umberto eco meaning and denotation

8/10/2019 Umberto Eco Meaning and Denotation

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U MBE RT O E CO

M E A N I N G A N D D E N O T A T I O N

H I S T O R I C A L R E M A R K S

T o d a y d e n o t a t i o n ( a lo n g w i t h i t s c o u n t e r p a r t , c o n n o t a t i o n ) is

a l t e r n a t i v e l y c o n s i d e r e d a s a P r o p e r t y o r f u n c t i o n o f ( i ) s i n g l e t e r m s ,

( i i) dec la ra tive sen tenc es ( ii i) no un phrases and def in i te descr ip t ions. In

each ca se one ha s to dec ide whe the r th i s t e rm has to be t aken in t ens iona l ly

o r ex tens iona l ly : i s de no ta t io n t i ed to mean ing o r to r efe ren t s? Does

o n e m e a n b y d e n o t a t i o n w h a t is m e a n t b y t h e t e r m o r t h e n a m e d t h i n g

and, in the case of sentences, what i s the case

A s f a r a s c o n n o t a t i o n i s c o n c e r n e d , i f d e n o t a t i o n h a s a n e x t e n s i o n a l

s c o p e , i t b e c o m e s t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f i n t e n s i o n ; i f , o n t h e c o n t r a r y ,

d e n o t a t i o n h a s a n i n te n s i o n a l s c o p e , t h e n c o n n o t a t i o n b e c o m e s a s o r t

o f f u r t h e r m e a n i n g d e p e n d i n g o n t h e f ir st o n e . T h e s e t e r m i n o l o g i c a l

d i s c r e p a n c i e s a r e s u c h t h a t G e a c h ( 1 9 6 2 , p . 6 5 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s

t e r m s h o u l d b e w i t h d r a w n f r o m p h i l o s o p h i ca l c u r r e n c y s i n c e i t

p r o d u c e s a s a d t a le o f c o n f u s i o n .

I n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f s t r u c t u r a l l i n g u i s t i c s d e n o t a t i o n i s i n t e n s i o n a l .

S u c h i s t h e c a s e o f H j e l m s l e v ( 1 9 4 3 ) , w h e r e t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a

d e n o t a t i v e s e m i o t i c s a n d a c o n n o t a t i v e o n e l ie s i n t h e f a c t th a t t h e

f o r m e r i s a s e m i o t i c s w h o s e e x p r e s s i o n p l a n e i s n o t a s e m i o t i c s , w h i l e

t h e l a t t e r i s a s e m i o t i c s w h o s e e x p r e s s i o n p l a n e i s a s e m i o t i c s . T h e

d e n o t a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p h a s t o d o w i t h t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e

f o r m o f e x p r e s s i o n a n d t h e f o r m o f c o n t e n t : a n e x p r e s s i o n d o e s n o t

d e n o t e a c o n t e n t - s u b s t a n c e . L i k e w i s e B a r t h e s ( 1 96 4 ) e l a b o r a t e s u p o n

H j e l m s l e v ' s s u g g e s t i o n s a n d d e v e l o p s a m e r e l y i n t en s i o n a l a p p r o a c h

t o d e n o t a t i o n . A d e n o t a t i v e r e l a ti o n s h i p a lw a y s o c c u r s b e t w e e n a

s i g n i f i e r a n d a f i r s t ( o r z e r o ) d e g r e e s i g n i f i e d . I n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f

c o m p o n e n t i a l a n a ly s is , d e n o t a t i o n h a s b e e n u s e d f o r t h e s e n s e -

r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x p r e s s e d b y a l e x i c al t e r m - s u c h a s ' f a t h e r ' s b r o t h e r '

e x p r e s s e d b y ' u n c l e ' ( s e e , f o r i n s t a n c e , L e e c h 1 9 7 4 , p . 2 3 8 ) . P r i e t o

( 1 9 75 , p . 6 7 , 1 0 9) m e a n s b y ( d e ) n o t a t i v e o r n o t a t i v e anY c o n c e p -

t i o n o f a l i n g u i s t ic t e r m o r o f a s i g n i f i c a n t o b j e c t i n s o f a r a s i t a p p e a r s

Synthese

73 1987) 549-568.

O 1987 by D Reidel Publishing Com pany


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5 5 U M B E R T O E C O

a s t h e m e m b e r o f a c l a s s o f o b j e c t s f u l f i l l i n g t h e s a m e p u r p o s e

( m e m b r e d e l a c l a ss e d u s y s tb m e d ' in t e r c o m p r 6 h e n s i o n q u i l e d 6 t e r -

m i n e ) , w h e r e s u c h a c l a s s b e l o n g s t o t h e u n i v e r s e o f s e n s e .

Th u s o n e can s ay t h a t i n t h e s t r u c t u r a l i s ti c m i li eu , d en o t a t i o n , (if w e

a s s u m e a s a p a r a m e t e r F r e g e ' s t r i a n g l e ) , i s m o r e s i m i l a r t o t h e Sinn

t h a n t o t h e Bedeutung t h a t i s , mo r e s i mi l a r t o t h e s en s e t h an t o t h e

r e f e r e n c e .

T h e w h o l e p i c t u r e c h a n g e s r a d i c a l l y i n t h e a n g l o s a x o n t r a d i t i o n o f

p h i l o s o p h y o f l a n g u a g e a n d t r u t h c o n d i t io n a l s e m a n t ic s : i n R u s s e l l' s

On denot ing deno tat ion is und oub tedly d if ferent- f rom meaning. This

u s a g e is fo l l o w e d b y t h e w h o l e o f a n g l o - s a x o n p h i l o so p h i c a l t r a d i ti o n

( s ee , f o r i n s ta n c e , O g d e n a n d R i c h a r d s , 1 9 2 3 a n d M o r r i s , 1 9 4 6 ) .

I n t h i s s en s e an ex p r e s s i o n d en o t e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l s o f w h i ch i t i s t h e

n a m e , w h il e i t m e a n s ( a n d f o r c e r t a i n a u t h o r s c o n n o t e s ) t h e p r o p e r -

t ie s b y v i r t u e o f w h i c h t h e s e i n d i v id u a l s a r e r e c o g n i z e d a s m e m b e r s o f

a g i v en c l a ss . I f w e s u b s t i t u t e ( as C a r n a p 1 9 5 5 , d o es ) t h e co u p l e

d e n o t a t i o n / c o n n o t a t i o n w i t h t h e c o u p l e e x t e n s i o n / i n t e n s i o n , w e c a n

s a y t h a t d e n o t a t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n o f c o n n o t a t i o n ( e x c e p t i f o n e f o l l o w s

t h e t h eo r y o f r i g i d d e s i g n a t i o n ) .

I n o r d e r t o a v o i d s u c h a g r o w i n g t e r m i n o l o g i c a l c o n f u s i o n s o m e -

b o d y h a s p r e f e r r e d t o u s e d e s i g n a t i o n in p l a c e o f d e n o t a t i o n a n d

r e c e n t l y L y o n s ( 1 9 7 7 , p . 2 0 8 ) h a s p r o p o s e d to u s e d e n o t a t i o n i n a

n e u t r a l w a y a s b e t w e e n e x t e n s i o n a n d i n t e n s i o n .

H o w e v e r th e s i tu a ti o n is m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d th a n t h a t. E v e n w h e n

d en o t a t i o n r eco g n i zab l y s t an d s f o r ex t en s i o n i t may r e f e r ( i ) t o a c l a s s

o f i nd iv idua l s , ( i i ) t o an ac tua l ly ex i s t i ng i nd iv idua l ( as i n t he case o f

t h e r i g id d e s i g n a t i o n o f p r o p e r n am es ) , ( iii) t o each m em b e r o f a c la s s

o f i n d i v i d u a l s , ( i v ) t o t h e t r u t h v a l u e co r r e s p o n d i n g t o an a s s e r t i v e

p r o p o s i t i o n ( s o t h a t , i n t h e s e f r a m e w o r k s , t h e d e n o t a t u m o f a p r o -

p o s i t i o n i s w h a t i s t h e ca s e o r t h e f ac t t h a t ' p ' i s t h e ca s e ) .

T h e f ir st c a s e i n w h i c h d e n o t a t i o n h a s b e e n b l a t a n t ly u s e d i n a n

ex t en s i o n a l s en s e w as , a s f a r a s I k n o w , t h e o n e o f J o h n S t u a r t M i ll (I ,

I I , v ) : t h e w o r d ' w h i t e ' d en o t e s a l l w h i t e t h in g s , a s s n o w , p ap e r , t h e

f o a m o f t h e s e a , a n d s o f o r th , a n d i m p li es , o r a s it w a s t e r m e d b y t h e

s c h o o l m e n , c o n n o t e s t h e a t t r i b u t e w h i t e n e s s .

