uman capital initiative the changing nature of workpsych.hanover.edu/aps/hci/!hci1093.pdfdavid a....

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OBSERVERP u b l i s h e d b y t h e A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y

SPECIAL ISSUE OCTOBER 1993

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INSIDE

Changing Nature of Work

Table of Contents 2Preface 3HCI Committee 5Drafting Committee 5Participating Organizations 5Sponsoring Organizations 6Acknowledgments 6Background 7Brief Summary 9Past Psychological Research 10Report Chapters 13Conclusions 23

Departments

APS Employment Bulletin 25

REPORT 1

HUMAN CAPITAL INITIATIVE:

The ChangingNature of Work

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APS Observer Special Issue: HCI Report I—Changing Nature of Work October 1993

Contents

Preface ............................................................................................. 3

HCI Coordinating Committee ......................................................... 5

Committee on the Changing Nature of Work................................ 5

Participants and Reviewers ........................................................... 5

Sponsoring Organizations ............................................................. 6

Acknowledgments .......................................................................... 6

Background ..................................................................................... 7

Brief Summary................................................................................. 9

Past Contributions by Psychological Researchers ................... 10

The Critical Questions ................................................................... 11

CHAPTER 1: Making People and Technology Work Well Together ................................. 13

CHAPTER 2: Building Organizations in Which People Will Produce Their Best Work .. 15

CHAPTER 3: Training and Retraining Workers to Maintain and Increase Productivity . 17

CHAPTER 4: Adapting the Workplace to a Diverse Workforce ........................................ 19

CHAPTER 5: Creating a Healthful Work Environment that Supports Productivity......... 21

Conclusions ................................................................................... 23

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PREFACE

Getting to the Right Questions—A First InstallmentCommittee on the Changing Nature of Work

The social scientists have a long way to go to catch up,but they may be up to the most important scientificbusiness of all, if and when they finally get to the rightquestions. Our behavior toward each other is thestrangest, most unpredictable, and almost entirelyunaccountable of all the phenomena with which we areobliged to live. In all of nature there is nothing sothreatening to humanity as humanity itself.

Lewis Thomas

♦

Noted biologist Lewis Thomas was assessing thestate of American science in the above quotation,and indeed, as one watches daily news reports,there is ample evidence to support Thomas’s

judgment about the unaccountable and unpredictable in humanbehavior.

Today we face serious problems, problems that will not getbetter by being ignored. There are now over a millionprisoners in federal, state, and local jails, and the rate ofincarceration has doubled since 1960. Violence is growing,and drugs and alcohol are undoubtedly factors in crime.Americans are concerned about health, and the AIDS epi-demic is relentlessly growing. Health care costs have beenclimbing steadily for decades in terms of constant dollars andas a share of gross national product, and there is no end insight. The average age of our population is higher than everbefore. The news we hear about education is not good, withsigns of failure everywhere: A quarter or more of studentsdrop out of high school, only 1 in 4 can interpret a complexbus schedule, and only 30% can write a job application letter.In industry, the drop in the rate of productivity growth inAmerica since 1950 is a well-known fact. Jobs today arecomplex and in the future will become even more demanding,requiring more from the humans who are part of complexsystems.

Our problems are enormous and interconnected—violenceand crime link to drugs and alcohol, and to health, to aging, to

education, and to jobs. Each problem seems to be so muchworse than in “the good old days.”

The Human Capital Initiative

All of these problems are—at their core—problems ofhuman behavior. There is so much that needs to be learned.We are just scratching the surface, and we need to quadrupleour efforts. Research alone won’t solve these problems, butneither will they be solved without research. Given theseverity of the problems we face and the tides of changesweeping the global economy, we need basic and appliedresearch that can help strengthen our human capital.

Through a series of three summit meetings and the com-bined efforts of hundreds of researchers representing nearly allof the research-oriented societies of psychologists, the sixmajor problem areas described above—worker productivity,education and literacy, the aging of society, substance abuse,health, and violence—have become the starting point fortrying to get to the “right” questions regarding these problems.The report of the Steering Committee for a National Behav-ioral Science Research Agenda, The Human Capital Initiative(HCI), was published in the APS Observer in February of1992. Now the first two of a series of companion documentsare being released. In this issue of the Observer, The Chang-ing Nature of Work identifies research opportunities withregard to the nation’s productive capacity. In the December,1993, Observer issue, Vitality for Life will examine how

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researchers can contribute to solving problems brought on bythe most massive demographic change in our country’shistory, the graying of America.

The Changing Nature of Work and a World Market

An emerging global economy mandates serious scientificattention to discoveries that foster enhanced human productiv-ity in an ever-changing and technologically sophisticatedwork world. Worker adaptability and training will playincreasingly critical roles in organizational effectiveness andefficiency as the nature of work changes at an ever-faster rate.American industry and government can no longer take forgranted American dominance in technological advancementand efficiency. Historic economic, social, demographic, andpolitical changes around the world are forcing a reassessmentof our very concept of “work.” And, psychological science ispoised with the methodology and ability to provide answersneeded by both industry and government in efforts to increaseour competitive edge in the world market. The world marketwill prove to be the most stringent test of our competitiveresolve to address these issues. Analogously, in Thomas’sassessment, our attempts to understand human behavior arethe toughest test of our scientific prowess. In the future,economic competitiveness will require a sophistication in ourunderstanding of worker behavior that rivals our currentunderstanding of the technology we use to achieve work.Psychological science is uniquely prepared to help providethat requisite understanding, and this document provides theinitial details for beginning the task.

The Purpose and Scope of HCI Reports

Both The Changing Nature of Work and the Vitality forLife documents call for basic and applied research. Neitherdocument attempts to be the last word within its domain butrather to bring key research opportunities to the attention ofour colleagues in federal agencies, the members of Congress,and the general public. Other reports in this series are nowbeing organized by the Human Capital Initiative CoordinatingCommittee and prepared by inter-society drafting committees.Combatting Drug Abuse will likely be the next report toappear, and others will be released in coming months andyears.

What has begun is an ongoing process of collaboration, onethat can get us closer and closer, in Lewis Thomas’s words, tothe “right” questions that can immerse us more deeply in “themost important scientific business of all.”

Reference

Thomas, Lewis, (1983), Late Night Thoughts on Listening toMahler's Ninth Symphony, Bantam Books, New York, p. 23.

What has begun is an ongoing pro-cess of collaboration, one that canget us closer and closer, in LewisThomas’s words, to the “right”questions that can immerse usmore deeply in “the most importantscientific business of all.”

