umss - autonomous workshop

8/14/2019 UMSS - Autonomous Workshop

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Autonomous Learning and Teaching Howard Cannatella

Introduction

A student who is unable to take his or her work seriously will be inclined to go through life

without deeply caring for anything of consequence; neither their course work nor theirfriendships perhaps will matter a great deal. This student appears to let things happen,holding no particular principles or overview of their choices. urthermore, the quality ofthis student!s work suffers when they are less than convinced of its merits, holding nospecific reasons and beliefs to support its evidence. The student may produce somethingwith intent, he or she may even follow one!s instructions to the letter but if they are notadequately motivated to produce a body of work, if they are not critical of themselves andremain apathetic to its relevance, it is likely that their work will turn out to be less thanconvincing. The proposal is that we need to encourage a healthier interest in makingcommitments, that successful learning requires this capacity in order to lift the spirit andinfluence a more rigorous grasp of one!s sub"ect. How far a student progresses in theirstudies, how far he or she develops professional skills is largely dependent on makingspecific commitments to what one is producing.

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$hat is autonomy and independence in language learning%

Autonomy and independence are used more or less as synonyms in language teaching. Tome, both terms imply that students take a greater degree of control over the content andmethods of learning than is usual in classroom language learning conte&ts. Taking controlover learning also implies that students have or develop the capacity to learn independentlyand that the institutional conte&t in which they are learning allows them to do so.'t has been claimed that all learning is ultimately autonomous learning in the sense that itdepends on the efforts of the learners themselves. Allowing students greater freedom inlearning and helping them to become more aware of their capacities for autonomy maytherefore enhance motivation and the quality of learning.Autonomy is not a synonym of !learning on your own! or !self(study!. Although autonomywas associated with the concept of individuali)ation in the early *+ -s, most researchersnow prefer to emphasi)e interdependence as a dimension of autonomous learning. The term!self(direction!, or !self(directed learning!, is often used in connection with autonomy. 'timplies that learners study under their own direction rather than under the direction ofanother. elf(directed learning does not necessarily imply !learning without a teacher!, butin self(directed learning the teacher!s may become more that of a helper or counsellor.Although language learning has been one of the main fields in which the theory andimplementation of autonomy has developed in recent years, there is also a rich literature onautonomy and self(direction in education in general. /ou can find a comprehensive surveyof the field inCandy 0*++*1.Autonomy and independence are associated with several means of implementation. 2ne ofthe most discussed is self(access, which generally involves setting up some kind of resourcecentre in which language learners can work freely.
http://ec.hku.hk/autonomy/bibliog.html#candyhttp://ec.hku.hk/autonomy/bibliog.html#candy


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Key to Good Language Learning Introduction

Becoming an Independent Language Learner This guide has been written to help you learn a foreign language more effectively and

successfully. It suggests a range of learning strategies that you can adopt - whether you are

a newcomer to language learning or at a more advanced stage'n recent years, the termslearner autonomy and learner independence have gainedincreasing importance in the educational conte&t. They have taken on a number ofassociated meanings for language learning ( these include3assuming responsibility for your own learning;acquiring key skills and learning strategies;learning according to your own needs and interests;using available resources and taking every opportunity to learn.4esearch has shown that language learners whose approaches to learning reflect some ofthese characteristics are more likely to succeed in their long(term aims and ob"ectives. Thisis why it is important to have access to a resources or open learning centre with a widerange of materials and to belong to an institution which encourages learners to make use ofthese resources and develop an autonomous approach to learning. This does not mean thatthe teacher and the classroom no longer have a crucial role to play in the learning process,since classroom instruction, regular attendance and participation together with contact andcollaboration with colleagues all contribute equally to progress5't has also been recognised that language learners display a variety of different learningstyles. The way that individual learners respond in a shared language learning situation, andthe kinds of activities they engage in when working with language learning materials ontheir own, have been shown to vary. The language learning conte&t, therefore, also needs toaccommodate differences in learning styles so that all language learners have the bestchance of achieving individual success.$ith the above in mind, this guide aims to encourage you to develop an autonomousapproach. 't offers a range of ideas for language learning activities which you might wish totry out and, if successful, build into your own repertoire of learning strategies.

Section 1Thinking About the $ay /ou 6earnirst Task

To assess yourself and your approach to language learning, consider these questions: $hich language learning strategies do you already use 0look at the checklist below1%$hich of the learning strategies below could you add to your own repertoire of learningstrategies%Can you identify some of your own strengths and weaknesses in language learning%$hich activities below do you think you do well; which don7t you do enough of%How could you organise the time you have for language learning in a more productiveway%Checklist of Learning Strategies ' plan my language learning' monitor my progress in language learning regularly


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' work on language learning tasks with other people 0e.g. friends, people on my course1 aswell as on my own' try to find opportunities to practise speaking 0even to myself1 to improve my fluency' review my independent study programme regularly and change it when ' find deficiencies' try to motivate myself by setting weekly or monthly language learning goals, targets etc.

' try to adopt an active approach towards my language learning; ' don7t "ust study when 'have to' reflect on what ' need to learn to meet my ob"ectives' review what '7ve learned at regular intervals' reflect on how ' learn so ' can improve my learning methods' have an organised approach to my language learning and try to think about language interms of the different categories, systems and patterns within it 0e.g. grammar, function,register, vocabulary, sound1.' try to personalise my language learning' am willing to take risks and be adventurous with language to try out my skills' try to learn from the mistakes ' make

Section 2$ays to 'mprove /our 6anguage 6earningThis section offers ideas for language learning activities . Try out these activities and if you

find them effective, build them into your individual study programme.listening reading speaking writinglearning vocabulary learning grammar general approaches to learningThe activities are organised under the main skill0s1 they relate to. 6anguage learning isoften seen in terms of four basic language skills3(listening, speaking, reading andwriting . There can, of course, be an overlap between skill areas ( grammar andvocabulary are two e&tra areas which are frequently added to the four skills.Another useful way of looking at language is in terms offunction . This involvesidentifying the different purposes for which language is being used. or e&ample, languageitems that reflect different functional areas such asapologising, introducing and greeting ,or requesting can be usefully grouped together.inally, register can serve as a helpful way of looking at language. 4egister relates to thestyle of language found in a particular conte&t. 'n many languages, this can vary accordingto situation 0how formal8 informal it is1 and the relationship between users.'t is also important to ask yourself what you can learn about thesociety and culture of thecountry where the language is spoken.$ith regard to the particular te&t or language activity you are engaged with, you might askyourself3$hat factual information is there here about the country%How does the language reflect social relationships and conventions, for e&ample in the way people of different ages or statuses address one another, how people interrupt, showagreement, use body language, and so on%How does the language reflect beliefs, values and attitudes, for e&ample in how people talkor write about politics, social class, national traditions, entertainment, religion, and so on%$hat are the differences in the way language is used in different situations and for different purposes%How are these uses of language different from 9nglish, or your own native language%
http://www.lang.soton.ac.uk/students/keylang/sec2.htm#LISTENINGhttp://www.lang.soton.ac.uk/students/keylang/sec2.htm#READINGhttp://www.lang.soton.ac.uk/students/keylang/sec2.htm#SPEAKINGhttp://www.lang.soton.ac.uk/students/keylang/sec2.htm#WRITINGhttp://www.lang.soton.ac.uk/students/keylang/sec2.htm#LEARNING%20VOCABULARYhttp://www.lang.soton.ac.uk/students/keylang/sec2.htm#LEARNING%20GRAMMARhttp://www.lang.soton.ac.uk/students/keylang/sec2.htm#GENERAL%20APPROACHES%20TO%20LEARNINGhttp://www.lang.soton.ac.uk/students/keylang/sec2.htm#LISTENINGhttp://www.lang.soton.ac.uk/students/keylang/sec2.htm#READINGhttp://www.lang.soton.ac.uk/students/keylang/sec2.htm#SPEAKINGhttp://www.lang.soton.ac.uk/students/keylang/sec2.htm#WRITINGhttp://www.lang.soton.ac.uk/students/keylang/sec2.htm#LEARNING%20VOCABULARYhttp://www.lang.soton.ac.uk/students/keylang/sec2.htm#LEARNING%20GRAMMARhttp://www.lang.soton.ac.uk/students/keylang/sec2.htm#GENERAL%20APPROACHES%20TO%20LEARNING


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2.1 LIS !"I"#:se an audio 0or video1 recording to practise and develop your listening strategies. 6istento a piece, not "ust once, but several times, varying the way you do it. or e&ample, start bytrying to understand general meaning or the main idea. 'n this stage it helps to listen out for

key words and to stop the tape at frequent intervals and predict what is going to come ne&t.6ater, practise listening intensively for specific information or practise note(taking.Transcripts are probably most usefully employed during later stages of listening. Try to build up an understanding of the piece through several listenings.ocus on pronunciation and notice how preceding words may influence the pronunciationof the following ones. ractise listening to intonation patterns and identify variations insentence or word stress.