P e i r c e w a s p r o b a b l y t h e f i rs t o n e t o re a l iz e t h a t t h e r e w a s s o m e t h i n g

o d d i n t h is u s a g e . P e i r c e a l w a y s u s e d d e n o t a t i o n t o m e a n t h e d i r e c t

r e f e r e n c e o f a s y m b o l t o i ts o b j e c t ( 1 .5 5 9 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o h im a

R h e m a t i c I n d e x i c a l S in s ig n is a f f e c t e d b y t h e re a l c a m e l it d e n o t e s


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M E A N I N G A N D D E N O T A T I O N 5 5 1

( 2 .2 6 1 ) , a s i g n m u s t d en o t e an i n d iv i d u a l an d m u s t s ig n i f y a ch a r ac t e r

( 2. 29 3 ), a g e n e r a l t e rm d e n o t e s w h a t e v e r t h e r e m a y b e w h i c h p o s -

s e s s e s t h e ch a r ac t e r s i t s i g n if i e s ( 2 .4 3 4 ) , ev e r y a s s e r t i o n co n t a i n s

s u c h a d e n o t a t i v e o r p o i n t i n g - o u t f u n c t i o n ( 5 .4 2 9 ) , s ig n s a r e d e s ig -

n a t i v e o r d en o t a t i v e o r i n d ica t iv e , i n s o f a r a s t h ey , l ik e a d e m o n -

s t r a t i v e p r o n o u n , o r a p o i n t i n g fi n g e r, b r u t e l y d i r ec t th e m en t a l

e y e b a l l s o f t h e i n te r p r e t e r t o t h e o b j e c t i n q u e s t i o n ( 8 .3 5 0 ) .

H o w e v e r , P e i r c e u n d e r s t o o d c l e a r ly t h a t - a s f a r a s c o n n o t a t i o n

w as co n ce r n ed - M i l l w as n o t f o l l o w i n g , a s h e c l a i med , t h e t r ad i t i o n a l

s ch o l a s t i c u s ag e . Th e S ch o o l men d i s t i n g u i s h ed ( a t l e a s t u n t i l t h e

f o u r t e e n t h c e n tu r y ) b e t w e e n m e a n i n g

significare)

a n d n a m i n g

ap-

pellare), a n d u s e d c o n n o t a t i o n n o t a s o p p o s e d t o d e n o t a t i o n b u t

i n o r d e r t o d e f i n e an ad d i t i o n a l f o r m o f s i g n i f i ca t i o n .

I t h a s b e e n , i n d e e d , t h e o p i n i o n o f a l l t h e s t u d e n t s o f t h e l o g i c o f t h e f o u r t e e n t h ,

f i f te e n t h , a n d s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , t h a t

c o n n o t a t i o n

w a s i n t h o s e a g e s u s e d e x c l u s iv e l y f o r

t h e r e f e r e n c e t o a s e c o n d s i g n i f ic a t e, t h a t is n e a r ly ) , f o r a r e f e r e n c e t o a r e l a t i v e s e n s e

s u c h a s f a the r br igh t e r e t c .) t o t h e c o r r e l a t e o f t h e o b j e c t i t p r i m a r i l y d e n o t e s . .. . M r .

M i l l h a s h o w e v e r c o n s i d e r e d h i m s e l f e n t i t l e d t o d e n y t h i s u p o n h i s s i m p l e d i c tu m , w i t h o u t

t h e c i t a t i o n o f a s im p l e p a s s a g e f r o m a n y w r i t e r o f t h a t t i m e 2 . 3 93 ) .

P e i r c e r e m a r k s t h a t t h e c o m m o n o p p o s i t i o n i n t h e M i d d l e A g e s w a s

b e t w e e n s i g ni fi c a re a n d n o m i n a r e ( t o m e a n a n d t o r e fe r t o ) .

H e t h e n r e m a r k s th a t M i ll u s e s t o c o n n o t e i n s te a d o f t o s i g n if y ,

a n d t o d e n o t e f o r n a m i n g o r r e f e rr in g t o . H e r e c a ll s t h e q u o t a t i o n

f r o m J o h n o f S a l i s b u r y Metalogicus I I, 2 0 ), a c c o r d i n g t o w h o m

nom inantur s ingu laria sed universal ia s igni ficantur . I t u n f o r t u n a t e l y

h a p p e n e d t h a t . . , t h e p re c i s e m e a n i n g r e c o g n i z e d a s p r o p e r t o t h e

w o r d ' si g n if y ' a t th e t i m e o f J o h n o f S a l i s b u r y . . . w a s n e v e r s t r ic t ly

o b s e r v e d , e i t h e r b e f o r e a n d s i n c e , a n d o n t h e c o n t r a r y t h e m e a n i n g

t e n d e d t o sli p t o w a r d s th a t o f ' d e n o t e ' ( 2 .4 3 4 ) .

I n t h i s d i s cu s s i o n P e i r ce i s r i g h t ( an d p e r cep t i v e ) an d w r o n g a t t h e

s a m e t i m e . O n o n e s i d e h e lu c i d ly r e a li z e d t h a t a t a c e r ta i n m o m e n t

s i g n i f i ca r e p a r t i a ll y s h i f t ed f r o m an in t en s i o n a l t o an ex t en s i o n a l

f r a m e w o r k , b u t h e d i d n o t a c k n o w l e d g e t h e fa c t t h a t , d u r i n g t h e

f o l l o w i n g cen t u r i e s , i t ma i n l y r e t a i n ed , i ts i n ten s i o n a l s en s e . O n t h e

o t h e r s id e h e a c c e p t e d d e n o t a t i o n a s a n e x te n s io n a l c a t e g o r y

( a rg u i n g w i t h M i ll o n l y a p r o p o s o f c o n n o t a t i o n ) w h i l e i t w a s o n l y

v e r y l a te th a t d e n o t a r e , o r i g in a l ly u s e d m i d - w a y b e t w e e n e x te n s i o n

a n d i n t e n s i o n , t o o k o v e r a s a n e x t e n s i o n a l c a t e g o r y .


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T H E F I R S T S E M A N T I C T R I A N G L E

In

De interpretat ione ,

Aristotle implicitly but clearly designs a semiotic

triangle, in which words are related on one side to concepts (or

passions of the soul) and on the other to things. Aristotle says that

words are sy m bo l s of the passions and by s y m b o l means a con-

ventional and arbitrary device.

He adds that words can be taken as symptoms

( s e m e fa )

of the

passions, since every verbal utterance can be, first of all, the symptom

of the fact that the utterer has something in his mind. As for the

passions of the soul, they are likenesses, or icons, of the thing. We

know the things through the passions of the soul and there is no direct

connection between symbols and things. We name things by meaning

their icons, that is, the corresponding ideas they arouse in our minds.

Aristotle does not use, for this symbolic relation, the word

sematnein

(that could be, as it was, translated by significare ) but in many other

circumstances he uses this verb to indicate the relation between words

and concepts.

Aristotle says (as Plato did) that single terms taken in isolation do

not assert anything about what is the case. They only 'mean' a

thought. Also, sentences or complex expressions mean a thought but

only a particular kind of sentence (a statement, or a proposition,

apbphasis or Ibgos apopha ntik6s) asserts a true or false state of affairs.

He does not say that statements 'signify' what is true or false but

rather that they 'say' (the verb is

ldgein)

that something A belongs (the

verb is yp?trchein) to something B.

Boethius translated sema~nein with significare but he followed

the Augustinian line of thought, according to which significatio is

the power that a word has to arouse in the mind of the hearer a

thought, through the mediation of which one can implement an act of

refe rence to things. He says that single terms signify the correspond-

ing concept or the universal idea and takes significare - as well as,

less frequently, designare - in an intensional sense. Words are

conventional instruments used to make known one's thoughts

(sense

or sententias) .

Words do not designate things or states of the world but concepts of

the mind. The designated thing is at most called underlying the

concept of

i t ( s ign i f ica t ion isup pos i ta or suppos itum,

see de Rijk, 1967,

pp. 180-81).


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5 5 3

A s fo r d e n o t a t i o , B o e t h i u s u s e s e x t e n si v e ly n o t e , b u t w e k n o w

h o w v a g u e t h e m e a n i n g o f th is t e r m w a s i n t h e L a t i n L e x i c o n - a t le a s t

a s v a g u e a s t h e m e a n i n g o f th e e q u iv a l e n t G r e e k s y m b o l o n . It m u s t

b e r emi n d ed t h a t B o e t h i u s , i n t h e t r an s l a t i o n o f e In t erpre ta t ione

u s e d n o t a f o r b o t h s y m b o l o n a n d s e m e i o n , t h u s c r e a t i n g a f ir st

s a d t a l e o f c o n f u s i o n .

A m o r e c l ea r - cu t d i s t in c t i o n b e t w een s i g n if y in g an d r e f e r ri n g i s p o s i t ed

b y A n s e l m o f C an t er b u ry i n h is e G r a m m a t i c o w i t h t h e t h e o r y o f

a p p e l la t io n . B y e l a b o ra t in g u p o n A r i s t o tl e 's t h e o r y o f p a r o n y m s , A n s e l m

p u t s f o r th t h e i d e a t h a t w h e n w e c a ll a g iv e n p e r s o n a ' g r a m m a r i a n ' , w e

u s e t hi s w o r d p a r o n y m i ca l l y . T h e w o r d s till s i g n if ie s t h e q u a l i t y o f b e i n g

a g r am m ar i an , b u t is u s ed t o r e f e r t o a g iv en m an . Th u s f o r ' r e f e r en ce '

A n s e l m u s e s a p p e l l a t i o , a n d f o r ' m e a n i n g ' u s es s i g n i f ic a t i o ' ,.

S u ch a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w een s i g n i f i ca t i o n an d ap p e l l a t i o n ( o r n ami n g )

w i ll b e f o l lo w e d b y A b e l a r d .