COMMITTEE ON THECHANGING NATURE OF WORK

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THE HUMAN CAPITAL INITIATIVE (HCI)COORDINATING COMMITTEE

Milton D. Hakel, Bowling Green State University (Chair)Rue Cromwell, University of KansasMichael Davis, Yale UniversityKay Deaux, City University of New York-Graduate SchoolMichela Gallagher, University of North Carolina-Chapel HillJames G. Greeno, Stanford UniversityJohn W. Hagen, University of MichiganCharles A. Perfetti, University of Pittsburgh

James Greeno, Stanford University (Co-editor)Virginia O’Leary, Indiana State University (Co-editor)Martin Chemers, Claremont Graduate SchoolCelia Gershenson, University of MinnesotaMilton D. Hakel, Bowling Green State University (Chair

and Liaison from the HCI Coordinating Committee)Earl Hunt, University of Washington

David Johnson, Federation of Behavioral, Psychologi-cal and Cognitive Sciences

Jerry Kehoe, AT&TMarianne LaFrance, Boston CollegeDonald Overton, Temple UniversityWilliam Redmon, Western Michigan UniversityArnold Spokane, Lehigh University

DRAFTING COMMITTEECHANGING NATURE OF WORK

PARTICIPANTS AND REVIEWERSCHANGING NATURE OF WORK

Paula Amar, Association for Applied Psychophysiology andBiofeedback

Nancy Anderson, Division of Applied Experimental andEngineering Psychology

Robin Barr, National Institute on AgingDavid A. Blizard, Behavior Genetics AssociationAlan Boneau, Division of General PsychologyGordon H. Bower, Western Psychological AssociationMarilynn B. Brewer, Federation of Behavioral, Psychological

and Cognitive ScienceSarah Brookhart, American Psychological SocietyWayne Camara, American Psychological AssociationN. John Castellan, Jr., Society for Computers in PsychologyJohn C. Cavanaugh, Division of Adult Development and

AgingMarylou Cheal, Division of Physiological and Comparative

PsychologyMartin M. Chemers, Society for Personality and Social

PsychologyKay Deaux, Society for Personality and Social PsychologyKey Dismukes, Federation of Behavioral, Psychological and

Cognitive ScienceRoger A. Drake, Society for the Advancement of Social

PsychologyPaul A. Gade, Army Research InstituteCelia Wolk Gershenson, Association for Behavior AnalysisJames Greeno, Cognitive Science Society; Society for

Mathematical PsychologyBarbara Gutek, Academy of ManagementJohn Hagen, Society for Research in Child DevelopmentMilton D. Hakel, American Psychological SocietyLeslie H. Hicks, Division of Physiological and Comparative

PsychologyEarl Hunt, Society for Computers in PsychologyDavid Johnson, Federation of Behavioral, Psychological and

Cognitive Science

Michael Kaplan, Army Research InstituteJerard F. Kehoe, Division of Evaluation and MeasurementGwendolyn P. Keita, Society for the Psychological Study of

Social IssuesEllen Kimmel, Division of Psychology of WomenRichard Klimoski, Society for Industrial and Organizational

PsychologyAlan G. Kraut, American Psychological SocietyMarianne LaFrance, Society for Personality and Social

PsychologyGeorge Lawton, Army Research InstituteHenry Levin, American Educational Research AssociationRichard Louttit, Federation of Behavioral, Psychological and

Cognitive ScienceM. Jackson Marr, Association for Behavior AnalysisVirginia O’Leary, Council of Graduate Departments of

PsychologyThomas Oltmanns, Division of Clinical PsychologySamuel Osipow, American Association of Applied and

Preventive PsychologyDonald Overton, Division of PsychopharmacologyDenise C. Park, Division of Adult Development and AgingWilliam K. Redmon, Association for Behavior AnalysisMichael J. Renner, Animal Behavior SocietyRandolph Smith, Southwestern Psychological AssociationLonnie R. Snowdon, Society for Community Research and

ActionArnold R. Spokane, Division of Counseling PsychologyHenry Taylor, Division of Applied Experimental and Engi-

neering PsychologyVeronica Thomas, Division of Psychology of WomenSigmund Tobias, Division of Educational PsychologyBill Vaughn, Office of Naval ResearchEric Wanner, Russell Sage FoundationJ. Frank Yates, Society for Judgment and Decision Making

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SPONSORING ORGANIZATIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Changing Nature of Work is the result of collaboration among represen-tatives from 41 organizations. A workshop was held in Herndon, Virginia, onSeptember 20-21, 1992, and a Drafting Committee was selected to createthis set of research initiatives from the proceedings of the workshop and writ-ten information provided in response to the Call for Participation (see Febru-ary, 1992, APS Observer). The final text was circulated for review and ap-proval by all workshop participants and an additional group of representativesnamed by the sponsoring organizations.

The Coordinating Committee for the Human Capital Initiative grate-fully acknowledges grant support from the National Institute of Mental Healthto the American Psychological Society for aid in elaborating the Human Capi-tal Initiative, and also from Bowling Green State University. Additionalsupport for travel was provided by many of the sponsoring organizations. Wethank Alan Kraut, Sarah Brookhart, Lauren Butler, and Lee Herring, all fromthe American Psychological Society, for their assistance in this work.

The Changing Nature of Work is published by the Coordinating Committeefor the Human Capital Initiative on behalf of the sponsoring organizations.All sponsoring organizations have unlimited rights to reproduce and dissemi-nate this document. Address inquiries to Milton D. Hakel, Chair, HumanCapital Initiative Coordinating Committee, Department of Psychology, Bowl-ing Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403-0228 (BITNET:MHAKEL@TRAPPER, tel. 419-372-8144, fax 419-372-6013).

General PsychologyOffice of Naval ResearchPhysiological and Comparative PsychologyPsychology of WomenPsychopharmacologySociety for the Advancement of Behavior AnalysisSociety for the Advancement of Social PsychologySociety for Community Research and ActionSociety for Computers in PsychologySociety for the Experimental Analysis of BehaviorSociety for Industrial and Organizational PsychologySociety for Judgment and Decision MakingSociety for Mathematical PsychologySociety for Personality and Social PsychologySociety for the Psychological Study of Lesbian and

Gay IssuesSociety for the Psychological Study of Social IssuesSociety for Research in Child DevelopmentSociety for Research in PsychopathologySouthwestern Psychological AssociationWestern Psychological Association

Academy of ManagementAdult Development and AgingAmerican Educational Research AssociationAmerican Psychological AssociationAmerican Psychological SocietyAnimal Behavior SocietyApplied Experimental and Engineering PsychologyArmy Research InstituteAssociation for Applied and Preventive PsychologyAssociation for Behavior AnalysisAssociation of Applied Psychophysiology and Bio-

feedbackBehavior Genetics AssociationClinical PsychologyCognitive Science SocietyCouncil of Graduate Departments of PsychologyCouncil of University Directors of Clinical PsychologyCounseling PsychologyEducational PsychologyEvaluation and MeasurementExperimental PsychologyFederation of Behavioral, Psychological and Cognitive

Sciences

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York-Buffalo; Milton D. Hakel, Bowling Green StateUniversity; J. Bruce Overmier, University of Minnesota;Sandra Scarr, University of Virginia; and Larry R.Squire, University of California-San Diego.

In January 1991, the Steering Committee reported itsprogress at the next Behavioral Science Summit held inHouston, Texas. Organizations participating in bothSummits are listed in the February 1992 APS ObserverSpecial Issue. The Summit Organizations providedfeedback to the Steering Committee and agreed to beginthe second phase of the Human Capital Initiative (HCI):to propose specific research projects tied to prioritieslaid out in the February 1992 HCI document. Thatsecond phase is now underway, and this current docu-ment, The Changing Nature of Work, is the first to providethose specifics in the first of the six major areas identi-fied as research priorities by the Steering Committee.Those six areas are:

◆ Productivity in the workplace◆ Schooling and literacy◆ The aging society◆ Drug and alcohol abuse◆ Health◆ Violence in America

Not a day passes without one or more of these concernsgrabbing the national news headlines. While these sixtopics are not the only challenges facing the country,each by itself seems nearly overwhelming. Each pre-sents difficult dilemmas, and each is a problem ofhuman behavior.

Each of these six urgent challenges is addressed in TheHuman Capital Initiative (1992). Developed by represen-tatives from 68 behavioral, psychological, and cognitivescience organizations—with a net total membership wellover 100,000—The Human Capital Initiative describes ingeneral terms both the nation’s problems and potentialcontributions of research.

