etching

dj ch in match (rare)

dt, d [word middle after vowel] t in tin (or) d in din (a d-t sound) [d may be silent in some words like wadchu (wachuw)]

dt, d [word ending as in kod (kat)] t in tin (or) d in din (a d-t sound)

dtea [after a vowel] tee-ah [fast tempo] (a complex sound between ch & t)

dti tee-you [fast tempo] (a complex sound between ch & t)

e [word beginning or middle as in kesukun (keesukun)]

e in he (or) a in sofa (or) e in bed (Narr.)

e [word ending as in wuske (wuskee) or seipe (seep)]

e in he [usually for adjectives & adverbs; a final e in some Roger Williams & Cotton words is probably silent and tells us that the preceeding vowel is a long sound; e.g. cummmuckquete (kumumukweet) (see ese for another example)

e e in he

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ee ee as in green (or, before ht & hch) a in sofa

[as in wtu (weeteuw)] e in he

e( [as in tahem( ] e in end [Narr., as in penntunck] (pehntunck)] Roger Williams says ^ is long sounding Accent

a in tame ( rarely seen)

ea [as in sekeneam (seekuniam)] e in he (or) long ah

ei [as in keihtoh (kuhtah)] a in sofa [before ht, hch] (or) i in hit (or, rarely) ee in heed

emes [word ending for diminutive as in mehtugquemes (muhtukweemees)]

eemees

es [word ending for diminutive as in mehtugques (muhtukwees)]

ees

ese [word ending for Narr. diminutive, as in squese (skwahees)]

ees [final e in ese probably silent & means preceeding vowel is long; see e (word ending)]

et [word ending , locative as in pautuxet] et in set

eu [as in ayeu (ayuw)] eu in feud

uck [word ending as in Narr., Massachusuck] e in heed + ook in hook

f not used

g, gg, gk [word middle after a vowel as in agkome (akomee)]

k in cow [perhaps a guttural sound]; one g heard in gg.

g, gk [word ending as in mehtug (muhtukw) & tannag (tanok)]

k in cow [perhaps a guttural sound] (or) qu in queen

gh k in cow (or) ge in age

ghk k in cow (or) qu in queen

gi, ji gi in giant

gq [word ending as in mehtugq (muhtukw) ] qu in queen

gw , gqu [word middle between vowels as in mehtugquash (muhtukwash) ]

qu in queen

h, hh h in hot (one h heard)

h [word beginning as in htugk] h in hot (a pause or breathing sound after h)

hch, ch ch in chair

hk [word middle as in kishke (keeskee) ]

k in cow

hsh sh in shoe

ht ht in height

hw, hwh wh in what

i [word middle as in quinni (kwinee)] a in sofa (or) e in he (or) i in hit (Narr.)

i [word ending as in mi (moowee) ] e in he [as in sickssuog] i in hit (or) a in sofa (or) i in hit (Narr.)

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i i in ice

i(

[as in ppoginehch(

] i in ill

[as in a] e in he ( rarely seen)

ie e in he [rare]

is, ish [word middle as in kishke (keeskee)] ees [ see entry for sh & shk]

ish [word ending as in anish (ahnish)] ish as in dish

is [word ending as in mokkis (mahkus)] us

it, ut [word ending, locative] it or ut in put

j ch in match (or) gi in giant (rare)

ji gi in giant

jt [word middle after vowel as in quajtog (kwochtak)]

ch in etching

k [word beginning & after consonant] k in cow

k, kk [word middle after vowel as in mokkis (mahkus)]

k in cow (one k heard)

k [word ending as in ahtuk (ahtukw)] qu in queen (or) k in cow

k [word beginning as in kchi] 2nd k in kick (a pause or breathing sound after k)

kau cow (or) caw (see cau)

ke kee in keep (or) kuh

ek , kee kee in keep kh ck in back?

ki kee in keep (or) ki in kick

ko ka in karate (or) co in coop

kq [before consonant & word ending] qu in queen [see ckq]

kqu [word middle between vowels as in nukqutchtamup (nukwuchtamup)]

qu in queen [see ckq]

kuh, keh [as in kehtnog (kuhtoonakw)] uh like a in sofa (or) kuh in coop l el (rarely seen in southeastern New England dialects)

m, mm m in mud (or) hammer (one m heard)

m& [as in pumpo & (phpuw)] nasal sound as in pomp ( m& is very rare) m [word beginning as in mtugk] meh or muh (a pause or breathing sound after m)

n [ beginning of word] n in no

nn [ beginning of word as in nnin] ne-ne in enema (two n sounds)

n, nn [middle, end of word] n in tan (one n sound)

n&& [as in chunmo && ] nasal is no && is nasal sound o [as in kod (kat)] ah [short version] (or) oo in food

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oo [as in askook] oo in food

oooo, first oo or spoken; said as oo in food [as in wmpi (wampee) & anme (anme)] ah [long version] (or, rarely) o in old o [as in mukok ] o in old [as in wosktomp (waskeetp)] a in French word blanc (nasal sound)

o o in no [as a nasal sound?] o is very rare. ock [word middle or ending, Narr.] ak in clock

og [word middle or ending] ak in clock

oh [as in ohke (ahkee)] ah [short or long version] (or) nasal sound h [after n]

ho( [as in hquiop( ] a in sofa oi oi in oil

i nasal a in blanc + e in he

om, on [nasal sound as in wosktomp(waskeetp)] a in French word blanc (nasal sound)

onk [word ending, abstract nouns as in meetsuonk] onck (or) unck

oo [as in askook (ahskook)] oo in food [Eliots special symbol for double oo; the same as (or) 8]