S I G N I F I C A T I O D E N O T A T I O A P P E L L A T I O

I t h a s b e e n r e m a r k e d t h a t i n A b e l a r d t h e l o g i c a l t e r m i n o l o g y i s n o t

d e f i n i t e l y a s s e s s ed an d t h a t h e f r eq u en t l y u s e s t h e s ame t e r ms i n an

e q u i v o c a l s e n s e . N e v e r t h e l e s s A b e l a r d i s t h e f i r s t a u t h o r i n w h i c h t h e

d i s ti n c ti o n b e t w e e n t h e i n t e ns i o n al a n d e x t e n s i o n a l a s p e c t s o f s e m a n -

t ic s i s s u b s t an t i a l ly ( if n o t a l w ay s t e r mi n o l o g i ca l l y ) p o s i t ed w i t h a g r ea t

ca r e . I t is t r u e t h a t h e s p ea k s i n d if f e r en t ly o f s i g n i f ica t i o d e r eb u s

an d s i g n i fi ca t io d e i n t e l l e c t i b u s , b u t it i s eq u a l l y t r u e t h a t f o r h i m

t h e p r i m ar y s en s e o f s i g n i f i ca t io is an i n t en s i o n a l o n e , o n t h e

A u g u s t i n ia n l in e o f t h o u g h t - w h e r e s i g n if i c a r e is c o n s t i t u e r e o r

g e n e r a r e a c o n c e p t o f t h e m i n d.

A b e l a r d i n

I n g r e d i e n t i b u s

( G e y e r , p . 3 0 7 ) m a k e s c l e a r t h a t t h e

i n t e l l e c t u a l p l a n e i s t h e n e c e s s a r y i n t e r m e d i a r y b e t w e e n t h i n g s a n d

co n cep t s . N o t o n l y i s t h e 's i g n if i ca ti o i n t e l l e c t u u m ' a p r i v i l ed g e d

' s i g n i f i ca t i o ' , b u t i t i s a l s o t h e o n l y l eg i t i ma t e s eman t i c f u n c t i o n o f a

n o u n , t h e o n l y f u n c t i o n w h i ch a d ia l ec t i c ian s h o u l d b ea r in m i n d i n

e x a m i n i n g s p e e c h ( B e o n i o - B r o c c h i e r i , 1 9 6 9 , p . 3 1 ).

B y c o n s i d e r i n g v a r i o u s c o n t e x t s in w h i c h s u c h t e r m s a s s i g n if ic a r e ,

d e s i g n a r e , d e n o t a r e , n o m i n a r e , a p p e l l a r e c o n f r o n t e a c h o t h e r , o n e

can ma i n t a i n th a t A b e l a r d is u s i n g s i g n i f i ca r e t o r e f e r t o t h e


6/20


i n t e l l ec tus g e n e r a t e d in t h e m i n d o f t h e h e a r e r , n o m i n a r e f o r t h e

r e f e r e n ti a l f u n c t i o n , a n d - a t le a s t i n s o m e p a g e s o f Dia l e c t i c a , b u t

w i t h u n m i s t a k e a b l e c l a ri ty - d e s i g n a r e a n d d e n o t a r e f o r t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e w o r d a n d h i s d e f i n i t i o n o r s en t en t i a ( t he

s en t en t i a ,

o r s e n s e , b e i n g a n ' e n c y c l o p e d i c a l ' m e a n i n g , o f w h i c h t h e

d e f i n i t i o n r ep r e s en t s a p a r t i cu l a r ' d i c t i o n a r y - l i k e ' s e l ec t i o n , p r o v i d ed

for the purp oses o f a given act of disambiguation). In

Dialec t ica

(p.

5 9 4 ) i t i s c l ea r th a t a n am e is d e t e r m i n a t i v u m o f a l l t h e p o s s i b l e

d i f fe r e n c e s o f s o m e t h i n g , a n d b y h e a ri n g t h e n a m e w e c a n u n d e r s t a n d

( i n t e l l i g e r e ) a l l o f t h em ; t h e

s en t en t i a

( s en s e ) co n t a i n s a l l t h o s e

d i f f e r e n c e s a n d t h e de f in i t i o p o s i t s o n l y t h o s e w h o a r e u s e f u l i n

d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s e n s e o f a n a m e i n a s e n t e n c e w i t h o u t a m b i g u i t i e s .

S u c h a n i n t e r p re t a t i o n is n o t u n i v e r s a ll y a c c e p t e d . D e R i j k ( 1 9 7 0 ,

L I V ) s a y s t h a t f o r A b e l a r d d e s i g n a t i o n is t h e s e m a n t i c r e l a ti o n

b e t w e e n a t e r m a n d i t s e x t ra - li n g u is t ic o b j e c t , a n d N u c h e l m a n s

( 1 9 7 3, p . 1 4 0 ) e q u a t e s d e n o t a r e w i th n o m i n a r e . I n f a c t m a n y

q u o t a t i o n s i n

Dia l e c t i c a

s e e m t o s u p p o r t h i s a s s u m p t io n . ( S e e f o r

i n s ta n c e p . 11 9 , w h e r e A b e l a r d s e e m s t o u s e d e s i g n a r e f o r t h e f ir st

i m p o s i t io n o f n a m e s u p o n t h in g s ( i n te n d e d a s a s o r t o f b a p t i s m a l

c e r e m o n y i n w h i c h t h e r e i s a r i g i d d e s i g n a t i v e l i n k b e t w e e n t h e n a m e r

a n d t h e th i n g n a m e d ) ; a ls o p . 1 1 4 : a d r e s d e s i g n a n d a s i m p o s i t e .)

B u t i t i s a l s o t r u e t h a t i n o t h e r p ag es ( f o r i n s t an ce , p . 1 2 3 ) d e s i g -

n a r e a n d d e n o t a r e s e e m n o t t o h a v e t h e s a m e m e a n i n g , a n d o n p .

9 7 an d p . 1 2 1 d e s i g n a r e s u g g es t s an i n t en s i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

A r g u i n g w i t h t h o s e w h o a s s u m e d t h a t t h e t h i n g s t o w h i c h t h e v o x h as

b e e n i m p o s e d a r e d i r e c t l y s i g n i f i e d b y t h a t

v o x ,

A b e l a r d s t r e s s e s t h e

f a c t t h a t w o r d s d o n o t s ig n i fy e v e r y t h i n g t h e y c a n n a m e b u t o n l y w h a t

t h e y d e s i g n a t e , t h a t i s, th o s e t h i n g s t h a t a r e d e n o t e d b y t h e v o i c e a n d

a r e c o n t a i n e d i n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e n s e

Dia lec t i ca ,

p p . 1 1 2 - 1 3 ) .

W o r d s s i g n if y w h a t t h ey d es i g n a t e b y a d e f i n it io n , a s an i m a l s i gn i fi e s

a s e n s it iv e a n i m a t e s u b s t a n c e , a n d t h is i s e x a c t l y w h a t i s d e n o t e d b y

( o r i n ) t h e w o r d . L i k ew i s e , s i g n i f i ca t i o n h as n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h n ami n g

b e c a u s e t h e f o r m e r r e m a i n s n o m i n a t i s r e b u s d e s t r u c t i s , s o t h a t it is

p o s s i b le t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e m e a n i n g o f n u l l a ro s a e s t

I ng r ed i en t i bu s ,

p . 3 0 9 ). T h u s w e c a n s a y t h a t fo r A b e l a r d a

v o x

s ign i f i es a s t a t e o f t he

m i n d , d e s i g n a t e s o r d e n o t e s a s e n s e , a n d n a m e s a t h i n g o r a s t a t e

o f t he wor ld .

The same mtensional t rend i s fo l lowed by Aquinas who remains


7/20

M E N I N G N D D EN O T TI O N

5 5 5

abso lu te ly fa i th fu l t o the pos i t ion o f Ar i s to t le . In h is comm enta ry o f

D e

interpretat ione h e u s e s s i g n i f i c a r e f o r n o u n s a n d v e r b s ( I, I I , 1 4 ) a s

w e l l a s f o r t h e s e v o i c e s t h a t m e a n n a t u r a l l y , s u c h a s t h e w a il o f i n fi r m s

a n d t h e s o u n d s e m i t t e d b y a n i m a l s , a n d m a k e s c l e a r t h a t b y

s i g n i f i c a t i o h e m e a n s a n i n t e n s io n a l p h e n o m e n o n . A n a m e si g ni fi es

i t s d e f i n i t i o n ( I , I I , 2 0 ) . I t i s t r u e t h a t w h e n s p e a k i n g o f c o m p o s i t i o n

a n d d i v i s i o n , t h a t i s , o f a f f i rm a t i o n a n d n e g a t i o n , h e s a y s t h a t t h e

f o r m e r s i g n i f i c a t . . . . c o n i u n c t i o n e m a n d t h e l a t t e r s i g n i f ic a t . . .

r e r u m s e p a r a t i o n e m ( I, I I I , 2 6 ), b u t i t i s c l e a r t h a t e v e n a t th i s p o i n t ,

w h a t i s ' m e a n t ' i s a n o p e r a t i o n o f t h e i n t e l l e c t ( i n t e l l e c t u s d i c i t u r

v e r u m s e c u n d u m q u o d c o n f o r m a t u r r e i , I , I I I 2 8 ) . A n e x p r e s s i o n i s

n e i t h e r t r u e n o r f a l s e , i t i s o n l y t h e s ig n w h i c h s i g n i f i c a t a t r u e o r fa l s e

o p e r a t i o n o f t h e i n te l le c t : u n d e h a e c v o x , 'h o m o e s t a s i n u s' , e s t v e r e

v o x e t v e r e s i g n u m ; s e d q u i a e s t s i g n u m f a ls i , i d e o d i c i t u r f a l s a ( I, I I I ,

3 1 ). N a m e s s i g n i f y s i m p l e c o n c e p t s o f c o m p o s i t e t h i n g s ( I, I I I , 34 ) .