The pages that follow are the product of the DraftingCommittee for The Changing Nature of Work initiative.This document, together with portions of the two APSSummits, was supported by grants from the NationalInstitute of Mental Health to the American PsychologicalSociety, and we gratefully acknowledge this support. ◆

Background

I n January 1990, the American PsychologicalSociety convened a Behavioral Science Summit inTucson, Arizona. The Summit conferees, repre-senting almost 70 psychological organizations,unanimously endorsed the development of a

national research agenda that would help policy makers infederal and other agencies set funding priorities forpsychological and related sciences.

The conferees asked Frances D. Horowitz, the ScienceAdvisor of the American Psychological Association; R.Duncan Luce, President of the Federation of Behavioral,Psychological and Cognitive Sciences; and James L.McGaugh, President of the American PsychologicalSociety, to appoint an Interim Steering Committee todraft a document based on the deliberations of the two-day summit. The Interim Steering Committee consistedof Janet T. Spence and Donald J. Foss, University ofTexas-Austin, Co-chairs; David Berliner, Arizona StateUniversity; James Blascovich, State University of New

♦

The Steering Committee’s mission was to:

◆ Identify a unifying theme or themes forbehavioral research from among thosedeveloped at the summit;

◆ Invite specialty organizations in theirsubsequent comments to attach morespecific initiatives; and

◆ Provide the context of one or severalstrategies aimed at developing a consen-sus model of a common research agenda.

♦

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The American Psychological Society

President Marilynn B. BrewerPast President Gordon H. BowerPast President James L. McGaughPast President Janet T. SpencePast President Charles A. KieslerSecretary Robert PlominTreasurer Paul W. Thayer

Members at LargeElizabeth Capaldi Kay DeauxElizabeth Loftus Sandra ScarrClaude Steele Richard Weinberg

StaffExecutive Director Alan G. Kraut

Director of Government Relations Sarah BrookhartAssistant Director of Government Relations Betty Willis

Director of Convention and Special Projects Lauren ButlerConvention/Membership Assistant Anne Kwiatkowski

Director of Membership Sharon HantmanMembership Officer Allen Walker

Director of Communications Lee HerringEditorial Assistant Martha Tralka

Bookkeeper/Office Manager Paul Rigby

The APS ObserverPublisher Alan G. KrautEditor Lee HerringStaff Writer Don Kent

The APS Observer (ISSN: 1050-4672) is the monthlypublication of the American Psychological Society(Federal ID Number: 73-1345573). On alternativemonths, beginning with February, the Observer con-sists of the APS Employment Bulletin. The May andJune issues and the July and August issues are com-bined. Editorial and advertising offices are at APS,1010 Vermont Avenue, NW, Suite 1100, Washington,DC 20005-4907; Tel: 202-783-2077, Fax: 202-783-2083, Email (Bitnet): APS@APS

All APS members receive the Observer. Domesticnon-member subscription rates are $35 (individual),$50 (institution) and foreign rates are $50 (individual)and $65 (institution) per year. Add $45 to upgradefrom surface delivery to airmail for overseas addresses.Send subscription requests to the address above. Third-class postage is paid at Washington, DC. Postmaster:Send address changes to American Psychological So-ciety, 1010 Vermont Avenue, NW, Suite 1100, Wash-ington, DC 20005-4907.

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APS Observer and Employment Bulletin1010 Vermont Ave, NW, Suite 1100Washington, DC 20005-4907Tel: 202-783-2077, Fax: 202-783-2083Bitnet: LHERRING@APSInternet: [email protected]

♦

♦

Reports in theHuman Capital Initiativeseries include:

Human Capital Initiative Report of theNational Behavioral ScienceResearch Agenda CommitteeFebruary 1992

◆ Human Capital Initiative -Report of the Committee on theChanging Nature of WorkOctober 1993

◆ Human Capital Initiative -Report of the Committee onResearch Initiatives in Vitality forLife (Aging)December 1993

Additional copies of each report are availablefrom the American Psychological Society, 1010Vermont Ave., NW, Suite 1100, Washington,DC 20005-4907, tel.: 202-783-2077, fax: 202-783-2083, BITNET: APS@APS, INTERNET:[email protected].

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HUMAN CAPITAL INITIATIVE

REPORT OF THE

Committee on theChanging Nature of Work

JUNE 1, 1993

Capital Initiative, the current document gives brief overviewsof problems facing the American workplace and also ofpsychology’s contributions to knowledge and practice, andthen reviews five key facets of the changing nature of work:

◆ Changing Technology◆ Social Organization of Work◆ Skill Training and Work Expertise◆ Adapting to Growing Workforce Diversity, and◆ Productivity and Worker Health

These are the dynamic frontiers of the workplace. Each oneoffers enormous opportunities and challenges for behavioralscience which must help the nation keep pace with thechanging nature of work by developing theoretical andpractical advances in these areas within the next decade.

Not one of these problems is exclusively a problem ofpsychology. The nation’s problems do not come in neatlypartitioned disciplinary packages. In proposing these researchinitiatives we aspire to energize researchers from other relatedareas of study. The need for links with related disciplines,such as economics, management science, sociology, organiza-tional behavior, human resource management, computerscience, decision science, systems engineering, politicalscience, anthropology, demography, education, medicine,occupational health, epidemiology, and biology, will beevident throughout the following pages. The Human CapitalInitiative came from a collaborative process involving 68psychological organizations, and we look forward to an evenbroader collaboration as researchers bring their talents andtools to bear on the challenges of the changing nature of work.

The nature of work is changing dramatically, and globalcompetition assures that the rate of change willincrease and intensify for the foreseeable future.

Strengthening the skills and capacities of America’s “humancapital” is the key to assuring the future economic security ofAmerican companies and workers. The Changing Nature ofWork analyzes key factors in these changes, and identifiespotential contributions of research.

Technology is driving immense change in the waysworkers use and communicate information, and in automatedproduction systems, to name just two examples. Patterns ofworker organization and interaction are also changing, as inself-directed work teams. This leads to changes in the skillsrequired of workers, for instance, in mathematics, leadership,or initiative. Demographic trends are also crucial—theaverage age of the workforce is increasing, and more womenand minority group members are participating in theworkforce. Finally, workplace health and safety issuescontinue to grow in importance, as noted in the now well-known statistic that the single largest cost in producing a newcar is health care for auto workers.

Over the years psychological research has contributedgreatly to the productivity of America’s companies andworkers (see following page), and in this time of rapid changein the nature of work, researchers in all fields of the psycho-logical, cognitive, social, and behavioral sciences stand readyto discover the knowledge needed to create a secure future.Here we identify many specific research initiatives in whichimmediate investment will yield immediately usable knowl-edge. Research alone will not solve all the problems broughtto the fore by the changing nature of work, but neither willthese problems be solved without research.

The Changing Nature of Work

The Changing Nature of Work is one in a series of compan-ion documents to The Human Capital Initiative, each address-ing a specific topic in greater depth. Growing directly out ofthe “Productivity in the Workplace” component of The Human

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Brief Summary

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♦

Past Contributions byPsychological Researchers

◆ Psychologists Have Responded withInnovative Practices and Technologies inTimes of Great National Need.

Shortly after the emergence of psychology as an academicdiscipline, psychologists made their first large contributionto meeting the nation’s needs by creating the Army Alpha,an objectively scored, group administered mental abilitytest. It was used to classify 1,700,000 recruits duringWorld War I. After the war, civilian editions becamewidely used in industry for employee selection. During theGreat Depression, psychologists worked on problems ofemployment stabilization and training, and vocationalguidance practice was put on a sound footing by E.K.Strong, G.F. Kuder, and others. Vocational counseling isstill one of the most important interventions devised frompsychological research. In World War II, psychologistsagain responded with scientific selection and classificationmethods, and also created efficient and effective methodsfor training pilots. Since then, research and application inthese and related topics have flourished.