[as in muttn (mutoon)] oo in food (modern symbol for oo ; 8 also used for oo)

, first o or spoken; said as oo in food [as in sohsum onk] oo in boot ( [as in onkpeantam( ] oo in foot ou ou in out

w [word beginning] whee (whistling sound which Eliot couldnt explain] p, pp [word middle after vowel] p or b in pig (or) big (a sound between p / b). One p

heard p [word ending] p or b in pig (or) big (a sound between p / b)

ps [word beginning or middle as in psuk] pss ( rare)

pu, puh [as in appu (apuw)] pu in put

q [before consonant & word ending] qu in queen

qu [word beginning & after consonant] qu in queen

qu [word middle between vowels] qu in queen

qua [as in quadjtog (kwochtak)] quo in quota (or) qua in quality

qu quo in Pequot

que [as in ahque (ahkwee)] quee in queen (or) quest

qui quee in queen (or) qui in quick

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quie [as in wishquie (weeskwayee)] kwayee

quo [as in ahquompi (ahkwahmpee)] quah

qun [as in qunutug (kwunutukw)] kwun

uq [as in utshauq && ] coo (like dove-sound) qut kwut

r are (rarely used in southeastern New England dialects)

s [word beginning & after consonant] s in sip

s, ss [after vowel as in nusseet (nuseet)] s in sip (one s sound)

sh [before vowel & word ending as in mukquoshim (mukwahshum)]

sh in shoe, she, ship

sh [before consonant as in kishke (keeskee) ] s in sip

shau [as in petshau (peetshow)] show in rain-shower

shk [before vowel as in kishke (keeskee) ] sk in Alaska

sq [as in mosq (mahskw)] squah in squat

suck [word ending, for plurals in Narragansett] sook

t [word beginning & after consonant as in tabot] t in tin (or) d in din (a d-t sound)

t, tt [word middle after vowel as in nuttah (nutah)] t in tin (or) d in din (a d-t sound) [one t heard]

t, tt [word end as in moskeht] tee-you [fast tempo] (a complex sound between ch & t)

tch [word middle & word ending after vowel] ch in etching

te [word beginning as in teag (teokw)] tee-you [fast tempo] (a complex sound between ch & t))

tea, ttea [after a vowel] tee-ah [fast tempo] (a complex sound between ch & t)

teau, teu, tteu [word middle or end as in keteau (keeteow)]

tee-you [fast tempo] (a complex sound between ch & t)

to, t, t [as in attau (atow)] to in top [a nasal sound]

tu, ttu [word middle or end as in wtu (weeteuw), pittu (puteow)]

tee-you [fast tempo] (a complex sound between ch & t) Other sounds like ti, tti, tj have the tee-you sound plus additional sounds

toh [as in kehtoh (kuhtah)] tah

u [as in wuttup (wutup)] a in sofa (or) ah (short version). Some think that at the beginning of some words, a u was a whistling sound (see w)

[as in a ] u in rude (or) a in sofa

u [as in utshauq && ] u in rude, tune u( [as in ssisuwonkq( ] u in circus, up? a in blanc (or) u in mud? (nasal sound)

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u&

u in turner (in Eliot ?)

[as in a] u in upsilon (or) oo in boot ( rarely seen) ?

uck, uk [word ending as in pasuk (posukw)] k is qu sound as in queen

ut, it [word ending, locative as in kehtompskut] ut in put (or) it

uw [word beginning] a w whistling sound

v not used

w, ww w in won (one w heard) [perhaps a whistling sound in some words beginning with w]

wh wh in what

wi why (or) wee

wu [as in wuttup (wutup)] wah (or) woo

x ex in exit (rarely seen)

y y in yes y y in lyre (in Eliot, others ?) y( y in typical (or) fully yau yaw

yeu [as in ayeu (ayuw)] you

yo yah (or) yo in yo-yo

y yah (or) yo in yo-yo oy yo in yo-yo

z, zs [as in nukkezheomp (nukeeship)] s in sip

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INTRODUCTION

Background

Algonquian refers to a family of about thirty-five interrelated American Indian languages making up the Algonquian language family, the largest group of languages in eastern North America. Quoting Pentland,

Among the languages which make up the Algonquian family are two large groups, Cree-Montagnais, which stretches from Labrador to Alberta, and Ojibwa (or Ojibwe/Ojibway), reaching from southern Quebec to Saskatchewan and North Dakota, and including the varieties known as Algonkin, Ottawa, and Chippewa. South of the Great Lakes are Potawatomi, Menominee, Fox-Sauk-Kickapoo (three dialects of a single language), Miami-Illinois, and Shawnee. To the west were Blackfoot, Arapaho and Atsina (or Gros Ventre), Cheyenne, and several other languages which are now extinct. On the east coast there were a large number of tribes who spoke Algonquian languages: Micmac, Malecite-Passamaquoddy, Eastern Abenaki (several dialects, including Penobscot), Western Abenaki, Nipmuck, Massachusett, Narragansett, Pequot-Mohegan, Quiripi-Unquachog, Mahican, Munsee and Unami Delaware, Nanticoke, Conoy, Powhatan, and Pamlico. We have records of about three dozen Algonquian languages all told, but it is almost certain that there were several more that died out before they could be recorded (Pentland, 1996)