S i g n i f i c a t io n is s o f a r f r o m r e f e r e n c e t h a t , w h e n a v e r b i s u s e d i n a

s e n t e n c e ( sa y , T h i s m a n i s w h i t e ) t h e v e r b d o e s n o t s ig n i f y a s t a te o f

a f f a ir s b u t a t m o s t is t h e s i g n ( in th e s e n s e o f s y m p t o m ) t h a t s o m e t h i n g

i s p r e d i c a t e d o f s o m e t h i n g e l s e a n d t h a t , a t t h e e n d , a s t a t e o f a f f a i r s i s

i n s o m e w a y i n d i c a t e d ( I, V , 6 0 ) . ( A r i s t o t le ) h a d s ai d t h a t t h e w o r d

d o e s n o t s i g n i fy w h e t h e r s o m e t h i n g i s o r i s n o t t h e c a s e , f o r n o w o r d

s i g n if i es t h e b e i n g o r th e n o n - b e i n g o f a t h i n g ( I, V , 6 9 ) . T h e v e r b

e s t s ign i f ies t h e compo s i t i o t h a t i s t h e p r e d i c a t i o n o f a p r e d i c a t e a

p r o p o s o f a s u b j e c t ( I , V I , 7 5 ) .

A s f o r d e n o t a r e i n a ll i ts f o r m s , t h is t e r m r e c u r s 1 0 5 t i m e s i n t h e

t o m i s t ic le x i c o n (p lu s 2 i n s ta n c e s o f d e n o t a t i o ) . E v e n a c u r s o r y

p r o b i n g s u g g e s t s t h a t A q u i n a s n e v e r u s e d i t i n th e s t r o n g e x t e n s i o n a l

s e n s e , t h a t is , h e n e v e r u s e d i t t o s a y t h a t a g i v e n p r o p o s i t i o n d e n o t e s a

s t a t e o f a f fa i rs o r t h a t a t e r m d e n o t e s a t h i n g . D e n o t a r e is a l w a y s

u s e d i n a w e a k s e n s e .

I t i s c l e a r t h a t s u c h a u t h o r s a s B o e t h i u s , A b e l a r d o r A q u i n a s , t i e d t o

t h e p r o b l e m o f s ig n i fi c a ti o n m o r e t h a n t o t h e o n e o f a p p e l la t io n , w e r e

m a i n l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d o n t o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f

l a n g u a g e . W e w o u l d s a y t o d a y t h a t t h e i r s e m a n t i c s w a s o r i e n t e d

t o w a r d a cogn i t i ve a p p r o a c h . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o r e m a r k h o w c e r t a i n

m o d e r n s c h o l a r s , i n t e r e s t e d i n r e d i s c o v e r i n g t h e f i r s t m e d i e v a l m a n i -

f e s t a t i o n o f a m o d e r n t r u t h c o n d i t i o n a l s e m a n t i c s , f i n d t h e w h o l e

b u s i n e s s o f s ig n i f i c a t io n a v e r y e m b a r r a s s i n g o n e , w h i c h d i s t u r b s t h e

p u r i t y o f t h e e x t e n s i o n a l a p p r o a c h , s u c h a s i t i s d e f i n i t e l y s e t t l e d b y t h e


8/20

6 U M B E R T O E C O

t h eo r y o f s u p p o s i t i o n . F o r i n s t an ce , d e R i j k ( 1 9 6 7 , p . 2 0 6 ) s ay s t h a t i n

A b e l a r d t h e n o n - l o g i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w s e e m s t o p r e v a i l a n d t h e t e r m

i m p o s i t i o m o s t l y s t a n d s f o r prima intentio: i t i s r a r e l y f o u n d t o

d e n o t e s o m e a c t u a l i m p o s i t i o n i n t h i s o r t h a t s e n t e n c e p r o n o u n c e d b y

s o m e a c t u a l s p e a k e r . W h e n e v e n t h e voces a r e s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e res

t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e

intellectus

b r i n g s t h e a u t h o r t o t h e d o m a i n o f

p s y c h o l o g y o r c o n f i n e s h im t o t h a t o f o n t o l o g y , s i n c e t h e

intellectus

a r e s a i d t o r e f e r , i n t h e ir t u r n , t o r ea li t y . H i s t h eo r y o f p r ed i ca t i o n , t o o ,

s e e m s to s u f fe r f r o m t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f s o m e n o n - l o g i c a l p o i n t o f

v i e w . D e R i j k ( 1 9 8 2 , p . 1 7 3 ) a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t m e d i e v a l l o g i c i a n s

w o u l d h a v e d o n e a b e t t e r j o b . . . [ if ] t h e y h a d a b a n d o n e d t he ir n o ti o n

o f s ig n i f ica t i o n in i ts e l f . Th i s me an s t o a s k me d i ev a l p h i l o s o p h e r s

( w h o w e r e n o t p u r e l o g i c ia n s i n th e m o d e r n s e n s e o f t h e w o r d ) t o h a v e

d o n e a

different

j o b . T h e k i n d o f j o b t h e s u p p o r t e r s o f a n e x t e n s i o n a l

a p p r o a c h a r e l o o k i n g f o r is t h e o n e p e r f o r m e d b y t h e t h e o r e t ic i a n s o f

suppos i t iones .

T H E E X T E N S I O N A L A P P R O A C H

I n i ts m o r e m a t u r e f o r m u l a t i o n , t h e s u p p o s i t io n i s t h e r o le p l a y e d b y a

t e r m , w h en i n s e r t ed i n t o a p r o p o s i t i o n , i n o r d e r t o r e f e r t o ex t r a -

l in g u i s ti c t h in g s . F r o m t h e f ir s t v a g u e n o t io n s o f s u p p o s i t u m t o t h e

m o s t e l a b o r a t e t h e o r ie s , s u c h a s th e o n e o f O c k h a m , t h e w a y w a s a

l o n g o n e , an d t h e r e i s a co n s i s t en t l i t e r a t u r e o n t h i s t o p i c ( s ee d e R i j k

1 9 6 7 an d 1 9 8 2 ) .

W i t h t h e t h e o r y o f s u p p o s i t i o n t h e c o g n i t i v e a p p r o a c h w a s o v e r -

w h e l m e d b y t h e e x te n s i o n a l o n e : i n th e la t e r s t a g e s a t e r m ' s a c t u a l

m e a n i n g w a s t h e f o c u s o f i n t e r e s t a n d r e f e r e n c e a n d d e n o t a t i o n w a s

f a r m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e m o r e a b s t r a c t n o t i o n o f s ig n if ic a ti o n.

W h a t is p r i m a r il y m e a n t b y a t e r m is t h e c o n c r e t e i n d iv i d u a l o b j e c t t h e

t e r m c a n b e c o r r e c t l y a p p l i e d t o ( d e R i j k , 1 9 8 2 , p . 1 6 7 ).

N e v e r t h e l e s s t hi s n e w a t t i tu d e is n o t f r e q u e n t l y e x p r e s s e d b y s u c h

t e r m s a s d e n o t a t i o , w h i c h k e e p s g o i n g v e r y in d e t e r m i n a t e i n i ts

s c o p e . F o r i n s ta n c e , P e t e r o f S p a i n u s e s d e n o t a r i i n S u m m u l a e

Log ica les ( V I I , 68 ) w h e r e h e s a ys t h a t i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n s e d e n t e m

p o s s i b il e e s t a m b u l a r e w h a t is d e n o t e d i s n o t th e c o n c o m i t a n c e

b e t w e e n ' t o s it ' a n d ' to w a l k ' b u t r a th e r t h e c o n c o m i t a n c e b e t w e e n

' b e i n g s e a t e d ' a n d ' h a v i n g t h e p o s s i b il it y ( ' p o te n t i a ') o f w a l k i n g '. O n c e

ag a i n i t is d i f fi cu lt t o t e l l w h e t h e r d e n o t a r e h a s an i n t en s i o n a l o r an


9/20


5 5 7

e x t e n s i o n a l f u n c t io n . M o r e o v e r P e t e r a l so t a k e s s i g n i fi c a r e i n a v e r y

b r o a d s e n s e , s i n c e S u m m u l a e V I , 2 ) ~ ' s i g n i f i ca t i o t e r mi n i , p r o u t h i c

s u m i t u r , e s t r e i p e r v o c e m s e c u n d u m p l a c i tu m r e p r e s e n t a t i o a n d it i s

u n d e t e r m i n e d w h e t h e r t h i s

res

o u g h t t o b e an i n v i d i d u a l t h i n g o r a

u n i v e r s a l n a t u r e ( d e R i j k , 1 9 8 2 , p . 1 6 9 ) . P e t e r i mp l emen t s a c l ea r

e x t e n s i o n a l t h e o r y w h e r e h i s n o t i o n o f

suppositio

i s d i s t i n g u i s h ed f r o m

s i g n i f i ca t i o n ( s ee a l s o P o n z i o , p p . 1 3 4 - 3 5 , w i t h an i n t e r e s t i n g

r e f e r e n c e t o P e i r c e , 5 . 3 2 0 ) .