◆ Today, Psychological Research Results FormThe Basis for Effective Practice throughoutThe World of Work.

Assessment centers are used in both the public and privatesectors for making promotion decisions and planningemployee development activities. Behavior modelingprocedures are used in managerial and supervisory training.Surveys are used in marketing and political polling.Participative management, quality circles, employeeinvolvement programs, and the total quality management

movement all are built in part from the results of psycho-logical research. Even pay plans (e.g., incentive systems,piecework, skill-based pay, gainsharing) are closely tied toresearch in the psychological, social, and behavioralsciences. Of course, tests continue to be refined throughcomputerization and to play important roles in employeeselection.

◆ We Are Now in a Period of UrgentNational Need.

The nature of work is changing. Given the global flow ofmoney, technology, equipment, and factories, the futurelooks especially turbulent. Our economy is undergoingfundamental changes, and the principal challenge facingAmerica’s companies and workers today is to increase theeconomic value of our part of the global economy. Theway to do it is through enhancing the skills and capacitiesof America’s human capital.

◆ Researchers Can Address Five MajorFacets of This National Need.

This document describes our current knowledge of thechanging nature of the workplace and the workforce, andidentifies needed basic and applied research and develop-ment. We cover in turn five major facets of change: (a) thetechnology, (b) social organization, and (c) skill needs ofthe changing workplace, and then (d) demographic changesin the workforce, and (e) issues of worker health. Alongthe way we identify potential contributions the researchcommunity can make to America’s people and organiza-tions.

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♦

The Critical Questions

I. How Can We Make People and Technology Work Well Together?

The future workplace will be more technologically sophisticated, demanding higher levels of skill tooperate complex systems. Designers of systems need to know about human skills, problem-solving abili-ties, and limitations so that new technologies can assist people rather than frustrate them. Well designedintelligent systems can expand the limits of our technology.

II. How Can We Build Organizations in Which People Will Produce Their Best Work?

There are now many more ways for people to communicate in the workplace. Many workers now commu-nicate via computer stations rather than face-to-face or by telephone. Matrix organizations, flexible sched-uling and staffing, temporary task forces, self-directed work teams, and other collaborative efforts will addto the complexity of the social organization of work. Whether and how they add to productivity needs tobe addressed.

III. How Can We Train and Retrain Productive Workers?

Changing technology and social organization requires changes in skills and expertise in a well-educatedworkforce that is able to adapt and learn continuously. Retraining displaced workers and training newworkers are big challenges now and for the years ahead.

IV. How Must the Workplace Change to Adapt to the Growing Diversity of the Workforce?

The composition of the workforce is changing dramatically. The average age of workers is increasingsteadily, and we know far too little about age-related changes in productive capacity. Ethnic minoritygroup members and women are entering the workforce in increasing numbers. By the year 2000 womenwill make up two-thirds of all new entrants into the labor market, and 29% of the new entrants will beethnic minorities. Social changes also affect the workforce. Currently, more than half of all women withyoung children work outside the home, a figure that will likely rise given the growing need for workers.Quality child care programs and support services are needed.

V. How Does the Workplace Affect Worker Health?

Health care is currently the fastest growing sector of the American economy. Employers are concernedabout rapidly escalating costs. Employees, indeed all Americans, are concerned about access to highquality health care. The roles of psychological factors in health are becoming better understood. In thedrive for health care reform, worker health and safety will require major attention.

Each of these five questions is explored in greater depth in the following sections, along with the researchneeded to address them effectively. The report concludes with several recommendations.

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Retraining displaced workers andtraining new workers are big chal-lenges now and for the yearsahead.

THE CHANGING NATURE OFWORK COMMITTEE

New technology does notautomatically yield enhancedproductivity.



Photos by David Hathcox

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CHAPTER 1

Making People and Technology Work Well Together

New Technology Does Not AutomaticallyYield Enhanced Productivity.

Every discussion of productivity and competitiveness notesthe tremendous influence of technology on the workplace.The emergence of computerized technology, and particularlyautomated systems, is the 20th Century’s industrial revolution.New technology creates new requirements and opportunitiesfor workers. Depending on its design, technology can provideresources for worker productivity and satisfaction, or it canpresent stumbling blocks. For example, of 2,000 U.S.companies that installed high technology production equip-ment, 40% reported they have not achieved their intendedresults. Some of the causes of failure were technological;others were psychological and social. Behavioral scienceresearch has the potential to address both kinds of problems.

Keeping Up with TechnologicalChange Is Challenging.

The present pace of technological change is frantic. Nationaland global competitive pressure is driving new productintroductions to record level. For example, applicationssoftware for personal computers today has a half-life of abouttwo years. With each change in software, users must unlearnold terminology and behaviors and learn new ones. As withany technological upgrade, productivity is interrupted anddegraded as users overcome the effects of negative transferand struggle to learn new skills and rules.

To Be Most Productive, Workers Will NeedTo Know Their Machines Better than TheyKnow Them Today.

To perform ably and responsibly in the changing workplace,people must be able to understand machine actions. This is aformidable task, involving not just observing outcomes, butalso apprehending the process by which the machine takesactions. We foresee increasing numbers of jobs in whichpeople will act as interpreters between machines and clients.A recent study of expert systems in the insurance industryfound, for example, that claims processors were no longer ableto explain unreimbursable expenses to clients because thecomputer-based expert system hindered access to previouslyavailable information. People in the interpreter role must beable to combine their understanding of the client with theirunderstanding of the machine. We need to know more abouthow people do these things in order to make maximum use ofthe capacity of advanced machines.

♦

Productive Technology Will Have to BeEngineered with Human Capacities in Mind.

It’s easy to say that technologies should be designed to fit theneeds and abilities of people in the settings where the systemsare to be used. Doing it is something else. Computers to beused in the workplace must be designed with an appreciationof the capacities, limitations, preferences, and tendencies ofoperators. One of the most striking psychological aspects ofhigh tech jobs is that motor, perceptual, and even somedecision-making requirements are being amended by auto-mated devices and “intelligent” computer programs. Thus,new cognitive skills become essential as workers at everylevel are required to deal with machines that process informa-tion as well as materials. Computer software must bedesigned and implemented to enhance cognitive abilities of itsusers, and to facilitate communication and cooperation amonggroups of workers. There needs to be cooperation and fitbetween computer capacity and human capacity. To achievesuch synergy, we need to understand better the humancognitive and social processes as well as the human-computerinterface.

Social and Behavioral ScienceResearch Results Can Enable PeopleAnd Technology to Work Well Together.

We know much about perception, cognition, and humanperformance that can aid in the design of complex informa-tion systems. At the same time more basic and appliedresearch in cognition, perception, and human performance isneeded to answer the challenges posed by placing suchinformation systems into work settings as diverse as navalship war-rooms, nuclear power station control centers, and thetrading floors of major stock markets.

Researchers Can Enable the Design orRedesign of Systems for MaximumProductivity.

Psychological research can provide methods for evaluatingtechnological systems as they are used by people, and canshow how characteristics of people affect how technologyactually gets used or misused. By observing and analyzingpeople using information systems, researchers can identifypositive and negative features of systems as resources forworkers’ activities, and for system designers.


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Researchers Can Design More EffectiveWays to Introduce New Technology.

Research can lead to understanding basic ways to diminishproductivity losses while new technology is introduced. Thisresearch can focus on (a) how to reduce the interfering effectsof negative transfer, (b) ways to implement systems tofacilitate transitions to new or enhanced technology, and (c)ways to design “expert help systems” that detect and diagnoseuser problems and errors and propose corrective actions bymeans of on-line-in-task coaching and prompts. A closelyrelated issue concerns whether different strategies are requiredfor introducing and using machines that take over taskspreviously thought to require special human skill, such asplanning or decision making.