Our focus is on southeastern New England Indians, the forest Indians, whom scholars call The Eastern

Woodland Indians. See the two maps of the region. Fig. 1 shows the historic ancestral homelands of the major Indian nations and tribes in southern New England (the gray-shaded region). Here we see what are believed to be the Indian Nations who spoke fluently some dialect of the Massachusett language: Pokanoket2 Nation, Massachusett Nation, Nipmuck Nation, Pawtucket Nation. The earliest recorded information we have on the Indians of the 1600s says that all the Indians seemed to speak the same language. Lets quote (in Modern English) one of the best European sources, Mr. Daniel Gookin, 1792:

The Indians of the parts of New England, especially upon the sea coasts, use the same sort of language, only with some differences in the expressions, as they differ in several countries [counties ?] in England yet so as they can well understand one another. Their speech is a distinct speech from any of the those used in Europe, Asia, or Africa, that I ever heard. (p. 9.)

Modern linguists seem to agree generally with Gookin. The recent book by K.J. Bragdon (1996) is a comprehensive reference work on the culture and language of southeastern New England Indians. Also, this book, while scholarly in nature, is centered on the Indian perspective. It is recommended, for it includes much information on the languages of Massachusett and Narragansett. In Fig. 2 we see where certain Indian villages, reservations, and other settlements were just before the outbreak of the bloody New England war, King Philipss War (1675-1676). Natick Village (near present-day Boston, Massachusetts) can be seen, the location where The Rev. John Eliot learned Natick-Massachusett, and recorded much of what we know today about Massachusett.

Note that the Pawtuckets (or Pennacooks) lived above the Massachusett Indians, one of the major tribes/nations speaking the language Massachusett. 2 Wampanoag in modern terms.

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Figure 1. The broad white lines show tribal territories (ancestral homelands). A black square indicates a modern non Indian town. A large bold-type name refers to an Indian Nation (e.g., Massachusett), the smaller bold-type names indicate tribal subdivisions (e.g., Neponset), present day State boundaries are indicated by dashed lines - - and State names are capitalized (e.g., MASSACHUSETTS), and geographical features are italicized (e.g., Atlantic Ocean). Source: Bruce G. Trigger (Volume Editor), Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 15 (Northeast), 1978. Washington, DC: The Smithsonian Institution (Page 160). Used with permission.

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Figure 2. Black squares indicate a modern non Indian town, present day State boundaries are indicated by dashed lines - - and State names are capitalized (e.g., MASSACHUSETTS), and geographical features are italicized (e.g., Atlantic Ocean). Source: Bruce G. Trigger (Volume Editor). Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 15 (Northeast), 1978. Washington, DC: The Smithsonian Institution (Page 178). Used with permission.

The Massachusett Language

Algonquian Indian languages are described by linguists as polysynthetic. This means that many simple roots, stems and prefixes/suffixes are combined in a specific way to generate a whole word, thought, idea, feeling. For example, take the word Massachusetts, the name of a New England State. The original word, massachuset, is from the Massachusett (or Natick) Indian language. Etymologically we can break this word down into four simpler word elements:

massa ( big or great) + wadchu (mountain, hill) + ash (plural, inanimate object) + et ( at, near, place of)

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Thus Massachusetts (massachuset) means "at or near the great hills and referred to a specific geographical location (the Blue Hills), not to the entire present State of Massachusetts. Notice how the four elements (massa, wadchu, ash, et) were abbreviated or contracted to form the final word; this is the essence of the language. A knowledge of the roots and other elements of a word is very important in deciphering the original meaning (when it can be reconstructed). But, because Algonquian languages (like Massachusett) are logical, rule-bound communication systems with complicated grammatical structures, the reader should not form the mistaken impression that simply stringing along a handful of prefix-root-suffix terms to form a polysyllabic mouthful of a word, is all that these languages can offer. For example, take the word from Massachusett

wtu = a house (wigwam), a noun. Now, consider the following:

neek = my house

keek = thy (your) house week = his house

wetuomash = houses These examples suggest that the elemental pronoun markers n-, k-, w- (and other variations) and the pluralization stem ash for inanimate objects must be combined with the noun in special ways to form words that appear in writing to be very different from the base noun wtu. Using wtu in whole sentences is even more complicated. Thus, grammar and composition are separate topics that need to be taken up slowly. An adequate treatment requires a separate volume. Understanding Algonquian Indian Words (New England) is not meant to be a comprehensive vocabulary book or a grammar book or a phrase book, for such are topics for future works. Only limited grammatical forms are given such as pronoun, noun, verb inflections. The most comprehensive source we know of on the grammar of Massachusett is the two-volume monumental work by Ives Goddard and Kathleen Bragdon (1988). They offer a highly technical treatment of the complex grammar and vocabulary of Massachusett (Natick )*. One must have specialized training in linguistics to understand their book. We intend to use their book to provide a nontechnical grammar textbook on Massachusett. Another major league Algonquianist is the late and great Prof. James H. Trumbull whose 1903 dictionary of the Massachusett (Natick) language is a major reliable source for the reader interested in the written word. Trumbull's 350 page book contains extensive discussion of words, giving words from other Algonquian languages and relating them to ancient world-wide languages, a most precious book. Another major source for the Massachusett vocabulary is the dictionary by Cotton (Cotton, 1830, Nichols, 1822). The works by the Rev. John Eliot ("The Apostle to the Indians") in the 1600s are the ultimate original written sources for the Natick dialect of the Massachusett language. Unfortunately, as we mentioned earlier, the works of Trumbull, Cotton, Eliot, and others are all but impossible for most people to obtain.