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that share the same register% Can you identify the writer7s attitude towards his8her sub"ect$hat linguistic clues lead you to your conclusions%Try to speed up your reading so that you are not trying to understand every word butreading as fast a you can for gist or general meaning.2.' S(!%)I"#

ay new words and phrases aloud both to help commit them to memory and to practisepronunciation. ?roup useful items offunctiona l language together and try to learn usefulsituationale&pressions by heart. Then try to find opportunities to try to use them to reinforce yourlearning.:se native speakers to check a correct form or pronunciation you are uncertain of.eek opportunities to practise speaking and develop your fluency as opposed to youraccuracy4ecord yourself on tape to develop your fluency 0e.g. giving a spontaneous talk aboutyourself, what you have done this week or on a specialised topic you7ve been researching1then replay it and critically analyse the recording. @ote mistakes in pronunciation,grammar, vocabulary and hesitations ( afterwards find out how to say what you wanted tosay better.ractise mimicking intonation patterns and varying sentence stress in the target language tofamiliarise yourself with these aspects of speaking and to develop your confidence.:se the phonetic script in a print or electronic dictionary to practise the e&act pronunciationof new words and phrases in the language you are learning. Then, where available, compareyour pronunciation with the recorded pronunciations in an electronic dictionary or pronunciation package.

2.* +$I I"# Try to think in the target language when you are writing. Try not to translate from your firstlanguage.Try to learn from previous mistakes and tutors7 corrections and comments. Check yourwriting carefully for mistakes in grammar and vocabulary use in particular. :se adictionary or spellchecker for uncertain spellings and any other reference materials whichmight be useful.ractise writing as much as you can. 9ven informal writing activities such as keeping alanguage learning diary in the target language or corresponding on email with a nativespeaker will help to improve your writing skills. Try to put yourself in your reader7s placeto test the clarity and effectiveness of your writing. 4e(read what you have written, if is anacademic essay3's it logically organised%'s there an introduction, main body and conclusion%Are the ideas clearly e&pressed%Are more e&amples or e&planations needed%6ook at native speaker samples of writing in the target language. Try to analyse how theyare written and note any useful linking e&pressions 0e.g. however, because, but1. Are thereany obvious differences from a similar piece of writing in your first language% 't might beuseful to discuss these differences with the language assistants or other native speakers.roduce an academic piece of writing in stages3 (make notes


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produce a plan, a rough draft then a redraft proof(read your final piece of writing 0perhaps a day or two later1:se the spellchecker on a word(processing program as a learning tool. onitor your ownmistakes in the area of misspellings. Also note the words the spellchecker groups together (do you see words of similar spelling but different meanings which you know you tend to

confuse 0e.g. quiet v. quite1. The thesaurus is another useful electronic tool which can beused to check for alternative words.2. L!%$"I"# - C%/0L%$'dentify and list any significant first language 8target languagecognates. These are wordswhich have the same historical origins. The words may still look similar or may have cometo differ in spelling.amiliarise yourself with anyfalse cognates to avoid future slip(ups. These are words thatlook similar but differ 0or have come to differ1 in meaning, e.g. sympathique 0 rench1 and

sympathetic 09nglish1.>uild vocabulary reference grids you can refer to ( classify the words as noun, verb Bad"ective, adverb etc, and add related words, including opposites.Create word webs ormind maps 0see appendi&1 to map vocabulary into frames ofreference that can help you memorise new items of vocabulary$hen noting down new vocabulary, add useful information such as the pronunciation in phonetic transcription, indicate the stressed syllable0s1, if any, put it in a conte&t8sentenceadd any important details about word partnerships e.g. the preposition employed after a particular verb and other notes about usage, synonyms and antonyms. @ote also if the wordis associated with a particular register or has particular connotations.?roup vocabulary according to topic 0perhaps alongside the te&t where you found it1 foreasier recall or devise your own categories for grouping new vocabulary items.6earn to identify the basic vocabulary building blocks in the language you are studying e.g.common endings 0suffi es 1 for nouns,prefi es commonly used to make an ad"ective anopposite etc. $hen you come across a new one try to find several e&amples that follow this pattern.6earn to understand the abbreviations and terms used in dictionaries so you get the mostout of using them. A good dictionary will also give you information about the grammar of aword, its pronunciation and stress pattern and its usage, as well as its meaning and spelling.2.3 L!%$"I"# #$%44%$ $hen you learn a new grammatical rule try to use it actively. >y creating situations 0inspeaking and writing1 where you can try out new grammar you can start to assimilate it andthis will also help to reinforce it in your memory.Try to study grammar in conte&t. A conte&t can provide additional information aboutgrammatical usage and may help you remember a point of grammar better than the isolatedstudy of a particular rule. /ou can also study grammar more actively in conte&t by lookingat several e&amples of the use of a particular point and trying to analyse and work out therule for yourself. /ou can compare your conclusions about use with a grammar reference book afterwards.$hen you learn about a new grammatical structure, look out for e&amples of it in yourtarget language reading.


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Try to become aware of your learning strategies. @ote them down and e&change ideas withother learners.

2.5 #!"!$%L %(($ %C6!S L!%$"I"#


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to practise note(taking, e.g. watch a videotape of a lecture in the language you are learningto focus on a specific aspect of the language your are learning, e.g. grammar in use, a newarea of vocabulary, accent or intonation

ection #

A ?lossary of ey $ords and Terms in 6anguage 6earningadverb a word that modifies a verb, ad"ective or another adverbantonym word of opposite meaningautonomous learning / independent learning the capacity to take charge and plan one!sown learningauxiliary (verb verbs B such as Dbe7, Dhave7 or Ddo7 in 9nglish ( used with a main verb e.may, cancase endings the role of a noun 0as sub"ect, ob"ect1 in a sentence in some languages 0e.g.?erman, C)ech1 is shown through changes in e.g.article, noun, ad"ective. >asic cases in?erman are nominative, accusative, genitive and dative(language chatroom site for online informal communication in writing betweenusers8learners of a particular language about any matter that is raised by a participantcognate words in different languages sharing the same historical root. This is sometimes but not always apparent in a similarity of spelling.collocation see word partnershipcollo!uial language" collo!uialism word or e&pression used in informal situations. 6essrestricted in use than slang.con#ugate to change the form of a verb in accordance with tense or with a change in thesub"ect of the verb$ALL computer assisted language learning ie. language learning materials accessiblethrough computer $% &om ('or language learning Compact disc containing a quantity of information or program useful or specifically for language learning purposes. This can be stored on thecomputer hard disc or inserted into the C< drive for use as and when required.

'alse cognate words having similar form in two different languages but a different meaning 'alse 'riend see false cognate

irst language (mother tongue usually the language a person acquires first in childhoodor the dominant language

'unctional language (language 'unction particular purpose for which language is beingused, for e&ample, language items that reflect different functional areas such asapologising, introducing and greeting etc can be grouped together

gender in some languages nouns have gender 0masc, fem. and sometimes neuter1. This candetermine the endings of related parts of speech such as ad"s, articles, pronouns etc

gist" reading 'or gist a rapid way of reading to grasp the general meaning or main idea of ate&tidiom" idiomatic language a group of words that has a special meaning. The meaning is notclear from the individual meanings of the words in the groupimperative sentence form often following a characterstic pattern used to e&press an ordereg. ECome here5E 0the sub"ect is omitted1interactive program term loosely used for a computer program which allows the languagelearner to act on the language learning information it contains in some way and receivefeedback from the program.