Researchers Can Enable Fast, Efficient,Thorough Training of Workers.

Since the new information technologies can be adapted toteaching, research can address the need for informationsystems to enhance learning that occurs as people do theirwork. The design of “intelligent tutoring systems” is beingpursued both in psychology and computer science, and suchwork needs to come out the laboratory and into appliedresearch and development in education and industrial training.

Researchers Can Enable “Smart”Technologies that Don’t OutsmartTheir Users.

The changes wrought by technology are also creating work-places in which people are increasingly involved in teamefforts with “smart machines.” Research can explore thepsychological aspects of this new world of work, includingissues of attributing responsibility and commitment totechnological systems. Research on characteristics ofdistributed systems with interacting human and computercomponents can accelerate the development of more produc-tive systems.


Psychological research can providemethods for evaluating technologicalsystems as they are used by people,and can show how characteristics ofpeople affect how technology actuallygets used or misused.


. . . new cognitive skills becomeessential as workers at everylevel are required to deal withmachines that process informa-tion as well as materials.


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CHAPTER 2

Building Organizations in Which PeopleWill Produce Their Best Work


Research in organizational psychol-ogy has identified many importantphenomena in work group settings.


To Build Productive Organizations, theInteractions of Individuals withOrganizations Need to Be Understood.

Research in organizational psychology has identified manyimportant phenomena in work group settings. But researchhas not had its maximum beneficial impact on organizationaldevelopment and management, because (a) this country’sresearch structure has not facilitated transfer of basic knowl-edge to application, and (b) basic researchers know many ofthe major phenomena that regulate group behavior but theyunderstand less about the ways in which these phenomenainterrelate in applied settings. Thus, a complete researchprogram must include basic research in applied settings and inlarge-scale simulations.

Programmatic research linking basic, developmental, andapplied research in organizations has three advantages: (a)Knowledge is enriched by study of complex behavioral

How Productively People Interact IsDetermined by the Social OrganizationOf the Workplace.

Among the many changes occurring in the nature of work is amajor shift toward activities involving more communicationand cooperation among people. As automation reduceshuman work in routine tasks, people’s work becomes increas-ingly interactive, focusing on coordinating activities andcommunicating among individuals, teams, and departments.Factors such as “organizational climate” and the functioningof work teams will become more crucial in the success oforganizations. Also, U.S. businesses are embracing principlesof Total Quality Management and other alternative manage-ment strategies to increase productivity, change work roles,increase the ratios of subordinates to supervisors, and definenew performance standards. These new practices frequentlyintroduce the requirement that workers observe and evaluatetheir own work output and make work decisions in teams.

Communication Patterns and AuthorityRelationships Are Changing.

The introduction of electronic mail and fax communicationsto workplaces has affected fundamentally the performance ofindividuals and work organizations. Face-to-face andtelephone conversations have been replaced by less personalchannels of communication. Work activities are interruptedfrequently, requiring workers to attend to more tasks. Hierar-chical authority structures are replaced by inter- and intra-organizational networks.

Motivation and Satisfaction AreChanging As Well.

Changes in the nature of work and the workforce are creatingsignificant challenges for maintaining and enhancing motiva-tion and morale in all types of organizations. Motivation liesat the core of productive organizations. When effectivemotivation programs are implemented, job and organizationalcommitment are increased and members experience greatersatisfaction and better health. Changing technologies andinnovative organizational structures create complexityrequiring flexible and adaptive responses by managers andworkers.

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performance measurement, provision of feedback to employ-ees, and arranging some portion of pay dependent on indi-vidual or group performance have worked well to enhancemotivation and productivity in a variety of organizations.Providing employees with information and feedback alsopermits greater independence and self-direction. Increasedauthority and autonomy, coupled with knowledge of results,creates a committed, responsive, and effective worker. Mostorganizations’ incentive systems include only regular salariesand fixed benefits, but current research shows that flexiblecompensation and benefit systems can improve motivation andbe responsive to cultural and gender differences. Providingworkers with the opportunity to design their own wage andbenefit packages may enhance motivation and commitmentwith minimal additional costs. These strategies and otherswhich are sensitive to worker needs must be rigorously studiedand tested.

Behavioral Scientists Can DiscoverWhat Organizational Groupings Lead to theBest Teamwork and the Most EffectiveProblem Solving.

Many state-of-the-art management systems depend oncollaborative effort and teamwork. Decision task forces,quality circles, and self-directed work teams have been andwill be used to harness the benefits of creative problemsolving. Many organizations, however, have hastily andsuperficially adopted such interventions without understandingthe probable consequences of their haste. Effective teamworkrequires outstanding leadership, and teams that are diverse ingender, ethnicity, and nationality will demand leaders witheffective skills and flexible methods, leaders who are able tocreate workplaces that are free of sexual and ethnic harass-ment. Knowledge about effective leadership must be meldedwith information about diversity management, intergrouprelations, and team-building to provide the basis for effectivesupervision in the 21st century.

Researchers Can Discover Ways toImprove Organizational Communications.

How can the physical and social arrangements of worksettings be organized to promote effective participation by thepeople who work there? What characteristics of technologiesand social arrangements facilitate communication and produc-tive learning by members of the work group? Studies of waysin which technologies and social arrangements facilitatelearning and performance can help organizations to train newemployees and to evaluate the costs and benefits of reassign-ing workers among work groups. Research using naturalisticand longitudinal methods can measure the comparative impactof electronic and other communications in the workplace.Particular attention should be given to performance output, jobstress, worker satisfaction, perception of control and personalprivacy, and product quality. Research can also help us tounderstand ways that computer and communications technol-ogy can change lines of authority and power.

interactions; (b) Forming, prototyping, testing, refining,applying, and evaluating intervention theories is facilitated; (c)Knowledge from basic and developmental research can beapplied efficiently, rapidly, and routinely to improve themanagement of organizations.

Behavioral and Social ScienceResearch Results Can Be Used to BuildOrganizations in Which PeopleWill Produce Their Best Work.

To Change Organizations Effectively,Scientists Need to Study Them fromMultiple Viewpoints.

Organizational change is a complex process that looksdifferent from different points of view. Much of our scientificunderstanding of organizational change uses a selectiveperspective in which phenomena are viewed in global terms(e.g., the organization’s culture), individual terms (e.g., theneed for workers to acquire new skills), or in some intermedi-ate terms (e.g., the need for new work teams to develop).When an organization commits to changing, however, itcannot afford to focus on one perspective to the exclusion ofthe others. An expanded interdisciplinary research program tostudy organizational change can accelerate our understandingof organizational design principles. Integrating and unifyingacross these perspectives our understanding of organizationallearning, norms and leadership, attitudes, motivation, and skillacquisition can significantly benefit organizations’ efforts toimprove their effectiveness.

Scientists Can Identify What MotivatesProductivity for Individuals, forWork Groups, and for Organizations.

Individuals are motivated in part by the promise of pay andsecurity and a job which offers opportunities for autonomy,growth, and contribution to the organization’s mission.Research indicates that providing knowledge of resultsthrough feedback of performance data is immensely powerfulin guiding a reinforcing performance change. Reliable


Motivation lies at the core of produc-tive organizations. When effectivemotivation programs are imple-mented, job and organizational com-mitment are increased and membersexperience greater satisfaction andbetter health.


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CHAPTER 3

Training and Retraining Workers to MaintainAnd Increase Productivity

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Legal Requirements Are Changing.