The word wtu is a fascinating word, as are all words given to Indians by the Creator. If you go through an Algonquian dictionary (e.g. Trumbulls 1903 book) you can piece together the different shades of meaning of wtu. Our analysis showed wtu related to other Massachusett words (or concepts) such as family, growth, love, land and wood. So, remembering that a house (a structure) is not a home (where family and love exist and grow), wtu seems to us to mean roughly a wooden home our family moves about our land. All Algonquian Indian words seem to weave these deep, interconnected, primitive notions of biotropism. Thus, the reader of our book should know that our word listing merely scratches the surface of meaning, because each word could fill a book by itself. * The Goddard and Bragdon work (Part 2) is interesting because it attempts to develop a grammatical sketch of the written records (letters, deeds, etc.) produced by Massachusett-speaking Indians who learned to read and write their ancient mother tongue from reading Eliots Bible in their language. They showed a great deal of individual differences in how they spelled words, used grammatical rules, etc. (Indians value freedom and independence above all else). Goddard and Bragdon try to systematize these linguistic phenomena and come up with their own grammatical sketch which includes John Eliots system from the 1600s.

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Approach to Language Revival Learning a new language is very difficult for most people. When there are no fluent speakers of a language, but only written sources on the semantics (word meanings, such as in Trumbulls dictionary) and syntax (rules for forming sentences, the grammar, such as in Eliots works, and others), then students are facing tremendous obstacles to language fluency. Such is the case for those who want to learn a language such as Massachusett, extinct since the early 1800s. Where to begin in reviving such a language poses many questions. The reader may know that almost all American Indian languages had no writing system as we know it. The cultures were oral. You learned everything from family and friends by listening to their words and thoughts and remembering what you were told. The hand gestures and other body language were also very important since they added meaning to the words. Compare this situation to American children learning the English language in the United States. Learning English usually involves learning how to speak it, read it and write it. Children have available their parents, teachers in schools, and many others from whom to learn the oral and written language. They also have books, tapes, music, their friends and playmates, TV, movies, etc. to practice their mother tongue. Some people have learned English from watching TV over an extended period of time. Language teachers tells us that one of the most important aspects of language learning is knowing the meanings of the words in the language (the semantics). Remembering the many words of a new language is difficult, especially when one doesnt have all the help needed to learn the language. The Massachusett Language Revival Project starts with the approach of basic word recognition, and the unique aspect of Indian languages -- their rootedness in nature, expressing very complex ideas, thoughts, feelings in complicated-looking words that combine many simple elements to form a complete idea, thought, feeling. Many of the Indian words for living things, especially animals, are onomatopoetic (imitative of nature -- word based on sound associated with object). For example, the Narragansett word for goose-geese (hnck- hnckock) is based on how Indians heard the honking sounds geese make. The word for tree htugk is what a tree sounds like when you strike it with a rock or club. To us, this practice attests to the intelligence of Indians because the word is easier to remember. It also shows the respect ("to look at objectively") Indians have for their brothers and sisters of the forest from whom they have learned so much about survival, and living in harmony and balance with nature. Our approach to teaching Massachusett (and some other related Algonquian languages) starts with the belief that learning the root words and other word parts of the language can provide knowledge of Massachusett (and other related Algonquian languages) more quickly. So, weve written this book with this belief in mind.

Structure of Book

Part I Understanding Algonquian Indian Words (New England) is structured in the following way. The book consists of three major chapters. The roots, stems and prefixes/suffixes, phrases and sentences presented in Part I are limited to the historic Eastern Woodland Algonquian Indian language of Massachusett (Natick) as preserved by John Eliot and others. A handful of terms in Part I come from the Narragansett language, and are so identified. Each of the entries in Part I shows the word element and some of the variant spellings of the same term, and the meaning or various meanings of the Algonquian term. A Natick dictionary such as Trumbulls 1903 book should be consulted for a more complete definition of the terms. Sometimes one finds a single word with more than one meaning or spelling, or there exists five or six words for the same thing. Included are selected whole words,

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phrases and sentences cross-referenced to their combining elements which was felt to be important for the beginning student. The derivations of words in some cases are suppositive (based on our own oral traditional reconstruction which amounts to saying we could be wrong, but heres our educated guess). It seems better to give the reader an hypothesis from which to launch ones own analysis ("nature abhors a vacuum"). The reader will not see the so-called grammatical classification for a word such as noun, adverb that one sees ordinarily in a dictionary. Our belief is that such information comes latter in language revival. Such knowledge, intimately tied-up with learning rules for word, phrase and sentence construction, is too burdensome now. Future works, as mentioned earlier, will take up such matters in detail, in conjunction with experts. The words in Massachusett are spelled phonetically -- what you see is what you say: see the PRONUNCIATION GUIDE. Part III provides information on the pronunciation. Several examples from Part I will give an idea of the contents. Lets say the reader looks up the phrase good morning. Turning to the right page, we see the entry: mohtompan wunne (see mohtompan, wunne) good morning