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interrogative sentence a sentence which has the form of a questionintransitive verb a verb which cannot take an ob"ect eg. 09ng1 riseinversion case where the order of certain words in a sentence is reversed eg. sub"ect verbinversion to create a question form eg. ?er

#argon specialised words or terms characteristically used by a group of people with a

shared interest or profession eg. legal "argon, computer "argonmind map see word webob#ect noun, pronoun or noun phrase affected by action of the verb in a sentence. The verbthat takes an ob"ect is called a transitive verb. ome verbs can take both a direct and anindirect ob"ect e.g. $e sent her an invitation

paralinguistic 'eatures features often occurring during verbal communication that are notspoken but carry meaning such as gestures, eye movements, facial e&pressions, bodymovement. These can vary from one language to another.

part o' speech the name used to classify different kinds of words that can be identified in asentence, eg. noun, adverb, preposition.

possessive word used to show possession. 9nglish has possessive pronouns 0eg. mine,yours1 and possessive ad"ectives 0eg. her book, our car1 and uses Ds 0eg. Fohn7s pen1 aDof7 0eg. the head of the company1 to show possession

pre'ix letter0s1 or sound0s1 added to the beginning of a word which changes meaning orword function eg. 0?er Ab % to noun1

phonetic script system of symbols used to represent the sounds of speech in any languageso that the script can be read aloud e&actly as spokenregister a variety of speech or writing used by a particular group of people 0eg. internetenthusiasts, teenagers, lawyers1 or in a particular situation 0eg. formal letter, informal phonecall1re'lexive verb verbs in some languages used to convey the idea that the sub"ect is doingsomething to him8herself. 9g. e lever 0 re1, ich 0?er1 lauarse 0 pan1root base form or stem of a word to which other units of meaning such as prefi&es, suffi&es,verb endings etc may be "oinedscan rapid form of reading to e&tract particular information from a te&ts)im rapid form of reading to grasp general meaning8 gist from a te&tslang very informal word or e&pression, not appropriate to use in all situationssynonym word of similar or same meaning 0cf. antonym1su''ix letter0s1 or sound0s1 added to the end of a root word which changes meaning or wordfunction. 9g. 0 re.vb to noun%1(*ord stress a syllable which receives more force when the word is voiced. ome longerwords contain a syllable which receives the primary 0main1 stress and one which receivessecondary stress(sentence stress the part0s1 of a sentence which are emphasi)ed either naturally or in orderto draw particular attention to themsyllable individual part0s1 of a word composed of a vowel sound or consonant and voweltogethersentence structure the basic grammatical pattern of sentences in a language showing orderof key components eg. re% article G noun 0sub"ect1 G verb G article G noun 0ob"ect1sub#ect the person or thing carrying out the verb action in a sentencetarget language the language you are learning8studying, also known as 6 second languageor foreign language


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transitive verb a verb which can take an ob"ectvocabulary grid table of related vocabulary items functioning as different parts of speech.ee Appendi&

*ord partnership words often used together, eg. verbs with particular prepositions*ord *eb or mind map. ethod of recording ideas, new vocabulary etc to aid

understanding of links between items or memory.http388www.lang.soton.ac.uk8students8keylang8cont.htm

+hat is Learner Autonomy and ,o* $an It Be ostered-1. Introductionlearner autonomy does not mean that the teacher becomes redundant, abdicating his8hercontrol over what is transpiring in the language learning process. 'n the present study, itwill be shown that learner autonomy is a perennial dynamic process amenable to!educational interventions! 0Candy, *++*1, rather than a static product, a state, which isreached once and for all. >esides, what permeates this study is the belief that !in order tohelp learners to assume greater control over their own learning it is important to help themto become aware of and identify the strategies that they already use or could potentially use!0Holmes I 4amos, *++*, cited in Fames I ?arrett, *++*3 *+ 1. At any rate, individuallearners differ in their learning habits, interests, needs, and motivation, and develop varyingdegrees of independence throughout their lives 0Tumposky, *+ 1.2. +hat is %utonomy9or a definition of autonomy, we might quote Holec 0*+ *3 J, cited in >enson I =oller,*++K3 *1 who describes it as !the ability to take charge of one!s learning!. 2n a general notthe term autonomy has come to be used in at least five ways 0see >enson I =oller, *++K313for situations in which learners study entirely on their own;for a set of skills which can be learned and applied in self(directed learning;for an inborn capacity which is suppressed by institutional education;for the e&ercise of learners! responsibility for their own learning;for the right of learners to determine the direction of their own learning.'t is noteworthy that autonomy can be thought of in terms of a departure from education asa social process, as well as in terms of redistribution of power attending the construction ofknowledge and the roles of the participants in the learning process. The relevant literature isriddled with innumerable definitions of autonomy and other synonyms for it, such as!independence! 0 heerin, *++*1, !language awareness! 06ier, *++L;Fames I ?arrett, *++*1!self(direction! 0Candy, *++*1, !andragogy! 0 nowles, *+ -; *+ J etc., which testifies to theimportance attached to it by scholars. 6et us review some of these definitions and try togain insights into what learner autonomy means and consists of. As has been intimated sofar, the term autonomy has sparked considerable controversy, inasmuch as linguists andeducationalists have failed to reach a consensus as to what autonomy really is. or e&ample,in


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0*+ J1, defines autonomy in terms of the learner!s willingness and capacity to control oroversee her own learning. ore specifically, she, like Holec, holds that someone qualifiesas an autonomous learner when he independently chooses aims and purposes and setsgoals; chooses materials, methods and tasks; e&ercises choice and purpose in organisingand carrying out the chosen tasks; and chooses criteria for evaluation.

To all intents and purposes, the autonomous learner takes a 0pro(1 active role in the learning process, generating ideas and availing himself of learning opportunities, rather than simplyreacting to various stimuli of the teacher 0>oud, *+ ; ohonen, *++ ; nowles, *+KM1. Aswe shall see, this line of reasoning operates within, and is congruent with, the theory ofconstructivism. or 4athbone 0*+K*3 *--, *-#, cited in Candy, *++*3 K*1, the autonomouslearner is a self(activated maker of meaning, an active agent in his own learning process.He is not one to whom things merely happen; he is the one who, by his own volition,causes things to happen. 6earning is seen as the result of his own self(initiated interactionwith the world.$ithin such a conception, learning is not simply a matter of rote memorisation; !it is aconstructive process that involves actively seeking meaning from 0or even imposingmeaning on1 events! 0Candy, *++*3 K*1.uch EinventoriesE of characteristics evinced by the putative autonomous learner abound,and some would say that they amount to nothing more than a romantic ideal which does notsquare with reality. This stands to reason, for most of the characteristics imputed to theEautonomous learnerE encapsulate a wide range of attributes not commonly associated withlearners. or instance, >enn 0*+KL, cited in Candy, *++*3 *- 1 likens the autonomouslearner to one !NwOhose life has a consistency that derives from a coherent set of beliefsvalues, and principles((Nand who engages in aO still(continuing process of criticism and reevaluation!, while 4ousseau 0N*KL O *+**, cited in Candy, *++*3 *- 1 regards thautonomous learner as someone who !is obedient to a law that he prescribes to himself!.$ithin the conte&t of education, though, there seem to be seven main attributescharacterising autonomous learners 0see 2maggio, *+K , cited in $enden, *++ 3 #*(# 13Autonomous learners have insights into their learning styles and strategies;take an active approach to the learning task at hand;are willing to take risks, i.e., to communicate in the target language at all costs;are good guessers;attend to form as well as to content, that is, place importance on accuracy as well asappropriacy;develop the target language into a separate reference system and are willing to revise andre"ect hypotheses and rules that do not apply; andhave a tolerant and outgoing approach to the target language.Here, some comments with respect to the preceding list are called for. The points brieflytouched upon above are necessary but not sufficient conditions for the development oflearner autonomy, and many more factors such as learner needs, motivation, learningstrategies, and language awareness have to be taken into consideration. or e&ample, thefirst point hinges upon a metalanguage that learners have to master in order to be regardedas autonomous, while points #1 and K1 pertain to learner motivation. 'n view of this, anattempt will be made, in subsequent sections, to shed some light on some of the parametersaffecting, and interfering with, learners! self(image as well as their capacity and will tolearn. 't is of consequence to note that autonomy is a process, not a product. 2ne does not become autonomous; one only works towards autonomy. 2ne corollary of viewing