Legislation such as the Americans with Disabilities Act andthe Civil Rights Act of 1991 and case law regarding theemployment rights of individuals are establishing newopportunities and responsibilities for employers, educationalinstitutions, and employees. These legal issues raise questionsof skill equivalency.

The SCANS Skills and Competencies MayProvide a Framework for Understanding andImproving Job Performance.

A large-scale start was made in 1991-92 by the Department ofLabor’s Secretary’s Commission on Achieving NecessarySkills (SCANS), which identified a foundation of skills andcompetencies required for high performance workplaces.SCANS skills (basic, thinking, and interpersonal) and compe-tencies (resources, information, systems, technology, andpersonal qualities), when fully validated, can serve as commonmeasures to link educational objectives to occupationalrequirements across organizations. Schools have widelyvarying curricula, educational objectives, and assessmentoutcomes. Employers have widely varying selection criteriaand training and job performance requirements. Validationresearch is required to build on the SCANS competencies andskills so that they can generalize across organizations andjobs. Current work by the Departments of Labor and Educa-tion to examine work-based learning and literacy could benefitfrom basic research of this kind.

Researchers Can Develop Measures of WorkSkill that Bear a Consistent Relation toJob Performance across Work SettingsAnd across Worker Types.

Research directed at the measurement of work skills wouldhave at least two specific objectives: (a) Development ofcommon measures of skills and job performance calibrated atconsistent levels of specification to be used across studies toaccumulate data on the interrelationships among skills andperformance, and (b) Determination of differences in both theimportance of culturally differentiated skills and the constructvalidity of specific measures for specific skills. This latterobjective has especially high social value in light of thepersistent group differences found on many frequently usedskill measures and the equally persistent claims that suchdifferences are, to some degree, the result of irrelevant

An educated, skillful workforce is the foundation of an enduringcompetitive national economy and the source of maximumopportunity for all workers, and therefore the priority fordeveloping work skills is paramount. Several trends are evident:

Productivity in the Service SectorHas Long Been Stagnant.

For some time the national economy has been shifting awayfrom manufacturing to service industries. From 1953 to 1984,service jobs accounted for about 90% of all new nonfarm jobs.In 1986 they accounted for 68% of the U.S. GDP and 71% ofU.S. employment. But productivity growth in the servicesector has been stagnant (zero growth from 1973 to 1985),although manufacturing productivity grew 2.2%.

Corporate Downsizing Leaves ManyDisplaced Workers Who Must Be Retrained andReturned to the Workforce.

Restructuring and reductions-in-force among the largest U.S.corporations requires retraining of displaced workers tocompete for alternative jobs. Thus, while overall unemploy-ment is not generally higher than at times in the past, reem-ployment depends more on reskilling now than in the past.Quite often “reskilling” means “taking a lower paying job.”Many high paying jobs simply no longer exist.

Output Per Worker Must Rise Because theLabor Pool Is Changing.

With slow growth in the number of new workers (about 3million new entrants per year in the late 1970s and about 1.3million new entrants per year in the early 1990s), the nation’sgoals for increasing economic growth will require an overallincrease in output per worker. This requirement contrastssharply with the prevailing belief that new workers are poorlyprepared for today’s and tomorrow’s jobs. Decreasing mathand verbal SAT scores are commonly interpreted as reflectingan overall reduction in basic, job-relevant skills (though partof the score drop is due to broader participation in testing).The increasing proportion of minorities among new workershas been used to predict lower levels of work skill becauseminorities frequently score lower on assessments of work-related skills and abilities. At the same time, many new jobsare generally thought to require higher skill levels. As a resultof these trends, we need to understand and act on the changesnow occurring regarding skill training and work expertise.

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transferred to education, training, business organizations, andindividuals in ways that efficiently and effectively increaseworkers’ skills and performance. Research needs to addressthe most fundamental skill development question “What is tobe learned?” at three key learning points—education prior toentry into the workforce, structured job-specific training, andindividual spontaneous skill acquisition.

To address skill development effectively at these learningpoints, five major thrusts need to be pursued:

(a) Linking the SCANS or other skills taxonomy to develop-ment methods and techniques is particularly critical for pre-entry educational programs that are necessarily more genericand foundational than job-specific training. The likelihood ofpre-entry education affecting work performance depends onthe relationships among program objectives, skills, and workperformance.

(b) Applying existing instructional technologies of demon-strated effectiveness for enhancing work performance offersperhaps the best promise for short-term benefits in both pre-entry educational programs and job-specific training pro-grams.

(c) The basis for developing and assessing new instructionalmethods and technologies is the clearer understanding ofcomponent skills and abilities for participation in worksettings. This mapping of skills onto work performance willbe the basis for developing instructional methods and tech-niques that are grounded in an understanding of work perfor-mance. Research should address the most effective ap-proaches to both systematic and spontaneous learning,including environmental factors, readiness factors, culturaldifferences, and retention.

(d) Because of the applications orientation of much of theresearch serving the skill development goal, it is importantthat researchers include analyses of the economic conse-quences of skill development programs. Particularly signifi-cant are the utility issues associated with reskilling programsdirected at older workers with shorter payback periods andbasic skill development programs directed at the hard-coreunemployed with lower payback probabilities. Since businessspends approximately the same (more than $200 billion peryear) on training and education as U.S. governments do forpublic education, the investigation of utility is critical.Research on utility will need to focus not only on organiza-tional utility but also on individual and societal utility.

(e) Additional basic research on the general psychology oflearning and cognition can yield knowledge that will beenormously useful in pursuing the other four thrusts.

differences between groups, or to biases.

A Model of Job Performance that Is Valid acrossWorkplaces and Links Education and TrainingTo Work Should Be a Goal of Research.

Job performance needs to be more fully examined. Perfor-mance is defined by each organization separately, dependingon its objectives and purposes and is almost always viewed asa single criterion. However, the research that has beenconducted on job performance strongly suggests the need for amultiple criterion model. Research is needed to develop aconceptual model of job performance that specifies itsdeterminants and its critical dynamic properties. Only througha comprehensive examination of the structure of work,organizational, and individual factors can we more fullyunderstand the dynamics of performance.

Researchers Can Determine the Relative Contri-butions to Job Performance of Skill, Expertise,Work Setting, and Personal Characteristics.

The primary social value motivating research on skills is theunderstanding and optimization of human work performance.Thus, we need to learn much more about the causal linkagesand moderating conditions among skill levels, skill acquisi-tion, and all important aspects of work performance. Whileconsiderable research has established the performancerelevance of cognitive abilities, biographical information, andpersonality attributes, the relative contributions of these andother personal characteristics to all aspects of work perfor-mance have not been fully established. For example, we needto study the extent to which skills differentially relate toproductivity, helping behavior, team leadership, performancereliability, dependability, and other aspects of work perfor-mance.

Also, the manner in which combinations of different skills cancompensate to cause performance is not known. This includesstudying the dynamics of skills shown in the progression frominferior to typical to maximal performance by people rangingfrom novices to experts. These research issues are captured,in part, by investigation into the creation and maintenance ofexpertise. The increasing diversity of the workforce requiresa consideration of the ways in which different combinations ofskills result in comparable job performance. This research isparticularly important in light of the “reasonable accommoda-tion” provisions of the Americans with Disabilities Act. ThisAct greatly enlarges the opportunities for persons withdisabilities to be placed in the workforce.

Researchers Can Increase Productivity byIncreasing the Education, Skill, and ExpertiseLevels of the Workforce.