H o w e v e r in P e t e r ' s t h e o r y t h e r e i s a d i f f er e n c e b e t w e e n e x t e n s io n -

a l ly s t an d i n g f o r a c l a s s an d ex t en s i o n a l l y s tan d i n g f o r an i n d iv i d u a l. In

t h e f i r s t c a s e w e h a v e a n a t u r a l s u p p o s i t i o n , i n t h e s e c o n d c a s e a n

a c c i d e n t a l o n e ( p. 4) . In t h e s a m e v e i n P e t e r d i s t in g u i sh e s b e t w e e n

s u p p o s i t i o a n d a p p e l l a t i o : w e c a n a p p e l l a r e ( to r e f e r t o ) o n l y a n

ex i s t i n g t h i n g w h i l e w e can s i g n i f y an d s u p p o s e f o r b o t h ex i s t i n g an d

unex i s t i ng t h ings (X, 1 ) .

D e R i j k s ay s ( p . 1 6 9 ) t h a t P e t e r ' s n a t u r a l s u p p o s i t i o n is r ea l l y t h e

d e n o t a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t o f s ig n i fi c a ti o n . B u t , i f d e n o t a t i o n is ta k e n -

in th e c o n t e m p o r a r y s e n s e - a s t h e fu n c t i o n p e r f o r m e d b y a p r o p e r

n ame p o i n t i n g t o w ar d s a s i n g l e o b j ec t , t h en P e t e r ' s s u p p o s i t i o n i s s t i l l

l a r g e r i n i ts s co p e . H o m o s ig n i fi e s a ce r t a i n u n i v e r s a l n a t u r e an d

s u p p o n i t n a t u r a l l y fo r a ll t h e ( p o s s ib l y ) ex i s ti n g men o r f o r t h e c la s s

o f m e n , a n d a c c i d e n t a l ly f o r a n i n d i vi d u a l m a n .

O n e c a n s a y t h a t h is t e rm i n o l o g i c a l l a n d s c a p e is p r e t t y c o n f u s e d

s i n c e s i g n i f i c a ti o s t a n d s b o t h f o r ' m e a n i n g ' a n d f o r t h e re f e r e n c e t o a

c l a s s; s u p p o s i t i o n a t u r a l i s s t an d s f o r a c l a s s ; s u p p o s i t i o acc i d en -

t a l is s t an d s f o r an i n d i v id u a l , a l o n g w i t h ap p e l l a t i o an d n o m i n a -

t io ; w h i le d e n o t a t i o a n d d e s i g n a t io a r e u s e d in a n e v e n m o r e

i n d e t e r m i n a t e w a y .

T h e r e i s a f i r s t r a d i c a l c h a n g e w i t h W i l l i a m o f S h e r w o o d w h o

u n l i k e P e t e r a n d t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y l o g ic i a n s . . .

i d en t if ie s a t e r m ' s s i g n i f ica t i v e ch a r ac t e r w i t h it s r e f e r r i n g s o l e l y t o

ac tua l ly ex i s t i ng t h ing s (de R i jk , 1982 , pp . 170--71).

T h i s w i l l b e t h e p o s i t i o n o f R o g e r B a c o n .

T H E T U R N I N G PO I N T B E T W E E N B A C O N A N D O C K H A M

In

D e s ignis .

B ac o n u s e s s i g n i f ica r e , s i g n if i cat io , s i g n i f i ca t u m i n a

s en s e t h a t i s r ad i ca l l y d i f f e r en t f r o m t h e t r ad i t i o n a l o n e .

I n D S I I, 2 h e s a y s t h a t s i g n u m a u t e m e s t i ll ud q u o d o b l a t u m


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8 U M B E R T O E C O

s en s u i v e l i n t e l l e c t u i a l i q u i d d e s i g n a t i p s i i n t e l l e c t u i . A p p a r en t l y t h e

B a c o n i a n d e s i g n a t s t a n d s f o r t h e A u g u s t i n i a n f a c i e n s i n c o g -

i tat ionem veni re

De doctrina christ iana

I , 1, 1). Ho we ver, for

A u g u s t i n e t h e s ig n p r o d u c e s s o m e t h i n g i n t h e m i n d , w h i l e f o r B a c o n a

s ign

s h o w s

s o m e t h i n g ( p r o b a b l y o u t s id e t h e m i n d )

to

t h e mi n d .

F o r B a c o n s i g n s a r e n o t r e f e r r e d t o t h e i r r e f e r e n t t h r o u g h t h e

m e d i a t i o n o f a m e n t a l s p e c i e s , b u t p o i n t d i r e c t l y o r a r e p o s i t e d i n

o r d e r t o r e f e r i m m e d i a t e l y t o a n o b j e c t . I t d o e s n o t m a t t e r w h e t h e r

t h i s o b j ec t i s an i n d i v i d u a l ( a co n c r e t e t h i n g ) , a s p ec i e s , a f ee l i n g , o r a

p a s s i o n o f t h e s o u l . W h a t c o u n t s i s t h a t b e t w e e n a s i g n a n d t h e n a m e d

o b j e c t

th e re i s n o m e n t a l m e d i a t i o n .

T h u s B a c o n u s e s s i g n i fi c a r e

in a

m e r e e x t e n s i o n a l s e n s e .

I n h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f s i g n s B aco n h ad d i s t i n g u i s h ed n a t u r a l s i g n s

( o r p h y s i c a l s y m p t o m s , s u c h a s t h e S t o i c

s e m e M ,

o r a s i co n s - w h i ch

r e f e r d i r ec t l y b y a s o r t o f n a t u r a l v i r t u e t o t h e o b j ec t s t h ey a r e l i k e )

f r o m s i g ns o r d i n a t e a b a n i m a e t e x i n t e n t io n e a n i m a e , t h a t is ,

p r o d u c e d f o r s o m e p u r p o s e b y a liv in g b e in g . A m o n g t h e s i g n a

o r d i n a t a a b a n i m a s t a n d w o r d s a n d o t h e r c o n v e n t i o n a l v i s u a l s i g n s ,

s u c h a s t h e c i r cu l us v i n i u s e d a s a n e m b l e m f o r t a v e r n s , a n d e v e n

c o m m o d i t i e s e x p o s e d i n w i n d o w s , i n s o f a r a s t h e y m e a n t h a t o t h e r

m e m b e r s o f t h e c l a s s t o w h i c h t h e y b e l o n g a r e s o l d i n s i d e t h e s h o p .

I n a ll t h e s e c a s e s B a c o n s p e a k s o f i m p o s i t i o , t h a t is , o f a c o n -

v e n t i o n a l a c t b y w h i c h a g i v e n e n t i ty

i s a p p o i n t e d t o n a m e

s o m e t h i n g

e l se . I t is c le a r t h a t c o n v e n t i o n f o r B a c o n is n o t t h e s a m e a s a r b i tr a r i-

n e ss : c o m m o d i t ie s e x p o s e d i n a w i n d o w a r e c h o s e n c o n v e n t i o n a ll y b u t

n o t a r b i t r a r i l y ( t h e y a c t a s a s o r t o f m e t o n i m y , t h e m e m b e r f o r t h e

c l a s s ) . L i k ew i s e t h e c i r cu l us v i n i i s a p p o i n t e d a s a s i g n c o n v e n t i o n a l l y

b u t n o t a r b i t r a r i l y , s i n ce i n f ac t t h e c i r c l e i s a b a r r e l - h o o p , an d t h u s i t

a c ts s y n e c d o c h i c a ll y a n d m e t o n i m i c a l l y a t t h e s a m e t im e , a n d

r e p r e s e n t s a p a r t o f th e b a r r e l w h i c h is t h e c o n t a i n e r o f t h e w i n e r e a d y

t o b e s o ld . H o w e v e r in D e s i g n i s m o s t o f th e e x a m p l e s a r e d r a w n f r o m

v o c a l l a n g u a g e a n d i t w i ll b e b e t t e r t o f o ll o w B a c o n ' s t r ai n o f t h o u g h t s

b y re m a i n in g t ie d t o th is p a r a m o u n t e x a m p l e o f c o n v e n t i o n a l ( a n d

a r b i tr a r y ) s i g n s. B a c o n is n o t s o n a i v e t o s a y t h a t w o r d s o n l y m e a n

i n d iv i d u a l a n d p h y s i c a l t hi n gs . H e s a y s th a t t h e y n a m e o b j e c t s b u t

t h e s e o b j e c t s c a n a l s o b e i n t h e m i n d . S i g ns c a n a l s o n a m e n o n -

en t i ti e s , n o n en t i a s i cu t i n fi n it u m, v acu u m , e t ch i m ae r a , i p s u m n i chi l

s i v e p u r e n o n e n s ( D S , I I, 2, 1 9 ; b u t s ee a l so I I , 3 , 2 7 an d V , 1 6 2 ) .

T h i s m e a n s t h a t, e v e n w h e n w o r d s s ig n i fy s p e c i e s, t h e y d o s o b y


11/20


5 5 9

p o i n t i n g e x t e n s i o n a U y t o a c l as s o f m e n t a l o b j e c t s . B u t w h e n , t o n a m e

a s p ec i es , w e u s e a n a m e p r e v i o u s l y u s e d to n a m e t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g

t h i n g , t h e n w e h a v e a n i n s t a n c e o f

s e c o n d i m p o s i t i o n .

I n a n y c a s e t h e

r e l a ti o n s h i p i s a n e x t e n s i o n a l o n e a n d t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f t h e r e f e r e n c e

is g u a r a n t e e d o n l y b y t h e a c t u a l p r e s e n c e o f t h e s i g n if ie d o b j e c t ( b e it

a p h y s i c a l o r a m e n t a l o n e ) . A w o r d s i g n if i es t r u l y if a n d o n l y i f t h e

o b j e c t i t s i g n i f i e s

i s t h e c a s e .