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autonomy in this way is the belief that there are some things to be achieved by the learner,as well as some ways of achieving these things, and that autonomy !is learned at least partlythrough educational e&periences Nand interventionsO! 0Candy, *++*3 **M1. >ut priosifting through the literature and discussing learning strategies, motivation, and attitudesentertained by learners, it would be pertinent to cast learner autonomy in relation to

dominant philosophical approaches to learning. The assumption is that what is dubbed aslearner autonomy and the e&tent to which it is a permissible and viable educational goal areall too often !based on Nand thus constrained byO particular conceptions of the constitutioof knowledge itself! 0>enson, *++K, cited in >enson I =oller, *++K3 -1.'. Learner %utonomy and &ominant (hilosophies of Learning'n this section, three dominant approaches to knowledge and learning will be brieflydiscussed, with a view to e&amining how each of them connects up with learner autonomy.ositivism, which reigned supreme in the twentieth century, is premised upon the

assumption that knowledge reflects ob"ective reality. Therefore, if teachers can be said tohold this Eob"ective reality,E learning can only !consist((in the transmission of knowledgefrom one individual to another! 0>enson I =oller, *++K3 -1. Congruent with this view, ofcourse, is the maintenance and enhancement of the Etraditional classroom,E where teachersare the purveyors of knowledge and wielders of power, and learners are seen as!containerNsO to be filled with the knowledge held by teachers! 0ibid.1. 2n the other han positivism also lends support to the widespread notion that knowledge is attained by dint ofthe !hypothesis(testing! model, and that it is more effectively acquired when !it isdiscoveredrather thantaught ! 0ibid.1 0my italics1. 't takes little perspicacity to realise that positivism isincongruent with, and even runs counter to, the development of learner autonomy, as thelatter refers to a gradual but radical divorce from conventions and restrictions and isine&tricably related to self(direction and self(evaluation.Constructivism is an elusive concept and, within applied linguistics, is strongly associatedwith Halliday 0*+K+, cited in >enson I =oller, *++K3 *1. As Candy 0*++*3 M#1 observe!NoOne of the central tenets of constructivism is that individuals try to give meaning to, oconstrue, the perple&ing maelstrom of events and ideas in which they find themselvescaught up!. 'n contrast to positivism, constructivism posits the view that, rather thaninternalising or discovering ob"ective knowledge 0whatever that might mean1, individualsreorganise and restructure their e&perience. 'n Candy!s terms 0Candy, *++*3 K-1,constructivism !leads directly to the proposition that knowledge cannot be taught but onlylearned 0that is, constructed1!, because knowledge is something !built up by the learner! 0vo?lasersfeld I mock, *+K#3 &vi, cited in Candy, *++*3 K-1. >y the same token, languagelearning does not involve internalising sets of rules, structures and forms; each learner brings her own e&perience and world knowledge to bear on the target language or task athand. Apparently, constructivism supports, and e&tends to cover, psychological versions ofautonomy that appertain to learners! behaviour, attitudes, motivation, and self(concept 0see>enson I =oller, *++K3 J1. As a result, constructivist approaches encourage and promoteself(directed learning as a necessary condition for learner autonomy.inally, critical theory, an approach within the humanities and language studies, shares withconstructivism the view that knowledge is constructed rather than discovered or learned.oreover, it argues that knowledge does not reflect reality, but rather comprises !competingideological versions of that reality e&pressing the interests of different social groups!0>enson I =oller, *++K3 1. $ithin this approach, learning concerns issues of power andideology and is seen as a process of interaction with social conte&t, which can bring about


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social change. $hat is more, linguistic forms are bound up with the social meanings theyconvey, in so far as language is power, and vice versa. Certainly, learner autonomy assumesa more social and political character within critical theory. As learners become aware of thesocial conte&t in which their learning is embedded and the constraints the latter implies,they gradually become independent, dispel myths, disabuse themselves of preconceived

ideas, and can be thought of as !authors of their own worlds! 0ibid.3 MJ1.*. Conditions for Learner %utonomyThe concern of the present study has so far been with outlining the general characteristicsof autonomy. At this "uncture, it should be reiterated that autonomy is not an article of faith,a product ready made for use or merely a personal quality or trait. 4ather, it should beclarified that autonomous learning is achieved when certain conditions obtain3 cognitiveand metacognitive strategies on the part of the learner, motivation, attitudes, and knowledgeabout language learning, i.e., a kind of metalanguage. To acknowledge, however, thatlearners have to follow certain paths to attain autonomy is tantamount to asserting that therehas to be a teacher on whom it will be incumbent to show the way. 'n other words,autonomous learning is by no means Eteacherless learning.E As heerin 0*++K, cited in>enson I =oller, *++K3 LJ1 succinctly puts it, !NtOeachers((have a crucial role to play inlaunching learners into self(access and in lending them a regular helping hand to stayafloat ! 0my italics1.robably, giving students a Ehelping handE may put paid to learner autonomy, and this ismainly because teachers are ill(prepared or reluctant to !wean NstudentsO((away from teachedependence! 0 heerin, *++K, cited in >enson I =oller, *++K3 LJ1. After all, !it is not easyfor teachers to change their role from purveyor of information to counsellor and manager oflearning resources((And it is not easy for teachers to let learners solve problems forthemselves! 06ittle, *++-, cited in ?athercole, *++-3 **1. uch a transition from teacher(control to learner(control is fraught with difficulties but it is mainly in relation to the former0no matter how unpalatable this may sound1 that the latter finds its e&pression. At any ratelearner(control((which is ancillary to autonomy((!is not a single, unitary concept, but rathera continuum along which various instructional situations may be placed! 0Candy, *++*3-M1. 't is to these !instructional situations! that we will turn in the ne&t section. 'n thissection, it is of utmost importance to gain insights into the strategies learners use ingrappling with the ob"ect of enquiry, i.e., the target language, as well as their motivationand attitude towards language learning in general. A question germane to the discussion is,what does it mean to be an autonomous learner in a language learning environment%*.1. Learning StrategiesA central research pro"ect on learning strategies is the one surveyed in 2! alley andChamot 0*++-1. According to them, learning strategies are !the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information!02! alley and Chamot, *++-3 *, cited in Cook, *++J3 **J1((a definition in keeping with theone provided in $enden 0*++ 3 * 13 !6earning strategies are mental steps or operations thatlearners use to learn a new language and to regulate their efforts to do so!. To a greater orlesser degree, the strategies and learning styles that someone adopts !may partly reflect personal preference rather than innate endowment! 0 kehan, *++ 3 JK1. $e will only briefly discuss some of the main learning strategies, refraining from mentioningcommunication or compensatory strategies 0see Cook, *++J for more details1.*.1.1. Cognitive Strategies


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According to 2! alley and Chamot 0*++-3 ##1, cognitive strategies !operate directly onincoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning!. 6earners may useany or all of the following cognitive strategies 0see Cook, *++J3 **#(**M13repetition, when imitating others! speech;resourcing, i.e., having recourse to dictionaries and other materials;

translation, that is, using their mother tongue as a basis for understanding and8or producingthe target language;note(taking;deduction, i.e., conscious application of 6 rules;conte&tualisation, when embedding a word or phrase in a meaningful sequence;transfer, that is, using knowledge acquired in the 6* to remember and understand facts andsequences in the 6 ;inferencing, when matching an unfamiliar word against available information 0a new wordetc1;question for clarification, when asking the teacher to e&plain, etc.There are many more cognitive strategies in the relevant literature. 2! alley and Chamot0*++-1 recognise *L.*.1.2. 4etacognitive StrategiesAccording to $enden 0*++ 3 J#1, !metacognitive knowledge includes all facts learnersacquire about their own cognitive processes as they are applied and used to gain knowledgeand acquire skills in varied situations!. 'n a sense, metacognitive strategies are skills usedfor planning, monitoring, and evaluating the learning activity; !they are strategies aboutlearning rather than learning strategies themselves! 0Cook, *++J3 **#1. 6et us see some ofthese strategies3directed attention, when deciding in advance to concentrate on general aspects of a task;selective attention, paying attention to specific aspects of a task;self(monitoring, i.e., checking one!s performance as one speaks;self(evaluation, i.e., appraising one!s performance in relation to one!s own standards;self(reinforcement, rewarding oneself for success.At the planning stage, also known as pre(planning 0see $enden, *++ 3 K1, learnersidentify their ob"ectives and determine how they will achieve them. lanning, however,may also go on while a task is being performed. This is called planning(in(action. Here,learners may change their ob"ectives and reconsider the ways in which they will go aboutachieving them. At the monitoring stage, language learners act as !participant observers oroverseers of their language learning! 0ibid.1, asking themselves, EHow am ' doing% Am having difficulties with this task%E, and so on. inally, when learners evaluate, they do so interms of the outcome of their attempt to use a certain strategy. According to $enden 0*++ 31, evaluating involves three steps3 *1 learners e&amine the outcome of their attempts to

learn; 1 they access the criteria they will use to "udge it; and J1 they apply it.*.2. Learner %ttitudes and 4otivation6anguage learning is not merely a cognitive task. 6earners do not only reflect on theirlearning in terms of the language input to which they are e&posed, or the optimal strategiesthey need in order to achieve the goals they set. 4ather, the success of a learning activity is,to some e&tent, contingent upon learners! stance towards the world and the learning activityin particular, their sense of self, and their desire to learn 0see >enson I =oller, *++K3 *J#(*JL1. As Candy 0*++*3 +M( +L1 says, !thehow and thewhat of learning are intimatelyinterwoven((NTOhe overall approach a learner adopts will significantly influence the shap