The most compelling motive to support research on workskills is that national economic competitiveness would growand individual opportunity would be maximized to the extentthat knowledge about skills and performance is effectively


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CHAPTER 4

Adapting the Workplace to a Diverse Workforceedented level. Many of these people will stay in the workforce into late adulthood—both necessity and desire contribut-ing to their continuing participation. Lack of younger workerswill reduce the financial base for the social security needs ofretirees from the baby boom era and generate openings in thelabor market for older workers. At the same time, older adultsmay take advantage of continuing good health to stay inproductive and rewarding jobs. Others in retirement maymake volunteer contributions through community and educa-tional organizations, or by providing child-care or otherservices.

At present, little is known about the potential for adults tocontinue working into late life. It is known that cognitivefunctioning is a strong predictor of work behavior for ex-tended periods of time, and that older adults show measurabledeclines in cognitive function including decrements inreasoning, long-term memory, short-term memory, and spatialabilities. Additionally, aging is accompanied by psychomotorslowing on the performance of virtually any cognitive task.Older adults take approximately twice as long to acquire newcomputer software skills compared to younger adults, butgiven sufficient training time they can achieve the same levelsof performance as the young.

There is also evidence that older workers have the mosttrouble with tasks that require speed and short-term memory,such as tasks required in the job of air traffic controller. Inother professions it has been demonstrated, however, that therelationship between age and job performance is positive.Despite the documented declines, it is paradoxical thatnumerous studies have shown there are no systematic relation-ships between age and work performance. The underlyingmechanisms accounting for negative vs. positive relationshipsbetween age and work have yet to be discovered. Furtherresearch can help to find ways to maintain and enhanceworker productivity into old age.

How Do the Needs of Workers and theNature of Their Contributions ChangeDuring Their Careers?

We need to have an understanding of the process by whichindividuals make major life transitions from training programsand educational institutions into jobs and career paths. Wealso need to understand how job and career changes affectboth the individual and the work environments that he or sheenters or exits and how work motivation changes as theindividual moves from young adulthood through mid-life toretirement.

♦


To build a productive workforce, we need answers to criticalquestions:

Where, How, and How Long ShouldOlder Workers Work?

The average age of the population of the United States issteadily increasing. Due to increased longevity and decreasedbirth rates, the proportion of people who are over the age of 60is at an all-time high. Moreover, people born during the post-war baby boom are poised to enter late adulthood, increasingthe proportion of older adults in the society to an unprec-

A stable, well trained andproductive workforce dependsupon our ability to understandand anticipate adjustmentsneeded in the work roles, familyroles and organizationalstructures . . . .


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within the family are more likely to exhibit diminishedphysical and mental health as well as attendant difficulties onthe job. For the benefit of the workers, and for the resultinggains in productivity, individual and situational differencesneed to be investigated.

Review of the proportion of women in executive, managerial,and administrative positions in the United States reveals arapid increase. Department of Labor statistics show that thepercentage of women managers has increased from 16% in1970 to a current level of about 40%. Most of the “new”women managers are in entry-level managerial positions, andthey may encounter the glass ceiling without ever advancinginto middle management. The height of the glass ceiling hasbeen found to be much lower than first thought. It is estimatedthat between the years 1990 and 2005 the U.S. will need600,000 new managers and top executives, so research ongender and workplace dynamics needs to contribute not onlyto enabling women to advance beyond the glass ceiling, butalso to maximizing workgroup productivity regardless of itsgender composition and leadership. There is little empiricalfoundation for the popular literature on women’s workingrelationships, and sex role stereotypes do not offer usefulguidance for managing productive organizations.

How Can Healthy Families and Well-adjustedChildren Be Fostered in a Society in WhichParents Must Work Full Time?

Patterns of family life are changing. In 1955, 60% of Ameri-can families were composed of a male breadwinner and afemale homemaker. By 1985, that figure had dropped to lessthan 7%. The American family is in the midst of a majorstructural transition, and major adjustments are required. Toomany employed mothers of young children are exhausted, lifeis hectic for their families, and many of the social supportsthat maintained high levels of productivity among Americanworkers are diminishing or unavailable. In their place is awild variety of child care arrangements, shift and flex sched-ules, and new family and occupational stresses with which tocope. The cost in terms of lost work output and increasedhealth care costs is tremendous. Elder care is also becoming afamily issue of major concern.

A stable, well trained and productive workforce depends uponour ability to understand and anticipate adjustments needed inthe work roles, family roles and organizational structures thatsupport workers’ abilities to adapt to the changing workplacein a constructive and competitive fashion. High quality non-parental child care is not harmful to young children, but manychildren do not get it. Research on the components of anaffordable, quality care system in the United States is neededto ensure that the future workers of this country grow up to beemotionally, intellectually, and socially healthy adults. Recentresearch has clarified the relationships among employee stress,morale, participation, and investment in work organizations,but we need to know much more about the relationshipsbetween familial supports and worker performance.

Concerning the teenage years we need to learn about the linksamong part-time employment, school grades, skill acquisition,and other behavior. Some believe that working teenagersacquire skills and experiences that are useful later in life, butthe time they spend at work is time not spent on school. Thishelps to explain why employed teens have lower averagegrades and are more apt to drop out of school. As noted in theprevious section, we need to find effective ways to helpadolescents combine work and schooling, and to ease thetransition between the two “worlds.”

In addition, we also need to learn about how individualmembers of diverse subpopulations make major life transitionsfrom education and training to jobs, career paths, and careerchanges. We also must learn how work motivation andperformance changes across the life span. We need to studythe relationships between occupational choices, lifestyles, andcultural identity.

How Can We Better Use the Talents of MembersOf Ethnic and Racial Minority Groups?

As noted at the outset, a growing proportion of the workforcewill be made up of members of ethnic and racial minoritygroups in the coming decades. Historically, members of thesegroups have had limited access to the educational opportunitythat would prepare them well for productive roles in theworkforce, and there have been problems with fair hiring andpromotion practices in the workplace itself. The stigmatizingeffects of racial labels are well known. Now the nation findsthat it can no longer afford to waste the talents of any of itspeople. As recently stated by one of the nation’s governors,employment of members of ethnic and racial minority groupsis no longer just an issue of fairness or justice—it is a matterof economic necessity. The growing diversity of theworkforce presents unique opportunities and unique problemsto business and industry. The rapid growth of consultingfirms dedicated to diversity training attests to the widespreadbelief that future corporate effectiveness requires doing thingsdifferently. The empirical research base to support improvedpractices is currently negligible, and needs rapid and vigorousexpansion.

How Can the Full Potential of Women in theWorkforce Be Realized?

The U.S. Department of Labor reported 6 years ago that, forthe first time in history, more than 50% of adult women are inthe workforce. It is estimated that by the year 2000 women’sparticipation rate in the workforce will reach 63%. Theincrease in working women, coupled with the decline in theproportion of men in the workforce, calls for a better under-standing of the effects of gender on workplace dynamics.

Recent findings suggest that women are better able to com-partmentalize their work and family roles than are men, whoexhibit greater spillover between the two domains. Thisresearch suggests that men who are experiencing difficulties


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CHAPTER 5

Creating a Healthful Work Environment thatSupports Productivity

tional stress claims accounting for 11% of all claims. Theaverage cost of these claims exceeded that of all other types ofclaims. Social Security disability awards for mental disordershave surpassed all other types of awards with a prevalence rateof 25%. Nearly 600,000 workers are disabled by psychologi-cal disorders with annual payments of $5.5 billion and lostwages of $10 billion. The total direct and indirect costs forstress related and mental disorders is now about $100 billion.