The book says see mohtompan, wunne. You find

mohtompan (see montup) morning (rising up)

You make a note maybe to see montup. Youre still dealing with wunne. So you find:

wunne (see wunni)

We refer you to wunni (just below wunne). You find:

wunni (wunne, oone) pleasing, favorable, good, beautiful

Here weve given you some other ways to spell wunni, and you may want to see what is said about them. Now, you can go back to montup. In this way, we have you go to as many places as we think you might go to get a feel for the underlying meanings of the words we provide in this book. The reader is given the experience of the interrelated structure of this complex, fascinating language. The original guttural sounds, the euphonic, metrical beauty of the language are, however, lost through the harsh lessons of American history, and we cannot enter into pronunciation, tempo and the like (now). The English language Index locates these roots, words, phrases for the reader. The separate English-language index has been prepared to facilitate locating specific Algonquian terms. Also the reader should consult the sections ABBREVIATIONS AND OTHER CONVENTIONS for unfamiliar abbreviations or symbols. In places where a technical grammatical term is seen, the reader should turn to GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS at the back of the book for an explanation of the meaning of the word. Be sure to read the section HOW TO READ THIS BOOK for information on the uses of the book. The Index also contains a small number of words, phrases, sentences (about 150) whose meanings are given there (e.g., hair = meesunk). This small list will supplement the main vocabulary of Part I. Also this list allow readers to practice word analysis; after you have read something about the grammar in Part III, you should be able to recognize parts of some of the words, etc. in the Index.

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Part II

Examples are presented in Part II. Different sorts of examples are provided (such as place names, poems, conversational lesson sheets) . For example, in Part II we give some corrupted place names and show their etymological derivation to give the reader experience in struggling with this linguistic art of word reconstruction, and cite references for further practice. For example, Titicut = kehte-tuk- ut (place of principal river). The contemporary places are analyzed with the word elements given in the beginning of the book. A more extensive listing of Algonquian place names with derivations can be found in Trumbull (1881, 1974) or Huden (1962). An elementary conversational language lesson is provided in Part II. You will also be tested from time-to-time to get you actively involved in learning. All of these are given for the reader to practice word recognition skills to be used to build upon in the future. For additional practice, the reader may want to read some of the native writings in Massachusett in the book by Goddard and Bragdon (1988, Part 1), of which a sample is provided in Part II, and which readers can apply all they have learned.

Part III In Part III we give the reader a general overview of the Massachusett grammar, and for this purpose we reproduce a shortened version of the original (1666) work by John Eliot, The Indian Grammar Begun; or, an Essay to Bring The Indian Language into Rules for the Help of Such as Desire to Learn the Same for the Furtherance of the Gospel Among Them. According to Eliot, about one-quarter of the grammar, as he understood it, is contained in those 16 pages that we provide in Part III. THE GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS (after Eliots article) may be used to understand Eliots terms (e.g. adnoun) In Part III Eliot also gives you some information about pronunciation such as can be provided on paper (not much fidelity, in reality). His pronunciation-information is based on what he was taught by his Massachusett Indian tutor (and servant of 35 years) Job Nesutan, and what is humanly possible to write on paper. Eliot was a gifted language learner. He impressed the New England Indians with his knowledge of their language, no doubt one reason for his success in converting to Christianity so many New England Indians. So, Eliot is a reliable source for written Massachusett (Natick). A careful reading of Rev. Eliots essay will be of benefit to the reader.

In our workshops and seminars held with the general public and Indian tribal councils, we presented many more lessons under the title Know It By Its Indian Name by Strong Woman and Moondancer.

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in memory of our teachers -- < Lillian Mary Fortier < < Chief Spotted Eagle < < Princess Redwing of the House of Seven Crescents < and our late friend, < Red Thundercloud < the last fluent speaker of the Catawba language

Aqune Kah Nahnnushagk (peace and farewell)

PART I

WORD ELEMENTS AND

MEANINGS Massachusett and Narragansett

Languages

Figures 3 & 4, belowFacsimile title pages for John Eliots 1663 Bible (r) and Roger Williams 1643 A Key (l) the main primary sources for the following brief Dictionary (Bible title over)

[Courtesy Annenberg Rare Book and Manuscript Library, University of Pennsylvania]

1

Bible title page with line breaks:

The Whole Holy his-Bible God Both Old Testament and also New Testamant this turned by the servant of Christ who is called John Eliot Cambridge: Printed by Samuel Green and Mamaduke Johnson, 1663

_

A L G O N Q U I A N D I C T I O N A R Y

A(un(2), en) - to, and, for (e.g., en wadchue ohkeit = to the hill country)

- a connective vowel used for euphony

Abenaki (see waba, ahki for main roots of word)

dawnlanders, a New England, Canadian Indian tribe (cf. Wabanaki)

acawmen (see ongkome) (Narr.) on the other side of, beyond

adcha (see ahchu) he hunts (e.g., nuttahchun = I hunt)

adchu (see wadchu) mountain, hill; may imply place of hunting (used in composition) (cf. ahchu); (e.g., misadchu = a great mountain)

adene (see wadchu) mountain, hill (in composition) (e.g., massa-adenesuck = great hill brook)

adt (t, ahhut) (see ut) at, a place, to, in (e.g., nadt = far off)

ta ea (ht) (see ta) on both sides of (see ae taiseep)

taiseep ea (see ta ea , seep) on both sides of the river - ag (1) (see ake) (e.g., keag = place of)