B a c o n ( D S I , 1 ) d o e s n o t s a y t h a t, if t h e r e

i s t h e s i g n , t h e n t h e r e m u s t n e c e s s a r i l y b e t h e t h i n g , s i n c e w o r d s c a n

s i g n if y b o t h e n t it ie s a n d n o n - e n t i ti e s . H o w e v e r h e is n o t s u g g e s t i n g , a s

A b e l a r d d i d , t h a t t h e e x p r e s s i o n n u l l a r o s a e s t s ti ll s i g n if i es s o m e -

t h i n g b e c a u s e i t

m e a n s

t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e t h i n g ( e v e n t h o u g h t h e

t h i n g d i d n o t e x i s t o r h a d c e a s e d t o e x i s t ) . F o r B a c o n w h e n o n e s a y s

t h e r e is a r o s e a n d t h e r e is n o r o se , t h e n t h e w o r d

r o s e

( w h i c h

c a n n o t r e f e r t o t h e a c t u a l r o s e ) i n s t e a d o f m e a n i n g t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g

c o n c e p t , r e f e rs - a s t o a n o b j e c t - t o t h e i m a g e o f th e s u p p o s e d r o s e

t h a t t h e u t t e r e r h a s i n hi s m i n d . T h e r e a r e t w o d i f f e r e n t r e f e r e n t s a n d

i n f a c t t h e s a m e s o u n d

r o s e

i s a t o k e n o f t w o d i f f e r e n t le x i c a l ty p e s . T o

u s e , in o r d e r t o n a m e a s p e c i e s (o r a n y o t h e r m e n t a l p as s i o n ), t h e s a m e

e x p r e s s io n p r e v i o u s l y u s e d t o n a m e t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n t t h i n g , o n e m u s t

i m p l e m e n t a

s e c o n d i m p o s i t i o

( D S , V , 1 6 2) . W h e n o n e s a y s h o m o

c u r r i t o n e d o e s n o t u s e t h e w o r d

h o m o

i n t h e s a m e s e n s e o f t h e

e x p r e s s io n h o m o e s t a n i m a l . T h e s e a r e tw o e q u i v o c a l w a y s t o u s e

t h e s a m e e x p r e s si o n . W h e n a c u s t o m e r s e e s th e c i r c le t h a t i n a ta v e r n

a d v e r t i z e s t h e w i n e , i f t h e r e i s w i n e t h e c i r c l e s i g n if i es th e a c t u a l w i n e .

I f t h e r e i s n o w i n e a n d t h e c u s t o m e r i s d e c e i v e d b y a s i g n w h i c h r e f e r s

t o s o m e t h i n g w h i c h i s n o t t h e c a s e , t h e n t h e r e f e r e n t o f t h e s i g n is th e

i d e a o r i m a g e o f w i n e w h i c h t o o k f o r m ( e r r o n e o u s l y ) i n t h e m i n d o f

t h e c u s t o m e r . F o r t h o s e w h o k n o w t h a t t h e r e i s n o w i n e t h e c i rc l e h as

l o s t it s s i g n i f i c a n c e . W h e n w e s a y t h a t S o c r a t e s i s d e a d , t h e e x p r e s s i o n

S o c r a t e s

is u s e d e q u i v o c a l l y i n r e s p e c t t o t h e s e n s e i t h a d w h e n

S o c r a t e s w a s a l iv e (D S , I V , 2 , 1 47 ) . C o r r u p t a r e c u i f a c t a e s t

i m p o s i t i o , n o n r e m a n e b i t v o x s i g n i f i c a t i v a ( D S , I V , 2 , 1 4 7 ). T h e

l in g u i s ti c t e r m r e m a i n s a s m e r e s u b s t a n c e d e p r i v e d o f th e ' r a ti o ' , o r o f

t h e s e m a n t i c c o r r e l a t i o n t h a t m a d e a w o r d o f t h i s m a t e r i a l t o k e n . I n

t h e s a m e s e n s e , w h e n t h e s o n d i e s w h a t r e m a i n s o f t h e f a t h e r i s

s u b s t a n t i a , b u t n o t t h e r e l a t i o p a t e r n i t a t i s ( D S I , 1 , 3 8 ). B a c o n

d e f i n it e l y d e s t r o y s t h e s e m i o t i c t r ia n g l e t h a t w a s f o r m u l a t e d s i n ce

P l a t o , b y w h i c h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n w o r d s a n d r e f e r e n t s i s

m e d i a t e d b y t h e i d e a , o r t h e c o n c e p t , o r t h e d e f i n it i o n . W i t h B a c o n t h e


12/20


l e f t s i d e o f t h e t r i an g l e ( t h a t is , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w ee n w o r d s an d

m e a n i n g s ) is r e d u c e d t o a m e r e s y m p t o m a t i c p h e n o m e n o n .

B a c o n w a s a b l e t o r e a d A r i s t o t l e i n G r e e k a n d r e a l i z e d t h a t

B o e t h i u s , b y u s i ng t w i c e t h e t e r m n o t a , d i s re g a r d e d t h e f a c t t h a t,

f o r A r i s t o t le , w o r d s w e r e f ir s t o f a l l o r p r i m a r i l y ( s ee K r e t z m a n n ,

1 9 7 4 ) s y m p t o m s o f t h e p a s s i o n s o f t h e s o u l . T h u s ( D S , V , 1 6 6 ) h e

i n t e r p r e t s t h e A r i s t o t e l i an p a s s ag e acco r d i n g t o h i s p e r s o n a l p o s i t i o n :

w o r d s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y i n a s y m p t o m a t i c r e l a t i o n w i t h s p e c i e s a n d a t

m o s t t h e y c a n s i gn i fy t h e m o n l y v i c a r io u s l y ( b y a s e c o n d

impositio).

T h e v e r y r e l a ti o n o f s ig n i fi c a ti o n is th e o n e b e t w e e n w o r d s a n d t h in g s .

H e d i s r e g a r d s t h e f a c t t h a t f o r A r i s t o tl e w o r d s , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y w e r e

s y m p t o m s o f t h e m e n t a l p a s s i o n s , a l s o

signify

t h e m , t o s u c h a n e x t e n t

t h a t w e c a n u n d e r s t a n d t h e n a m e d th i n gs o n l y t h r o u g h t h e m e d i a t i o n

o f t h e u n d e r s t o o d s p e c i e s . F o r A r i s t o t l e - a n d f o r t h e m e d i e v a l

t r ad i t i o n b e f o r e B ac o n - ex t en s i o n w as s ti ll a f u n c t i o n o f i n t en s i o n .

F o r B a c o n t h e o n l y s i g n i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e m e n t i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e

r e f e r en t i s t h e ca s e .

I t is t h u s c l e a r w h y in h is t e r m i n o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k t h e s e n s e o f

s i g n if ic a t io u n d e r g o e s a r a d ic a l c h a n g e . B e f o r e B a c o n n o m i n a n t u r

s i n g u l a r ia s e d u n i v e r s a l i a s i g n i fi can t u r , w i t h B a co n s i g n i f i can t u r

s i n g u l a ri a , o r a t l e a s t s i g n i f ic a n t u r r e s ( e v en th o u g h a r e s c a n

a l so be a c l ass , a f ee l i ng , a spec i es ) .

D u n s S c o t u s s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n m o r e i m p r e c i s e o n th is m a t te r . O n

o n e s i d e h e s a y s t h a t w o r d s a r e s i g n s o f t h e t h i n g a n d n o t o f t h e

c o n c e p t

(Ordinatio

I , 2 7 , 1 ; s ee a l s o N u ch e l m an s , 1 9 7 3 , p . 1 9 6 ) , o n

the o th er s i de he says t ha t t o s ign i fy i s : a licu jus i n t e l l e c tu m c on -

s t i t u e r e (Quae stiones in Periherm eneia I I , 5 4 1 a ) . H e i d e g g e r ( 1 9 1 6 , i n

t h e r e l i a b le f ir st p a r t o f h is b o o k , d e v o t e d t o t h e ' r e a l ' S c o t u s a n d n o t

t o T h o m a s o f E r fu r t ) s a y s th a t S c o t u s is v e r y c l o s e to a

p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l v i e w o f m e a n i n g a s a m e n t a l o b j e c t . O t h e r s c h o l ar s

c o n f e s s t h e i r p e r p l e x it y . B o e h n e r ( 1 9 5 8 , p . 2 1 9 ) s a y s t h a t S c o t u s

a l r ead y b r o k e w i t h t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f A r i s t o t l e ' s t ex t , ma i n t a i n i n g

t h a t t h e s i gn i fi c a te o f t h e w o r d , g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , i s n o t t h e c o n c e p t

b u t t h e t h i n g , b u t i n f o o t n o t e 2 9 a d d s t h a t a s t u d e n t o f h i m , J o h n B .

V o g e l , d i s c o , e r e d a c o n s i d e r a b le d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n t h e tr e a t m e n t

o f t h i s p r o b l e m i n t h e Oxoniense a n d t h e Quaestiones in Peri-

hermeneias opus primum

a n d

secu n d u m .

( F o r a m o r e d e c i s i v e i n -

t e n s io n a l is t ic i n t e r p r e ta t i o n , s e e M a r m o , 1 9 8 1 - 8 2 a n d 1 9 8 4 .)