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of his or her learning outcomes! 0my italics1. 'n other words, language learning((as well aslearning, in general((has also an affective component. ! eeting and interiorising thegrammar of a foreign language is not simply an intelligent, cognitive act. 't is a highlyaffective one too((! 04involucri, *+ #3 M, cited in Fames I ?arrett, *++*3 *J1. ?ardner andac'ntyre 0*++J3 *, cited in ?raham, *++K3 + 1 define !affective variables! as the

!emotionally relevant characteristics of the individual that influence how she8he willrespond to any situation!. 2ther scholars, such as humann 0*+K 1 and 6arsen( reeman and6ong 0*++*1 attach less importance to learners! emotions, claiming that !social and psychological factors! give a more suitable description for students! reactions to the learning process. Amongst the social and affective variables at work, self(esteem and desire to learnare deemed to be the most crucial factors !in the learner!s ability to overcome occasionalsetbacks or minor mistakes in the process of learning a second Nor foreignO language0Tarone I /ule, *+ +3 *J+1. 'n this light, it is necessary to shed some light on learnerattitudes and motivation.$enden 0*++ 3 M 1 defines attitudes as !learned motivations, valued beliefs, evaluations,what one believes is acceptable, or responses oriented towards approaching or avoiding!.or her, two kinds of attitudes are crucial3 attitudes learners hold about their role in thelearning process, and their capability as learners 0ibid.3 MJ1. 'n a sense, attitudes are a formof metacognitive knowledge. At any rate, !learner beliefs about their role and capability aslearners will be shaped and maintained((by other beliefs they hold about themselves aslearners! 0ibid.3 M#1. or e&ample, if learners believe that certain personality types cannolearn a foreign language and they believe that they are that type of person, then they willthink that they are fighting a Elosing battle,E as far as learning the foreign language isconcerned. urthermore, if learners labour under the misconception that learning issuccessful only within the conte&t of the Etraditional classroom,E where the teacher directsinstructs, and manages the learning activity, and students must follow in the teacher!sfootsteps, they are likely to be impervious or resistant to learner(centred strategies aiming atautonomy, and success is likely to be undermined.'n a way, attitudes are !part of one!s perception of self, of others, and of the culture in whichone is living Nor the culture of the target languageO! 0>rown, *+ K3 * L1, and it seems clethat positive attitudes are conducive to increased motivation, while negative attitudes havethe opposite effect. >ut let us e&amine the role of motivation.Although the term !motivation! is frequently used in educational conte&ts, there is littleagreement among e&perts as to its e&act meaning. $hat most scholars seem to agree on,though, is that motivation is !one of the key factors that influence the rate and success ofsecond or foreign language 06 1 learning. otivation provides the primary impetus toinitiate learning the 6 and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tediouslearning process! 0


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6earners with an instrumental orientation view the foreign language as a means of finding agood "ob or pursuing a lucrative career; in other words, the target language acts as a!monetary incentive! 0?ardner I ac'ntyre, *++J3 J1. 2n the other hand, learners with anintegrative orientation are interested in the culture of the target language; they want toacquaint themselves with the target community and become integral parts of it. 2f course,

this approach to motivation has certain limitations 0see Cookes and chmidt, *++*, cited in6ier, *++L3 *-#(*-M1, but an in(depth analysis is not within the purview of this study. The bottom line is that motivation is !a central mediator in the prediction of languageachievement! 0?ardner I ac'ntyre, *++J3 J1, as various studies have shown 0see raemer,*++-; achnick and $olfe, *+ ; et al.1.*.'. Self8esteemClosely related to attitudes and motivation is the concept of self(esteem, that is, theevaluation the learner makes of herself with regard to the target language or learning ingeneral. !N Oelf(esteem is a personal "udgement of worthiness that is e&pressed in theattitudes that the individual holds towards himself! 0Coopersmith, *+LK3 #(M, cited >rown, *+ K3 *-*(*- 1. 'f the learner has a !robust sense of self!, to quote >reen and ann0*++K, cited in >enson I =oller, *++K3 *J#1, his relationship to himself as a learner isunlikely to be marred by any negative assessments by the teacher. Conversely, a lack ofself(esteem is likely to lead to negative attitudes towards his capability as a learner, and to!a deterioration in cognitive performance!, thus confirming his view of himself as incapableof learning 0


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one limitation3 !NtOhe concentration put on thinking aloud might detract from Nlearnerability to do the task efficiently! 0ibid.3 J1, thus rendering the outcome of the reportspurious and tentative.Another type of self(report is what has been dubbed as retrospective self(report, sincelearners are asked to think back or retrospect on their learning. 4etrospective self(reports

are quite open ended, in that there is no limit put on what students say in response to aquestion or statement that points to a topic in a general way. There are two kinds ofretrospective self(reports3 semi(structured interviews and structured questionnaires. A semi(structured interview may focus on a specific skill with a view to e&tracting informationabout learners! feelings towards particular skills 0reading, listening, etc.1, problemsencountered, techniques resorted to in order to tackle these problems, and learners! viewson optimal strategies or ways of acquiring specific skills or dealing with learning tasks. Astructured questionnaire seeks the same information but in a different way3 by dint ofe&plicit questions and statements, and then asking learners to agree or disagree, write trueor false, and so forth.'t could be argued that self(reports can be a means of raising awareness of learners!strategies and the need for constant evaluation of techniques, goals, and outcomes. As$enden 0*++ 3 +-1 observes, !without awareness NlearnersO will remain trapped in their ol patterns of beliefs and behaviors and never be fully autonomous!.M. .


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' need some help./ours Truly,Confused0from $enden, *++ 3 *- 1Alongside diaries, students can also benefit from putting pen to paper and writing on their

e&pectations of a course at the beginning of the term, and then filling in evaluation sheets,or reporting on the outcomes of a course, at the end of the term. These activities are boundto help learners put things into perspective and manage their learning more effectively. 6etus consider two such reports31. $hat do ' want to do this year%E' want to speak more 9nglish and '!d like to spell better that ' do now. ' would like to workwith another boy or girl who is willing to speak 9nglish with me and make some activitiesin 9nglish. aterials3 Challenge to think and crosswords.' would like to get a more varied language and ' would like to be better at spelling,especially the words used in everyday situations. How3 ' will prepare Qtwo minutes! talk! foevery lesson, ' will write down new words five times and practise pronouncing them. ' willget someone or myself to correct it. ' will read at least two booksRdifficult onesRand make book(reviews.S0>eginning of termR#th year of 9nglishNfrom arnes 0*+KL, cited in >enson and =oller, *++K3 ++1 calls transmission and interpretatioteachers. As $right 0*+ K3 L , cited in >enson and =oller, *++K3 *--1 notes, transmissionteachers believe in sub"ect disciplines and boundaries between them, in content, instandards of performance laid down by these disciplines that can be ob"ectively evaluated((that learners will find it hard to meet the standards; interpretation teachers believe thatknowledge is the ability to organi)e thought, interpret and act on facts; that learners areintrinsically interested and naturally inclined to e&plore their worlds((that learners alreadyknow a great deal and have the ability to refashion that knowledge.