-ag (2) (-ah, -ak (2), -ogk, -ock, -uck,-aug, etc.) (see -og (2))

pluralization stem, animate forms (e.g., wampumpeag = string of white shell beads)

2

agu (see -ag(1) , og(1)) concealing, hiding, haven, refuge

gushau (see agwe, -shau, m) he goes below it (for shelter or concealment) agwattin (see agwe, attin) under a hill

agwonk (see agwe, -unk (2)) under a tree

agwe (agwu, ogwu) under, below (e.g., agwattin = under a hill)

-ah (-oh, -uh) (see -ash, -og, -ak) plural noun/verb ending, animate forms (obviation);e.g., Ayim anogqsoh=He made the stars

ahnu, ohanu (hannu) laugh (onomatopoetic) (e.g.,ahquompi adt ohanimuk = a time to laugh; e.g., ahhuock = they laugh)

ahcepe (achepe, chepe) almost, most

ahchu (see audchaonk)

he strives after

ahhe (see nux) yes

ahki (aki ) (see ohke, ake) land, place of

ahkeit (ohkeit) (see ohke, -it) of or on the earth

-hkon (-ogkon) (see -uhkon) (cf. ahque)

do not do (in composition) (e.g., ontahahkon = do not remove it)

aho (ehoh) the end (equivalent to amen), it is so; said at end of prayers, speeches, other important social event

ahque, aquie (see unq) (cf. unque) he leaves off, refrains from, does not do (e.g., ahque pannwah = do not lie to me) (pannwau = he lies about the truth)

ahquompi time, be a time (e.g., pohshiquaea ahquompi = noon time)

ahquompi newutche meetsuonk (see ahquompi, newutche, meetsuonk)

time to eat

ahshim (see ashim)

ahtuck (ahtuk) (see -ag (2), tuck (2)) orchard

ahtuhquog (see ahtuk, -og (2)) many deer

ahtuk, ahtukq (see tuck (2)) a deer (at the tree?) or roe or hart or roe-buck

ahwk (see -unq, weque) so far

3

-ak(1) (see -og (2), -ah, -ash) pluralization stem for animate nouns

-ak(2) pluralization stem for ohke, used with pronoun markers n , k, w

-am, -aum, -om (see um)

-m (see -mag, namans, -mau, auma, as )

fish (taken by hook) (e.g., paponaumsog = winter fish)

amaem (mae) (see omm ) it goes away mae (see m) he goes away, general departure

mau (see -m)

amareck (see maug) [r-dialect] fish

-maug (see -m, -aug (2)) fishing-place

amisque (amisq, mecq) (see mecq, mech)

beaver (water beast) (about 30 distinctions)

-an- Spread out, going beyond (e.g., Kitthan=Ocean, great expanse)

-anash (see -ash) pluralization stem for inanimate forms (e.g., qussuckquanash = very small stones)

anwsuck (see anna, -suck) (cf. suckahock, -hogk) (Narr.)

shells (from shellfish)

anit (cf. anue) used with manit, manitt (used in composition) (e.g., keihtanit = Great Spirit)

anna (Narr.) shell (e.g., annachim = nut ; literally, shell around fruit)

annachim-eash (see anna, min, -eash)

nut-nuts (shell around fruit)

annem (see onom) (Narr.)

ann (unna) (see ussint) he says to, tells annock (cf. angqs) appearance, manifestation (he shows himself)

au unn ( (annuwan) he conquers (basis for name of famous war captain,

Annawan?) (e.g., annnuwaen = commander)

annue (annin) takes hold of, seizes, seizes, puts hands on (e.g., kutanneh = you hold me up)

4

angqs-og (see -og (2)) a star-stars

-antam (see ontam, -antum) indicating states, activities of mind (in compound words) (e.g., nontum = I am well minded)

antamunt, anatanunt (cf. -antam) used in composition with verbs to indicate states of mind, thinking, feeling, desiring, praying, and the like (e.g., tabuttantamunt = to be thankful, giving thanks.)

-antep (cf. -ontop, montup) (see tp) head (combining form)

nue - more, rather (used when choosing something) - above (cf. anit) - it exceeds, surpasses, expresses more of something

(e.g., anue mohsag = that which is great, a great thing, the greatest)

anm-wog a dog-dogs (from annuma = he

holds with his mouth)

-aog (see -og (2)) - pluralization stem for animate forms (e.g., wosketompaog = adult males)

- where it goes = aog

ap -hana (Narr.) trap-traps (for hunting)

api (see appuonk) sit, be there, to dwell (e.g., appin = a bed)

appau (apwau, appsu) (from "roast" (ap ))

shellfish (oysters)

appon (see -paug (1), -paug (2)) flat, flat land, still, level (as pond water)

ppu (see appuonk) remains, abides there, to be and remain (he sits) (e.g., mattappu = he sits downs or rests)

appuonk (see api, onk) sitting, seat

apwon (see apwonat) sitting, seat

apwonat to roast (e.g., apwou = he roasts or cooks meat)

aquabe before, on this side of

aqune (Narr.) (from ahque) peace (see aqune ut) (cf. Wunnohteaonk)

aqune ut (see aqune, ut) (Narr.) peace place, treaty camp (e.g., aquinnah = peace camp)

aquene kah nahnnushagk (see aqune, kah)

peace and farewell (nahnnushagk = farewell)

5

aquidne (ahquedne) (from edn ?) island (root implies a sitting, or suspension, as a floating mass) (e.g., aquidnet = Aquidneck)

aquidnet (see aquidne, -et) at the island, floating mass-at

as- (Narr.) (see asq) prefix (preverb)

-s (-us) suffix for some simple questions (e.g., kussimus = have you said?; e.g., nwadchanumuns = do I keep it?)