A s f a r a s O c k h a m i s c o n c e r n e d , i t h a s b e e n a r g u e d w h e t h e r t h e


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561

ex t en s i o n a l i s t t h eo ry o f Ock h am i s r ea l l y a s s t r a i g h t fo rward a s i t

s eem s . G i v en h is fo u r s en s es o f s i g n i f i ca re (STL I , x xx iii) , o n l y t h e

f i r s t o n e h as a c l ea r ex t en s i o n a l s en s e . On l y i n t h i s f i r s t s en s e t e rm s

l o o s e t h e i r s i g n if ic a t io n w h e n t h e o b j e c t t h e y s t a n d f o r d o e s n o t e x i st .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , e v e n i f O c k h a m u s e d s i g n i f ic a r e a n d d e n o t a r i a ls o

i n a n i n t e n s io n a l s e n s e ( s ee f o r s i g n i f ic a r e B o e h n e r , 1 9 58 a n d f o r

d e n o t a r i M a r m o , 1 9 8 4 ), it is e v i d e n t t h a t in m a n y p la c e s h e u s e d

t h e m i n a n e x t e n s io n a l c o n t e x t .

W i t h O c k h a m t h e s e m a n t i c t r i a n g l e a s s u m e s t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m a t :

t h e r e is a d i r e c t r e l a ti o n b e t w e e n c o n c e p t s a n d t h in g s , s in c e c o n c e p t s

a re t h e n a t u ra l s i g n s t h a t

s igni fy

th ings (STL I , x i i ) , and there i s a

d i r e c t r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n w o r d s a n d t h o s e t h i n g s t h e y a r e i m p o s e d t o

n a m e , w h i l e t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n w o r d s a n d c o n c e p t s i s d i s r e g a r d e d

(c f. Ta b a r r o n i , 1 9 8 4 ; c f . a l so B o e h n e r , 1 9 5 8 , p . 2 2 1 ). W o rd s s i g n i fy

t h e s a m e t h i n g s s i g n i f i e d b y c o n c e p t s , b u t d o n o t s i g n i f y c o n c e p t s

Summa to t ius log icae , I, i).

T h e r e a r e p e r s u a s i v e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f t h e f a c t t h a t O c k h a m a l s o

u s e d s i g n i f i c a r e i n a i n t en s i o n a l s e n s e ( B o e h n e r , 19 5 8 a n d M a r m o ,

1984 , wi th a d i scuss ion o f a l l these cases in which p ropos i t ions s t i l l

r e t a in t h e ir m e a n i n g i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e f a c t w h e t h e r t h e y a r e t r u e o r

f a ls e ). H o w e v e r , it i s c l e a r t h a t h e u s e d s u p p o n e r e i n a n e x t e n s i o n a l

s en s e , s i n ce t h e re is s u p p o s i ti o q u an d o t e rm i n u s s t a t i n p ro p o s i t i o n e

p r o a l i q u o ( S T L I , lx ii ). I t is e q u a l l y e v i d e n t t h a t O c k h a m r e p e a t e d l y

eq u a t e s s i g n i f i ca re ( in t h e f ir s t s en s e o f t h e t e rm , s ee ST L I , x xx iii)

w i t h s u p p o n e r e : a l i q u id si g ni fi c ar e , v e l s u p p o n e r e v e l s t a re p r o

a l iq uo ( lb ., I , iv ) . (See a l so P inb org , 1972 . )

No w, i t i s i n t h e co n t ex t o f t h e d i s cu s s i o n o n p ro p o s i t i o n s an d

s u p p o s it io n s t h a t O c k h a m u s e s t h e e x p r e s s io n d e n o t a r i . S e e f o r

i n s ta n c e : t e r m i n u s s u p p o n i t p r o il lo , d e q u o v e l d e p r o n o m i n e

d e m o n s t r a n t e i p s u m , p e r p r o p o s i t i o n e m d e n o t a t u r p r a e d i c a t u m

p raed i ca r i , si s u p p o n en s s i t s u b j ec t u m ( ib ., I , l x x ii ) . I f t h e t e rm i s t h e

s u b j e c t o f a p r o p o s i t i o n t h e n t h e t h i n g o f w h i c h t h e t e r m h a s t h e

s u p p o s i t i o is t h a t o f w h i c h th e p r o p o s it i o n d e n o t e s t h a t t h e p r e d i -

c a t e is p r e d i c a t e d .

I n h o m o e st a l b u s b o t h t e r m s s u p p o s e f o r t h e s a m e t h i n g a n d b y

t h e w h o l e p r o p o s i t io n i s denoted t h a t i t i s t h e ca s e t h a t t h e s am e t h i n g

i s b o t h m a n a n d w h i t e Exp. in Porph. I , l x x i i ) . B y t h e p ro p o s i t i o n a

s i g n i f i ca t u m i s d e n o t ed an d t h is s i g n i f i ca t u m is a s t a te o f a f fa i r s

Exposi t io aurea in Per iherm. , prooem.) .

L i k e w i s e , d e n o t a r i is u s e d


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15/20

M E N I N G N D D E N O T T I O N 5 6 3

r eas o n s t o t h i n k t h a t M i l l e l ab o r a t ed h i s

Sy s t e m o f L og ic

r e f e r r i n g t o

t h e o ck h ami s t i c t r ad i t i o n :

(i) E v e n t h o u g h p a y i n g a r e m a r k a b l e a t t e n ti o n t o t h e i n-

t e n s i o n a l a s p e c t s o f l a n g u a g e , M i l l d e v e l o p e d a t h e o r y o f

t h e d en o t a t i o n o f t e r ms i n a p r o p o s i t i o n w h i ch i s s i m i l a r t o

t h e o c k h a m i s t ic t h e o r y o f s u p p o s i ti o n . S e e f o r i n s ta n c e : a

n a m e c a n o n l y b e s a i d to s t a n d f o r, o r t o b e t h e n a m e o f ,

t h e th i n g o f w h i ch i t c an b e p r ed i c a t ed ( 1 8 4 3 , II , v ) .

( ii) M i l l b o r r o w s f r o m t h e S c h o o l m en ( a s h e s ay s i n I I , v ) t h e

t e r m c o n n o t a t i o n a n d , w h e n d i st in g u is h in g b e t w e e n

c o n n o t a t i v e a n d n o n - c o n n o t a t i v e t e rm s , h e s ay s t h a t th e

l a tt e r w e r e c a l l e d a b s o l u t e . G a r g a n i ( 1 9 7 1 , p . 9 5 ) t r a c e s

t h i s t e r m i n o l o g y b a c k t o t h e o c k h a m i s t i c d i s t i n c t i o n b e -

t w e e n c o n n o t a t i v e a n d a b s o l u t e t e r m s .

( iii) M i l l u s e s s i g n i f i ca r e i n t h e o ck h am i s t i c w a y , a t l e a s t w h en

i t is t a k e n i n O c k h a m f i rs t s e n s e . A n o n - c o n n o t a t i v e t e r m

i s o n e w h i ch s i g n i f i e s a s u b j ec t o n l y o r an a t t i t u d e o n l y . A

c o n n o t a t i v e t e r m i s o n e w h i c h d e n o t e s a s u b j e c t , a n d

i mp l i e s an a t t r i b u t e ( II , v ) . S i n ce t h e d en o t a t i v e f u n c t i o n

( in M i l l 's t e r ms ) i s f ir s t o f a ll p e r f o r m ed b y n o n - c o n n o t a t i v e

t e r ms , i t i s c l ea r t h a t M i l l eq u a t e s s i g n i f y w i t h d e n o t e .

S e e a ls o: t h e n a m e . . . i s s a id t o s ig n if y t h e s u b j e c t s

directly t h e a t t r i b u t e s indirectly; i t denotes t h e s u b j e c t s a n d

i mp l i e s , o r i n v o l v es , o r a s w e s h a l l s ay h en ce f o r t h , connotes

t h e a t t r i b u t e s . . . T h e o n l y n a m e s o f o b j e c t s w h i c h c o n n o t e

n o t h i n g a r e proper n am es , a n d t h e s e h av e , S t ri c tl y s p eak i n g ,

no s ign i f i ca t i on (v ).

( v) P r o b a b l y M i ll a c c e p t s d e n o t e a s a m o r e t e c h n i c a l t e r m ,

l es s p r e j u d i c e d t h a n s i g n i fy , b e c a u s e o f i ts e t y m o l o g i c a l

o p p o s i ti o n t o c o n n o t e .

N e v e r t h e l e s s w e h a v e s a id t h at O c k h a m a t m o s t in f lu e n c e d , b u t b y n o

m e a n s e n c o u r a g e d , t h e e x te n s io n a l u s e o f d e n o t a r e . W h e r e c a n w e

f in d , in t h i s h i s t o r y o f t h e n a t u r a l ev o l u t i o n o f a t e r m , t h e m i s si n g l i n k ?

P r o b a b l y w e s h o u l d l o o k a t H o b b e s ' De corpore I , b e t t e r k n o w n a s

Computatio s ive logica.

I t i s g e n e r a l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t H o b b e s

d e p e n d s o n O c k h a m a s w e l l a s M i l l d e p e n d s o n H o b b e s . A s a m a t t e r

o f f ac t M i l l o p en s h i s d i s cu s s i o n o n n ames w i t h a c l o s e ex ami n a t i o n o f

H o b b e s ' i de a s.


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56 U M E R T O E C O

We should however remark that Hobbes does follow Ockham as far

as the theories of universals and propositions are concerned, but he

develops a different theory of signification. For Hobbes there is a clear

cut distinction between signifying (that is, to express the speaker's

ideas in the course of an act of communication), and naming (in the

classical sense of appe llare or supponere - see Hungerland and

Vick, 1981).