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The interpretation teacher respects learners! needs and is !more likely to follow a fraternal- permissive model! 0emphasis added1 0 tevick, *+KL3 +*(+J, cited in >enson and =oller,*++K3 *--1. 't is with this type of teacher that the role of persuasive communication is mostcongruent..'. (ersuasive Communication as a 4eans of %ltering Learner /eliefs and %ttitudes

'nasmuch as the success of learning and the e&tent to which learners tap into their potentialresources in order to overcome difficulties and achieve autonomy are determined by suchfactors as learners! motivation, their desire to learn, and the beliefs they hold aboutthemselves as learners and learning per se, it is manifest that changing some negative beliefs and attitudes is bound to facilitate learning. !Attitude change Nis assumed toO b brought about through e&posure to a persuasive communication Nbetween the teacher andthe learnersO! 0$enden, *++ 3 * L1. According to the 9laboration 6ikelihood odel 096 1of attitude change developed by etty and Cacciopo 0*+ L, cited in $enden, *++ 3 * L1,there are several ways of bringing about this change, however, our concern will only bewith persuasive communication.A persuasive communication is a discussion presenting information and arguments tochange a learner!s evaluation of a topic, situation, task, and so on. These arguments could be either e&plicit or implicit, especially when the topic is deemed of importance. 'f, forinstance, a deeply ingrained fear or belief precludes the learner from engaging in thelearning process, persuasive communication purports to help bring these facts to light andidentify the causes that underlie them. 't should be noted, though, that no arguments toinfluence students! views are given. 4ather, the communication comprises facts that showwhat learners can do to attain autonomy and that learners who do so are successful 0see$enden, *++ 3 * L1. This approach is based on the assumption that when learners are facedwith convincing information about a situation, !they can be led to re(e&amine e&istingevaluations they hold about it and revise or change them completely! 0ibid.3 * K1.3. ConclusionThis study is far from comprehensive, as we have only skimmed the surface of the sub"ectand the pu))le called learner autonomy. any more pieces are missing. or instance, nomention has been made of the role of the curriculum in promoting learner autonomy,despite the debate on the relationship between classroom practice and ideological encoding06ittle"ohn, *++K, cited in >enson and =oller, *++K3 * *(* 1. At any rate, the main pointof departure for this study has been the notion that there are degrees of learner autonomyand that it is not an absolute concept. 't would be nothing short of ludicrous to assert thatlearners come into the learning situation with the knowledge and skills to plan, monitor,and evaluate their learning, or to make decisions on content or ob"ectives. @evertheless,learner autonomy is an ideal, so to speak, that can, and should, be realised, if we want self(sufficient learners and citi)ens capable of evaluating every single situation they findthemselves in and drawing the line at any inconsistencies or shortcomings in institutionsand society at large. Certainly, though, autonomous learning is not akin to Eunbridledlearning.E There has to be a teacher who will adapt resources, materials, and methods to thelearners! needs and even abandon all this if need be. 6earner autonomy consists in becoming aware of, and identifying, one!s strategies, needs, and goals as a learner, andhaving the opportunity to reconsider and refashion approaches and procedures for optimallearning. >ut even if learner autonomy is amenable to educational interventions, it should be recognised that it !takes a long time to develop, and((simply removing the barriers to a person!s ability to think and behave in certain ways may not allow him or her to break away


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from old habits or old ways of thinking! 0Candy, *++*3 * #1. As Holyoake 0* + , vol. *, p.#1 succinctly put it, !NkOnowledge lies everywhere to hand for those who observe and think

Autonomy and independence are used more or less as synonyms in language teaching. Tome, both terms imply that students take a greater degree of control over the content andmethods of learning than is usual in classroom language learning conte&ts. Taking controlover learning also implies that students have or develop the capacity to learn independentlyand that the institutional conte&t in which they are learning allows them to do so.

't has been claimed that all learning is ultimately autonomous learning in the sense that itdepends on the efforts of the learners themselves. Allowing students greater freedom inlearning and helping them to become more aware of their capacities for autonomy maytherefore enhance motivation and the quality of learning.

Autonomy is not a synonym of !learning on your own! or !self(study!. Although autonomywas associated with the concept of individuali)ation in the early *+ -s, most researchersnow prefer to emphasi)e interdependence as a dimension of autonomous learning. The term!self(direction!, or !self(directed learning!, is often used in connection with autonomy. 'timplies that learners study under their own direction rather than under the direction ofanother. elf(directed learning does not necessarily imply !learning without a teacher!, butin self(directed learning the teacher!s may become more that of a helper or counsellor.

or a clear and readable introduction to the concept of autonomy in language learning, 'would recommend two short books by6ittle 0*+ +1 andenson, --* 1. /ou could then turn to one of several recentcollections of papers3enson I=oller 0*++K1, Cotterall I Crabbe 0*+++1, inclair, et al. 0 ---1 .

Although language learning has been one of the main fields in which the theory and practice of autonomy has developed in recent years, there is also a rich literature onautonomy and self(direction in education in general. /ou can find a comprehensive surveyof the field inCandy 0*++*1.

Autonomy and independence are associated with several means of implementation. 2ne ofthe most discussed is self(access, which generally involves setting up some kind of resourcecentre in which language learners can work freely. 'f you are thinking of setting up a self(access centre, ?ardner I iller 0*+++1 is essential reading. apers byheerin 0*++K1 andturtridge 0*++K1 and the collection of papers by9sch 0*++#1 are also highlyrecommended.

6earner training and strategy training refer to methods of developing the skills learnersneed for autonomy.


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$hat is 'ndependent6anguage 6earning%

%ims7'ndependent 6anguage 6earning aims to give learners morecontrol over what, how and when they learn languages.6earners decide on their aims, make plans of what to learn,develop their own methods of learning 0learning strategies1,assess their own learning, and plan what to learn ne&t. Clickhere for a @eeds Analysis 8 lanning 8 tudying 8 Assessmentorm that you can print out and fill in.They can choosewhether to use a teacher to help them in this process.

+hy9 !evel 3 'n a class the teacher usually decides what to teach based on the average level of the students. >ut this may not be the right level for most of the students. or advancedstudents it will be too easy. or lower level students it will betoo hard. 'n independent language learning the learnerdecides what level to work at.Topic 3 The topic of the lesson is also usually based on theneeds of the average students in the class, but other studentsmay know the material already if they are higher level, or nothave the basic knowledge needed to understand the lesson ifthey are lower level. 'n independent learning, learners canchoose what they want to study, and can change it any timethey like.Time3 The time of a lesson is usually fi&ed by the school orthe university, and very rarely by the students. 'n independentlearning the learner chooses when he or she wants to learn.:sing the 'nternet, learning can be done at any time.

"ace 3 'n classroom lessons, the pace of the the lesson goeseither at the pace of the slowest student, which is boring forthe others, or at a pace somewhere in the middle, which is toofast for some students and too slow for others. 'n independentlearning the learners can go at any pace they like.

!ife 3 'ndependent learning at university is preparation forlearning after university, when learners may not haveteachers or courses to help them. or e&ample, if someonewants to invest in shares, they will need to find out what theyneed to learn 0@eeds Analysis1, plan what to learn 0 lanning1,study the stock market and the causes of rises and falls inshare prices 0 tudying1, then practice by buying and selling
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shares, then review their performance and their profit or loss,and finally decide what to learn ne&t to improve their performance 0 urther lanning1.

>ack to the Top

he $ole of the eacher

The role of the teacher in independent language learning is a bit different from classroom teaching. ut very simply, inindependent language learning the teacher teaches thelearners to be independent and teach themselves, for e&amplehow to plan, study andassess themselves.

lanning orm

"eeds %nalysis : (lanning : Studying : Self8assessment ;orm

"eeds %nalysis7

' want to improve

*. my my studies my career my general ability 8#other reason$ 3

. my my studies my career my general ability 8#other reason$ 3

J. my my studies my career my general ability 8#other reason$ 3

(lanning7to improve my in these J areas3 0put this in the !Aims! syour diary1

*. using these materials3

working alone in a group and finishing by 8 8 - .

' will test myself by
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' have finished successfully will do more soon will do more later.

. using these materials3 and

,

workingalone in a group and finishing by 8 8 - .



J. using these materials3 and

working alone in a group and finishing by 8 8 - .



How Can ' lan y$ork%

lanning your work has J stages3

*. Analysing your @eeds. lanning what to learnJ. Testing yourself and planning what to learn

ne&t.
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1. "eeds %nalysisThere are four ways that you can analyse your needs3

think of problems you have when you speak, read,write or listen to 9nglish, and the situations that causethese problems

think of what 9nglish you will need in future, fore&ample for your career or for studying

think aboutwhat you need to know to speak alanguage

if you are studying a course, think of the contents ofthe course and what 9nglish you need to understandthose contents 0 clickhere to see the 9nglish coursesthat most full(time H : students do1

use a ! tudy kills! book 0we have some in C'661 tohelp you analyse your needs.

Click here for a @eeds Analysis 8 lanning 8 tudying 8Assessment orm that you can print out and fill in.

"e t ...... >ack to Top

2. (lanning what to learn.