-s referring to an animal (cf. as)

as- (hse-) every, each (e.g., sekesukokish = every day, daily)

ascoscoi (ashkosqui, oshkoshque) (see ask (1))

green (e.g., askunkq = a green tree)

-ash (-quash, -ganash, -uash, -tuash, etc.) (many variants,especially with preceeding double consonants and connective glide inserts cf. -og (2), -ak) (see Part III)

- -ash is the common pluralization stem for inanimate forms (e.g., nipeash = water places) - as a suffix, the command to one person; e.g,

mattapsh = sit! - suffix for verb participles; e.g., mat mesh

nummanenash = I did not take them - suffix for some transitive verbs (see -ish) - of continuance, still, before (e.g., ash pamantam = while I live) (e.g., ash wanongkup = before the sun sets)

shp (hashp) hemp or fishing-net, spider web (e.g., wutashabpuh

= their nets)

asheyaus (see ask (2), as) (cf. weyaus)

raw flesh

ashkashki (see ask(1)) it is green

-ashim, -oshim, -washim of animals, beasts (e.g., muchquoshim = wolf)

ashim (ahshim, shim ) (see asi) (cf. takekum)

spring of water

ashye (ashyee) reverse direction, back (e.g., asshau = he goes backwards)

asi drink thou (e.g., wuttatash = to drink)

ask(1) (askski) (see asq, sk) green (e.g., askehteau = it is green, raw, raw, unprepared)

ask(2) (aske)(see asq, sk) eat raw stuff (cf. Eskimo = ask(2) + mohw )

6

askn (oskun) (see asq, sk) a raw hide (undressed)

askug (askk, askooke, skug) (see sk) a snake or worm (e.g., maskug = a black snake)

skun (see sk) (see asq, -un) the future (is not yet)

askunkq (see ask (1), -unk (2)) a green tree

asnan (cf. hassen) rock (in general)

asshan (see asssha) lobster (he goes backwards)

asq (see ask (2), as (Narr.) ) - gourd, bottle, flask, jug, etc. for water & rattle - not yet, before that, in future (see asquam) (e.g., asq

nuppomantam = I am still alive; e.g., aspeyu = He has not yet come (Narr.).

- anything consumed raw (cf. ask) (e.g., oskosk = grass)

asquam (see asq, sk) before, not yet

assinek (hassunnek) (see hassen,-ik) a cave, den (basis for place, Horseneck)

asssha (see ashye, -shau, m) he goes backwards asktasquash (see ask (2), ash) squash, pumpkin (common Indian staples)

asuh (asuk) (see neese ?) or, after, behind (related to neese = two)

asuhka (asuhke-a) (see asuh, a) after (e.g., asuhkaa = he goes after him)

-asuonk suffix meaning a mark, sign, token

t (en, in, ot, it, ut)(see adt) - at, in, to (e.g., ohteuhkonat = a thing in the earth) (i.e., a plant)

- suffix (-at) for verbs infinitive (to do, to say, to keep, etc.) (cf. wussint)

-atch, (-etch, itch, -utch, -ch) when it is, when it has, involuntary or indefinite

activity;eg. sochepwutch = when it snows

attah (t + tah) where (e.g., mattah = to where)

-attin (see tn) mountain, hill (in composition)

attitash (see asi ?, -ash) blueberries (whortleberries, hurtleberries)

-a (a, au) (see m) - he goes thither (e.g., ai = he is gone); many verbs have a (written au), 3rd person singular

- well, it is well (see ou, eu) (possible sound for yes)

aucp (see kuppi) (Narr.) a little cove or creek

7

aucppwese (see aucp, paw, -ese) a smaller cove, creek

audchaonk (see adchau, -onk (3)) hunting (abstact noun)

-aug (see -og (2)) - pluralization stem for animate forms (e.g., maug = fishing-place) - suffix for place of (cf. ake)

a (see a, i) he goes now (is on his way)

ake (see adt, ke (2), kas) (Narr., equivalent to ohke in Massachusett) (word that appears in many terms with many variants such as -ake-, -aki-, -akee-, -auki- )

land, earth, place, ground, country that is not enclosed (literally, "that which brings forth, gives life"). Ake is a very important word, and is related to concept for mother. (e.g., nittake = my land).

auksuhqueau (see m)

he goes to and fro

aumai (see -mau) he is fishing (he fishes with a hook) (e.g., paponaumsog = winter fish)

auog (see au, og) - they go ( used in composition) - they went on their way, they journeyed

-auq-, -auqu-, -ockqu- (Narr.) of a tree, long, tall, deep (e.g., qunnauqussu = He is tall (like a long tree).