Mill realizes that for Hobbes, names are, first of all, names of our

ideas about things, but he also finds in Hobbes evidence of the fact

that n ames .. . shall always be sp ok en .. , as the names of things

themselves (1843, II, i) , and that all names are names of something,

real or imagina ry.. .. A general name is familiarly defined, a name

which is capable of being truly affirmed, in the same sense, of each of

an indefinite number of things (II, iii). Mill is here close to Hobbes,

with the marginal difference that he calls genera l those names that

Hobbes called universal . ButMill uses signify - as we have seen -

not in the sense of Hobbes but in the sense of Ockham - and for

Hobbes' notion of significare he uses rather con note . Being

strongly intersted in connotation, and without realizing that his own

connotation is not so dissimilar from Hobbes' signification, Mill bel-

ieves Hobbes privileged naming (Mill's denotation) over signifying

(Mill's connotation). He says that Hobbes, like the Nominalists in

general, bestowed little or no attention upon the connotation of

words; and sought for their meaning exclusively in what they denote

(v). This very curious way of reading Hobbes as if he were Bertrand

Russell is due to the fact that Mill read him as if he were an orthodox

ockhamist.

However, even though Mill took Hobbes for an ockhamist, why did

he attribute to him the idea that names

denote?

Mill says that Hobbes

used to name instead of to denote (v) but he probably remarked

that Hobbes in De corpore I used den ota re in at least four cases -

five in the English translation that Mill probably read, since he quoted

Hobbes' work as Computat ion or logic (see Ungerland and Vick, 1981,

p. 22 and p, 157).

Apropos of the difference between abstract and concrete names

Hobbes says that abstr actum est quod in re supposita existentem

nominis concreti causam den0tat, ut 'esse corpus', 'esse mobile'.., et

sim ili a.. . Nomina autem abstracta causam nominis concreti denotant,

non ipsam rem De corpore I, iii, 3). It must be noted that for Hobbes


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565

abstract names

do

denote a cause, but this cause is not an entity: it is

the criterion according to which an expression is employed (see

Gargani, 1971, p. 86; Hungerland and Vick, 1881, p. 21). Mill

rephrases Hobbes' text in this way: a concrete name is a name which

stands for a thing; an abstract name is a name which stands for an

attribute of a thing ( 1843, II, v) - where stands for is the

ockhamistic stare pro aliquo . He also adds that he is using such

words as 'concrete' and 'abstract' in the sense annexed to them by

the Schoolmen .

Probably Mill extrapolated from Hobbes's quotation that, if abstract

names

do not

denote a thing, the concrete ones certainly

do.

In fact

for Hobbes concretum est quod rei alicujus quae existere supponitur

nomen est, ideoque quandoque suppositum, quandoque subjectum,

graece ypokeimenon appellatur , and two lines above he wrote that in

the proposition corpus est mobile quandoque rem ipsam cogitamus

utroque nomine designatum (De corpore, I, iii, 3). Thus des ignare

appears in a context where it is linked on one side to the idea of

supposition and on the other side to the idea of denotation.

It is true that concrete names can be proper either to a singular

thing or to a set of individuals, so that we can say that Hobbes' idea of

denotat ion, if any, is still mid-way between the suppositio naturalis

and the suppositio accidentalis of Peter of Spain. For this reason it

has been remarked (Hungerland and Vick 1981, p. 51 fig) that

certainly to denote has not for Hobbes the same sense that it

acquires in contemporary philosophy of language, because it does not

only apply to logical proper names but also to class names and even to

unexisting entities. But Mill accepts this view. Therefore he could

have intended Hobbes' denot e in an extensional way.

In

De corpore

(1, ii, 7) Hobbes says that

homo

quemlibet e multis

hominibus,

philosophus

quemlibet e multis philosophis denotat propter

omnium similitudinem . Thus the denotation concerns again any one

of a multitude of singular individuals, insofar as ho mo and

philosophus are concrete names of a class. In De corpore (I, vi, 112)

Hobbes says that words are useful for proving through syllogisms

because by them we denote the conceptions of singular things. Mill

translated in a clear extensional sense: a general n ame . . , is capable

of being truly affirmed of each of an indefinite number of things (II,

iii).

In De corpore (II, ii, 12) it is said that the name parabo la can


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5 6 6 U M E R T O E C O

d e n o t e b o t h a n a l l e g o r y a n d a g e o m e t r i c a l f i gu r e , a n d i t is u n c e r t a i n i f

H o b b e s m e a n t s ig n i fi c a t o r n o m i n a t .

T h u s (i) H o b b e s u s e s d e n o t a r e a t l e a s t t h r e e ti m e s i n a w a y t h a t

e n c o u r a g e s a n e x t e n s i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a n d i n c o n t e x t s t h a t r e c a l l

t h e o c k h a m i s t ic u s e o f s i g n i fi c a r e a n d s u p p o n e r e ; (ii) e v e n t h o u g h

h e d o e s n o t u s e d e n o t a r e a s a t e c h n i c a l t e r m , h e d o e s c o n s i s te n t ly

e m p l o y i t i n a w a y w h i c h p r e c l u d e s i ts i n t e r p r e ta t io n a s a s y n o n y m o f

s i g n i fi c a r e , a s H u n g e r l a n d a n d V i c k ( 1 8 8 1 , p . 1 5 3 ) p e r s u a s i v e l y

r emar k ; ( i i i ) i t i s v e r i s i mi l a r t h a t h e d i d s o u n d e r t h e i n f l u en ce o f t h e

o t h e rw i s e a m b i g u o u s d e n o t a r i t h a t h e f o u n d e i th e r in O c k h a m o r in

s o m e l o g i c i an s o f t h e n o m i n a l i s t i c t r ad i t io n ; ( iv ) M i l l d i s r eg a r d e d

H o b b e s ' t h e o r y o f s ig n i fi c a ti o n a n d r e a d

omp utat io sive logica

as i f i t

b e l o n g e d t o a t o t a l l y o ck h am i s t i c l i n e o f t h o u g h t ; ( v) i t i s v e r i s i mi l a r

t h a t M i l l, u n d e r t h e i n fl u e n c e o f H o b b e s ' d e n o t a r e , d e c i d e d to

o p p o s e d e n o t a t i o n ( in s t e ad o f n a m i n g ) t o c o n n o t a t i o n .

T h e s e a r e o b v i o u s l y m e r e h y p o t h e s e s . T o t e ll t h e w h o l e s t o r y o f

w h a t re a ll y h a p p e n e d b e t w e e n O c k h a m a n d H o b b e s a n d b e tw e e n

H o b b es an d M i l l i s b ey o n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f a s i n g l e s ch o l a r . I o n l y

t r i ed t o s i n g l e o u t a t u r n i n g p o i n t i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f

l a n g u a g e , o f s e m i o t i c s , a n d o f l o g i c , w h e r e s o m e t h i n g h a p p e n e d t h a t

b r o k e a l o n g l a s ti n g t r ad i t i o n , t h u s ex p l a i n i n g w h y w e a r e t o d ay s t il l

e m b a r r a s s e d w h e n f a c in g s u c h a t e r m a s d e n o t a t i o n .

T h e e m b a r r a s s m e n t i s n o t o n l y a te r m i n o l o g i c a l o n e . T h e ' tu r n i n g

p o i n t' r e p r e s e n t e d b y B a c o n a n d O c k h a m h a s n o t i n f a c t e li m i n a te d

t h e o p p o s i ti o n b e t w e e n m e a n i n g a n d r e f e r e n c e . S u c h a n o p p o s i ti o n

k e e p s g o i n g , f r o m C a r n a p t o M o n t a g u e , f r o m t h e ' s t r u c t u r a l s e m a n -

t i c s ' an d co mp o n en t i a l an a l y s i s t o S ea r l e , f r o m t h e s o - ca l l ed ' d i c -

t i o n a r y - l i k e s e m a n t i c s ' t o t h e s e m a n t i c s c o n c e i v e d i n a f o r m a t o f a n

en cy c l o p ed i a , f r o m ' i n s t r u c t i o n a l s eman t i c s ' t o A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g en ce

( s e e E c o , 1 9 8 4 , p . 2) . I n a w a y t h e o p p o s i t io n b e t w e e n s i g n i fi c a r e

a n d d e n o t a r e i s s till e m b a r r a s s i n g t h e r e c e n t t h e o r ie s o f r ig i d

d e s i g n a t i o n . I s a p r o p e r n a m e s o m e t h i n g t h a t p o i n t s t o t h e o r i g i n a l

b a p t i s m a l c e r e m o n y a s t o a s t a t e o f t h e w o r l d , o r s o m e t h i n g t h a t

s i g n i f i e s w h a t w a s m e a n t b y t h e o r i g i n a l n a m e r ? F r o m t h i s p o i n t o f

v i e w o n e c a n s t i l l f i n d s o m e c o n s i s t e n t d i s c r e p a n c i e s a m o n g t h e

v a r i o u s a p p r o a c h e s .

I h o p e t h a t m y r e v i s i t a t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e d e b a t e c a n h e l p t o

b e t t e r i d e n ti f y t h e d i f f e re n t s t a n d p o i n t s .


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MEANING AND DENOTATION

67

NOTE

* I thank Maria Teresa Beonio Brocchieri Fumagalli for her many useful suggestions. I

also thank Andrea Tabarroni, Roberto Lambertini and Costantino Marmo for having

discussed with me some passages of this paper, whose origin was a seminar on the

medieval theory of signs, University of Bologna, Chair of Semiotics, Academic Year

1982-83.

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