/ou need to decide3

what materials and resources you want to use whether you want to work alone or with other people when you want or need to finish studying; eg. in time

for an assignment deadline how much improvement is necessary

4aterials and $esourcesaterials can be books,maga)ines, newspapers, videos,audio tapes, etc.4esources can be teachers, classmates, computers,learner

pathways, etc.6ow to choose materials7

level3 is the material the right level for you% time3 can you finish in time for any assignments etc.

you need to hand in
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quantity3 the C'66 inde&es andmaterials lists tell youthe :nit of the material you should look at. 'f thissays, !All!, then all of that material is about the topicyou are looking for.

support3 if you are using a book, is there a tape, model

answers 0eg. in a teachers book or the back of thestudents! book1, a video, a computer program or aworkbook for e&tra practice%

does the material suggest using one of the ways oflearning 0study strategies1 that you know and like%Click here forways of studying.

does the material suit yourlearning style% ome people like to work quietly on their own, while otherslike to learn by social talking.

Click here for details on planningreading, writing, speaking, listening, vocabulary, pronunciation and

grammar . "e t

+orking %lone or +ith ther (eople4easons for working with other people are3( /ou get more ideas from the other people( They can suggest improvements( They can tell you if you make a mistake( They can encourage you to do better ( 9&plaining things to other people can help you understand

better ( haring the work helps you do it quicker ( /ou can share your thoughts and feelings( Teamwork skills and e&perience are important for yourcareer.

4easons for working alone are3( o your work is not the same as other people!s( 'f you share a task then you might learn only your part ofthe task,..not how to do all of it. /our aim is to learn, not to finish

quickly.( aybe you don!t want to be influenced by other people( /ou don!t want to share your ideas with other people."e t

>ack to Top

'. esting yourself and planning what to learn ne t.
http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/Eng_ts.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/Eng_ts.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/strategy.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/styles.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htm#Planninghttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/writing.htm#Planninghttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/speaking.htm#Planninghttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/listenin.htm#2.%20Planning%20what%20to%20learnhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/vocabula.htm#2.%20Planning%20what%20to%20learnhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/vocabula.htm#2.%20Planning%20what%20to%20learnhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/pronunci.htm#Planninghttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/pronunci.htm#Planninghttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#Working%20Alone%20or%20With%20Other%20Peoplehttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#3.%20Testing%20yourself%20and%20planning%20what%20to%20learn%20next.http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#Whttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/Eng_ts.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/strategy.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/styles.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htm#Planninghttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/writing.htm#Planninghttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/speaking.htm#Planninghttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/listenin.htm#2.%20Planning%20what%20to%20learnhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/vocabula.htm#2.%20Planning%20what%20to%20learnhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/pronunci.htm#Planninghttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#Working%20Alone%20or%20With%20Other%20Peoplehttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#3.%20Testing%20yourself%20and%20planning%20what%20to%20learn%20next.http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#W


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$hen you have finished your plan you need to test or assessyourself to see if you have fulfilled your need. Can you dowhat your @eeds Analysis wanted%( 'f you can, then you can plan to learn another point fromyour @eeds Analysis, or you can change it because of some

new thing that you want to learn.


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4aterials and $esourcesaterials can be books,maga)ines, newspapers, videos,audio tapes, etc.4esources can be teachers, classmates, computers,learner pathways, etc.

6ow to choose materials7

level3 is the material the right level for you% time3 can you finish in time for any assignments etc.

you need to hand in quantity3 the C'66 inde&es andmaterials lists tell you

the :nit of the material you should look at. 'f thissays, !All!, then all of that material is about the topicyou are looking for.

support3 if you are using a book, is there a tape, model

answers 0eg. in a teachers book or the back of thestudents! book1, a video, a computer program or aworkbook for e&tra practice%

does the material suggest using one of the ways oflearning 0study strategies1 that you know and like%Click here forways of studying.

does the material suit yourlearning style% ome people like to work quietly on their own, while otherslike to learn by social talking.

+orking %lone or +ith ther (eople

4easons for working with other people are3( /ou get more ideas from the other people( They can suggest improvements( They can tell you if you make a mistake( They can encourage you to do better ( 9&plaining things to other people can help you understand better ( haring the work helps you do it quicker ( /ou can share your thoughts and feelings( Teamwork skills and e&perience are important for yourcareer.

4easons for working alone are3( o your work is not the same as other people!s( 'f you share a task then you might learn onlyyour part of the task,..not how to do all of it. /our aim is to learn,not to finish quickly.
http://www.yahoo.com/News/Magazines/http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/pathwyix.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/pathwyix.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#materialshttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/Eng_ts.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/Eng_ts.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/strategy.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/styles.htmhttp://www.yahoo.com/News/Magazines/http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/pathwyix.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/pathwyix.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#materialshttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/Eng_ts.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/strategy.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/styles.htm


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( aybe you don!t want to be influenced byother people( /ou don!t want to share your ideas with other people.

'. esting yourself and planning what to learn ne t.

$hen you have finished your plan you need to test or assessyourself to see if you have fulfilled your need. Can you dowhat your @eeds Analysis wanted%( 'f you can, then you can plan to learn another point fromyour @eeds Analysis, or you can change it because of somenew thing that you want to learn.


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paragraph level means understanding the organisation of thesentences in a paragraph, and the links between them. ore&ample you can draw arrows from words like !he!, !she!,!they!, and !it!, back to the nouns they refer to, like this3

/ou also need to understand the logic of the paragraph orgroup of paragraphs, for e&ample by drawing amind(map ofthe the organisation, with words like !and!, !but! and !so!linking the topics and sub(topics.

The whole te&t level is organised in different ways according

to the type of document you are reading, for e&ample a memomight have a situation, problem, suggested solution and arequest for action. A report usually has a title page, abstract,table of contents, methodology, findings, conclusions andrecommendations sections.

?uessing meanings of words and phrases is possible becauseyou know the situation. However, if you are using the'nternet you can use one of theonline dictionaries to find themeaning.

'dentifying a writers attitude is done by knowing theconnotation 0a nice or a bad meaning1 of the words he uses. 'fyou see a word that you think may have a specialconnotation, check in a dictionary and look for theabbreviation !derog .!, which means that the word has a badmeaning. 't is also important to know if a writer is !ob"ective!0gives good and bad points1 or !biased! 0 gives only good, oronly bad points1.

The writer!s purposes may include to inform, to teach, toentertain, to persuade, or to criticise, etc.

6ow to (ractise -ocabulary

:se your learner diary as a vocabulary book. $rite downeverything you know about new words that will be useful foryou.


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you need to know more about it, such as the pronunciation,and the grammar. /ou can find this in one of thedictionaries.

'f you are a member of C'66, you can use our tapes, Cack to Top

-ocabulary Strategies8 %onte&tualisation 3 This means putting new vocabularywords into sentences to help you remember them and to testif you are using them correctly. /ou can use these sentenceswhen talking to an 9nglish(speaker to see if they understand,you can write these sentences in your learner diary for thetutors to see, or you can e(mail the tutors and ask them tocheck these words in your sentences. The most independentways are talking to an 9nglish speaker, andsearching the'nternet to find e&amples of the word being used in sentences.

( 'laboration 3 this means relating new information toinformation you already know. or e&ample, if you know themeaning of !information!, it is easy to remember that the verbis !to inform!, and that !informative! is an ad"ective, and that!an informant! is someone who gives information.

- Inferencing 3 This means using available information to predict or guess the meanings of; e.g. new vocabulary items.or e&ample, if you know that you are reading about football,and you know that a field is often a large area covered ingrass, then you can guess that a football field is a large,grassy area for playing football.

( Translation 3 /ou can read a story in a newspaper in yourown language first, then read the same story in an9nglishnewspaper . ost of the story will probably be the same, sothe story in your own language will help you to prepare forreading in 9nglish. or e&ample, it will give you vocabulary,and when you read the 9nglish story and there is somevocabulary that you don!t know, then you can use yourknowledge of the story to guess what the new vocabulary is.

esting ourself

$hen you have finished your plan you need to test or assessyourself to see if you have fulfilled your need. Can you dowhat your @eeds Analysis says you aimed to do%
http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/listenin.htm#Dictionarieshttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#Whttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/searchin.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/searchin.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htm#Newspapershttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htm#Newspapershttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/listenin.htm#Dictionarieshttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#Whttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/searchin.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/searchin.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htm#Newspapershttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htm#Newspapers


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/ou can test yourself by doing tests in books, or by readingte&ts and applying the skills above. /ou will know if you

6earning trategies

Click here to seestrategies for3

How to 6earn 6earning Thinking peaking

ronunciation

$riting 4eading 6istening ?rammar

=ocabulary

tudying strategies, also called learner strategies, are ways oflearning. ?ood learners use these strategies to make theirlearning more efficient.