asup-pnnog (see -og (2)) (Narr.) raccoon-raccoons (face washer) (related to root for "fan"; fanner)

auwaog (ouwaog) (see -og (2)) people (cf. nuttauwatueonk) (root is auwa = people); e.g., nuttawaog = my people

auwatuk (see auwaog) anyone

auwon, awaun (see howan) (Narr.) any body; literally who; e.g., awun ew = Who is he (that).

ayeu (see ayu)

ayeuonk (see ayeu, -onk (2)) place, place of residence

ayeuteanin (see -enin) a fighter, warrior (e.g., ayeuhteu = he makes war, fights) (cf. matwa)

ayim (ayum) he makes (e.g., nuttiyam = I make)

ayu (ayeu ) (see yeu) he is here, there (e.g., noh ayeu kah ppu = he dwells and abides)

8

-camoco (see - mukok ) enclosed place, building (in composition)

capat (kuppadt) ice

caumpsk (see kenag, -ompsk-) a whetstone, mill stone, grinding stone (such as for corn)

caucumsqussuck (see -umpsk, qussuck)

a marked rock

cautntowit (kautntuwwit) (see kehtanito, ut) (Narr.)

the house of the Great Southwest God, the giver of all things

-ch - a suffix denoting involuntary activity (see ch = it proceeds from)

- running water (imitative) (e.g., schepo = snow, Narr.)

chaqoh (chaquoh) (see teag)

chaugua (chauguas) (see teag) what (question)

chekee (cheche) violently (see chikohteau below)

cheke (checheke) (see chequanappu) slowly, late (e.g., chekeu = it is late, a long time)

chepachet (see chepi, -et) a place separated, or apart (a modern place name)

chepaiyeoonk ) (see chepi, ayu ?,-onk (3)) freedom (state of being separate, apart, free)

chepe (see achepe) most, almost

chepi (see ch-p) (cf. pohq) separated, apart (e.g., chipohke = unoccupied land)

chequanappu (see cheke, ppu) he sits still, is as rest

chickoht (chikohteau)(see chekee, -ohteau) (cf. yote, ntau)

fire1 ("it is fierce or violent")

chikohteau (see chekee, -ohteau, chickot)

it burns, as a fire or torch

chipohke (see chippe, ohke) unoccupied land (the place apart)

chippachusin (see chippu, -et) (Narr.) a dividing, separating

chippe (see ch-p) separate, apart (it is separated) (cf. chipohke)

chippeu (see chippe) he separates himself, goes apart

chippi (see chepi) (cf., pohq) a part (it is separated)

1 Nte= Fire [in general]; Yte = [domestic] fire; Chckot = [destructive] fire; Sqtta= fire in general & a fire spark ?

9

chippissuog (see chippe, ussu, -uog, nnnuock)

a tribe (collectively) (they who are separate, go by themselves)

chippanonk (see chippe, -onk (3)) a tribe (collectively) chgan-euck (Narr.) black bird-black birds (imitative ) (from chogq =

spot ?)

ch-p (ts-p) (see chippe) ghost, spirit, departed spirit, evil spirit, separated; (common root: separated) (cf. chippissuog)

chuh ho! look!

chuppe (see ch-p) part of it, into parts

cowmmaunsh (Narr.) (see wamosuonk)

I love you

cowauwanemun (Narr.) (see k, wauonu)

you are lost, out of the way, gone astray from the path

da (see ta)

Duda (affectionate term) grandmother

-e (see - i) (see Part III) to, and (an adjectival ending for inanimate forms) (e.g., wachue ohkeit = the hill country)

- (see u) (see Part III) ending for some adverbs (e.g., wam = all)

eataw (Narr.) old, abandoned (see eataw ake)

eataw ake (see eataw, ake) (Narr.) old, abandoned land

eenntowash (from nan (1), antow )= speak), -ash ) (Narr.)

speak Indian ! (command to one person)

-ees (see -es (1))

-eg (see -og (2), -ick, -chick, (Narr.)) - pluralization stem, 3rd person plural, they who are___ (e.g., nananuach e g = magistrates)

- suffix root, (also -ge) means "the thing that" -eh (see -wah)

ht (aetawe) (see ogkome) on or at both sides

-ehte (-ahtu, -ehtu, -uhtu, -ehten) (see ut)

An American Indian tribe is an Indian people all interrelated by blood, marriage or by adoption. In pre-historic times (pre-European days), a tribe lived in one or more villages.

10

eiyne (iane) (see unne) different sorts or kinds of things (e.g., wame eiyne = all kinds of; e.g., iyanaskehtuash = many medicines)

-emes (see -es (1)) diminutive, lesser or least (e.g., ogguhsemese = smallest of something)

en (a, un (2), unne) (see t) in, at, to (see -enin)

-en, een of a man, male (cf. nnin)

-enin (-anen, in) - suffix meaning doer of something (e.g., adchanin = some hunter, any hunter, a hunter)

- general form for man, male

en kussohkoiyeu wadchuut (see en, kussuhkoe, yeu, wadchu, ut)

into a high mountain

en wadchue ohkeit (see en, wadchu, ohke, -it)

to the hill country

-es (1) (-is, -ees, -ese) (cf. -emes) diminutive suffix meaning little, small (e.g., nipes = small body of fresh water)

-es (2) (see -esu