There are two main types of learning strategies, the first arestrategies for planning how to learn, and secondlystrategiesfor learning.

Strategies for (lanning 6ow to Learn

%dvance rganisation


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you need to write a report at work, you can learn how to writea report.

Self8managementThis is understanding the conditions that help you learn, and

organising them. or e&ample, if you like music, learning in a place with music. /ou will also need materials like books andmaybe a computer. C'66 has good learning conditions 0butno coffee51.

%dvance (reparationlanning and learning 9nglish that you will need forsomething, for e&ample learning the correct pronunciation ofimportant words in a presentation.

Self8monitoring

Correcting yourself if you make a mistake when you areusing 9nglish.

&elayed (roduction$hen you first start to learn a new language you may decidenot to try speaking until you have learned somevocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. /ou may "ust want to trylistening first, beforespeaking.

Self8evaluation


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Learning Strategies

hinking Strategies- (rouping 3 utting things in groups and in order helps you to

build a framework for learning. ?rouping also reflects theway your brain organises information. or e&ample, you cangroup vocabulary words together according to categories likefurniture, animals, office equipment, etc. :singmind(maps isone type of grouping.

Imagery 3 This means making pictures in your mind to helpyou remember things. or e&ample a !hamburger paragraph!.

>ack to the Top of this age

Speaking Strategies8 )uestions for %larification 3 This means talking to 9nglish(speakers and asking for them to repeat, paraphrase0summarise in different words1, e&plain or give e&amples./ou can say3

4epeat3 E'!m sorry, ' didn!t catch that, can you say thatagain%E

araphrase3 E'!m sorry, '!m not sure what you mean.Can you tell me again%E

9&plain3 ECould you e&plain that for me%E 9&amples3 ECould you give me an e&ample%E


(ronunciation Strategies8 *epetition: /ou can repeat a word out loud or silently to practice pronunciation. >e careful to listen to a model tomake sure that you pronunciation is correct.
http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/mindmap.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#Shttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#Shttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/mindmap.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#Shttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#S


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( Sound: This means remembering 9nglish sounds by usingsounds in your own language. or e&ample, the 9nglishsound 8 i3 8is very similar to the Chinese 0 utonghua1 soundof the word that means !one!.

Click here to go to the pronunciation page.>ack to the Top of this age

+riting Strategies8 +ote-taking 3 it!s a good idea to write down the main ideas,important points, an outline or a summary of a topic. /ou canuse amind(map to help you organise the information.

Click here to go to thewriting page.


$eading Strategies8 Transfer 3 This means using ideas that you already have tomake learning easier. or e&ample, if you know that a paragraph 0like ahamburger 1 usually has an introduction, amiddle containing supporting detail, and a conclusion, youcan use this knowledge toskim 0read very quickly, bymissing out non(important information, to understand thegeneral topic1 a te&t because you know that you only have toread the introduction and conclusion of both the whole te&tand the paragraphs.

( Translation 3 /ou can read a story in a newspaper in yourown language first, then read the same story in an9nglishnewspaper . ost of the story will probably be the same, sothe story in your own language will help you to prepare forreading in 9nglish. or e&ample, it will give you vocabulary,and when you read the 9nglish story and there is somevocabulary that you don!t know, then you can use yourknowledge of the story to guess what the newvocabulary is.

- Inferencing 3 /ou can also use the strategy of reading anewspaper story in your own language first for prediction./ou can predict the contents of the same story in an 9nglishnewspaper. 4eading to confirm your predictions is easier thanreading with no background information. Click here for moreinformation onreading newspapers.

- "rediction 3 As well as predicting from newspaper stories inyour own language, you can predict from your knowledge of
http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/pronunci.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/pronunci.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#Shttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/mindmap.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/writing.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/writing.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#Shttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#hamburger%20paragraphhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htm#Skimminghttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htm#Newspapershttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htm#Newspapershttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#Vocabulary%20Strategieshttp://www.bangkokpost.net/education/stutips.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/pronunci.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#Shttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/mindmap.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/writing.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#Shttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#hamburger%20paragraphhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htm#Skimminghttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htm#Newspapershttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htm#Newspapershttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#Vocabulary%20Strategieshttp://www.bangkokpost.net/education/stutips.htm


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the world, you knowledge of how people think, write andtalk, and your knowledge of what the writer is like. ore&ample, if you are reading a book it is a good idea to readabout the author and the contents 0on the cover or at the frontof the book1 to help you make predictions about what he or

she believes.Click here to go to thereading page.


Listening Strategies- "hysical *esponse: /ou can listen to instructions about howto do something, and follow the instructions. 4elating soundsto movements helps you remember the sounds. o doeslistening to the sounds many times and repeating themovements. or e&ample you can buy an 9nglish fitnessvideo and listen and follow the instructions, and get fit at thesame time.

- "rediction 3 /ou can predict what someone is going to say by the topic of the conversation and your knowledge of that person!s opinions. 6istening to confirm what you predict iseasier than listening and trying to understand everything. ore&ample, if you are watching a film or T= programme aboutlawyers, you can predict that the defense lawyer will say thathis client is E@ot guilty.E, and give reasons.

Click here to go to thelistening page.


#rammar Strategies

- eduction 3 This means using rules to work out the answeror how to do something. 't is especially useful for grammar,for e&ample *ule: To change normal speech to reported

speech eg. for writing minutes of a meeting, move the tensesback one past tense. '&ample: r. %han - /I will see hertomorrow./ *eported speech - 0 r. %han said that he would

see her the ne&t day.

- *ecombination 3 This means "oining together things youalready know to make new things. or e&ample, if you knowthat thesimple past tense is used to describe things thathappened in the past which have finished, and you know thatthe present perfect tense is used to describe e&perience, you
http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#Shttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/listenin.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#Shttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#Shttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/listenin.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#S


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can make a sentence that includes both of them3E' firstvisited America in *++-. 6ast summer 'went thereagain, so 'have been there twice.E

Click here to go to thegrammar page.


-ocabulary Strategies8 %onte&tualisation 3 This means putting new vocabularywords into sentences to help you remember them and to testif you are using them correctly. /ou can use these sentenceswhen talking to an 9nglish(speaker to see if they understand,you can write these sentences in your learner diary for thetutors to see, or you can e(mail the tutors and ask them tocheck these words in your sentences. The most independentways are talking to an 9nglish speaker, andsearching the'nternet to find e&amples of the word being used in sentences.

( 'laboration 3 this means relating new information toinformation you already know. or e&ample, if you know themeaning of !information!, it is easy to remember that the verbis !to inform!, and that !informative! is an ad"ective, and that!an informant! is someone who gives information.

- Inferencing 3 This means using available information to predict or guess the meanings of; eg. new vocabulary items.or e&ample, if you know that you are reading about football,and you know that a field is often a large area covered ingrass, then you can guess that a football field is a large,grassy area for playing football.

( Translation 3 /ou can read a story in a newspaper in yourown language first, then read the same story in an9nglishnewspaper . ost of the story will probably be the same, sothe story in your own language will help you to prepare forreading in 9nglish. or e&ample, it will give you vocabulary,and when you read the 9nglish story and there is somevocabulary that you don!t know, then you can use yourknowledge of the story to guess what the new vocabulary is.
http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/grammar.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#Shttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/searchin.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/searchin.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htm#Newspapershttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htm#Newspapershttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/grammar.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/#Shttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/searchin.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/searchin.htmhttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htm#Newspapershttp://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/reading1.htm#Newspapers


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types of information that the independent language teachersshould provide for students. irstly, information on variouslanguage competences used in authentic 9nglishcommunication to help the students set their ob"ectives andevaluate their progress. econdly, information on how to

learn languages to help the students with theirlearningstrategies. Thirdly, information on resources that students canuse in their learning, such as C'667slearning pathways.

.2.* Learners> %ttitude towards Independent Learning

heerin 0*++K3 M+1 links her model of activities involved inindependent learning 0see igure * above1 with a suggestion

for a framework for learners7 analysis of their dispositiontowards independent learning 0se

umss - autonomous workshop

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