Visible Costs Substantially Underestimate theTotal Cost of Mental Disorders in the Workplace

Many disorders go untreated or do not result in claims, evenwhile disrupting workplace performance. The true magnitudeof the problem is perhaps best defined by a recent NIMHstudy which found that 17% to 23% of adults were afflictedwith one or more major psychological disorders during a 6-month period, with lifetime prevalence rates between 29% and38%. Creating an effective workforce from a population inwhich 20% to 30% of the workers are emotionally or mentallyimpaired is certainly one of the more complicated tasks thatwe face in contemporary America.

In View of Their Cost, Surprisingly Little IsKnown Scientifically about Workplace-relatedPsychological Disorders

Little is known about the effects of mental disorders, emo-tional disorders, and personality disorders in the workplace.The relationships between conditions of work and mentalhealth must be specified if we are to create work situations inwhich individuals can function effectively. Even less isknown about the interaction between workplace events and thefamily life of those who are afflicted. Such knowledge isnecessary. Research is needed on the effects of pre-existingmental, emotional, or personality disorders on performance inthe workplace. These disorders influence (usually inhibit)performance at work but their effects are poorly understood.Furthermore, even the knowledge already acquired is notwidely available in the workplace where it could aid manage-ment decisions and facilitate interactions between personnel.

Research is also needed on the circumstances under whichworkplace events can create mental, emotional, or personalitydisorders in individuals not previously exhibiting them to aclinically significant degree, or exacerbate such disorders inindividuals already prone to them. At present, little is knownabout the types of events in the workplace that may cause or

The health of the nation’s workforce is one of the mostsignificant concerns of our time. There is now widespreadrecognition that psychological disorders constitute many of themost important health threats to this nation and impactnegatively on the productivity of individuals and the competi-tiveness of organizations.

One Measure of the Worker HealthProblem Is Its Present Cost

Workers compensation payments more than doubled from$13.6 billion in 1980 to $27.4 billion in 1987 with occupa-


♦

Poorly designed schedules causephysiological and behavioraldisruptions that drastically impairthe productivity, safety, and well-being of the worker.


22


exacerbate such disorders and hence there is no factual basisfor either corporate or government policies designed tomaintain a mentally healthy workforce. The extent to whichworkplace stressors represent one source of psychosomaticdisorders, leading to increased health care costs or evendisability, is not known. Research is required to examine boththe personal and financial consequences of stress-induceddisorders stemming from conditions at work. Such researchshould include the evaluation of the effects of substance abuseon workplace performance, and the role of workplace stressorsthat promote substance abuse.

We Need to Know More About HowPsychological Disorders Affect the WorkEnvironment and about How Work EnvironmentsCreate or Exacerbate Such Disorders

Research is needed to evaluate the effectiveness (costs,benefits, potency, and longevity of effects) of programs aimedat enhancing physical and mental health through exercise,motivation, and weight control. In the past decade, researchhas demonstrated that there is a direct link between behaviorand most reported health problems. Psychological disorders inthe workplace include not only what the worker brings to thejob, but what the job brings to the worker. Increased researchis needed that focuses on the prevention of psychological andmedical disorders. Four cornerstones of such research wouldinclude: (a) examination of well-designed and rewarding jobs,(b) early detection systems to detect disorders and underlyingrisk factors, (c) prevention of health problems and occupa-tional accidents in the workplace, and (d) how to optimizetraining and education of workers and managers on the signs,causes, and effects of work-related disorders. Cross-sectionalstudies and longitudinal studies are needed to build on thelimited amount of such research undertaken by the NationalInstitute of Mental Health and supported by National Instituteof Occupational Safety and Health.

We Need to Know How to Schedule ShiftworkTo Maximize Safety and Productivity

About 20 million Americans are shiftworkers. Shiftworkschedules are often poorly designed to accommodate thebody’s biological rhythms. Poorly designed schedules causephysiological and behavioral disruptions that drasticallyimpair the productivity, safety, and well-being of the worker.When the impaired workers are medical care personnel,nuclear power plant operators, or airline pilots, the safety ofmany other people is also at risk. Basic research has revealedmuch about the neural mechanisms that control the body’sbiological rhythms. Especially important is the circadiancycle underlying sleep-wakefulness, arousal, and the level ofsensory-motor and cognitive performance. In 1991 an Office

of Technology Assessment report, Biological Rhythms:Implications for the Worker, called for a program of researchto apply what is known about biological rhythms to theworkplace. Such a program could provide countermeasuresthat would improve safety and productivity.

We Need to Know How Drugs Intended toControl Some Psychological Disorders AreAffecting Performance in the Workplace

An increasingly wide variety of psychological and psychiatricdisorders are amenable to treatment with drugs. The develop-ment of drugs with fewer deleterious side-effects representsone avenue to improving both the quality of life and theproductivity of the individuals for whom these drugs areprescribed. Indeed, workplace performance might be anexplicit criterion used to determine the effectiveness of suchdrugs in clinical trials. This is already an active area ofresearch with pharmacologists, neuroscientists, psychologists,and psychiatrists providing the skills required for the develop-ment of improved drugs.

We Need to Know How Exposure toWorkplace Chemicals Affects Behavior

Some work environments involve exposure to hazardousmaterials. Psychopharmacologists, behavioral toxicologists,and other researchers can conduct research to document thebehavioral effects of exposure to a variety of toxic chemicalsin the workplace. This research would focus on the short-termand long-term effects on health and work performance ofindividuals exposed to such toxins in the course of theirassigned duties. It would also focus on the responses ofanimals experimentally exposed to toxins as a means ofestimating the type of damage expected in humans as well asthe levels of permissible exposure.

Substance Abuse at Work AlsoRequires Additional Study

Research on the causes, consequences, and prevention of drugand alcohol abuse is currently carried out in a variety ofcontexts, and should in time allow us to reduce losses inproductivity and dangers to workers due to drug abuse. Healthand safety in the workplace depends critically upon thewillingness of employees to adhere to safety regulations andbehave responsibly towards potential hazards in the workenvironment. Additional psychological research sponsored bythe National Institute of Drug Abuse, the National Institute ofOccupational Health and Safety, and the Centers for DiseaseControl can contribute greatly to the development of guide-lines and incentives for safe behavior.


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analyses of successful and unsuccessful efforts to changeorganizational practice, and thereby improve our interventiontheories.

Mathematical and Computer-basedTechniques Make It Possible to FindAnswers to Workplace-relevantQuestions that Otherwise Could Not BeInvestigated Adequately.

Mathematical modeling and computer-simulation are impor-tant avenues for understanding human cognitive processes,because of the increasing complexity of the problems beingattacked. For example, a computer-based informationretrieval system requires a model of the cognitive processes ofthe user. Among the considerations in such a model are thestructural organization of the relevant memory domain, thenature of memory retrieval, psycholinguistic and linguisticfactors, psychological similarity and association, and program-ming and machine-intelligence. The interactions inherent inlarge-scale systems make intuitive modeling and predictionsunreliable. Even when more limited aspects of cognition areexplored, the postulated underlying mechanisms are usuallycomplex enough that mathematical modeling and computersimulation are needed to guide intuitions and produce predictions.

Refinements in Research MethodologyMake Further Progress Possible.

The development and refinement of research methodologies(i.e., experimental design, measurement theory, data analysisalgorithms, statistics, and model testing procedures) is crucialto progress in the behavioral, psychological and cognitivesciences. Methodological difficulties in psychology areparticularly challenging. People differ greatly from eachother, and their behavior is highly variable and can changesignificantly over time, even within the course of a briefexperiment. Research methodology is often neglected byfunding agencies. Programs for encouraging and supportingmethodological research would provide valuable support forresearch advances in understanding work performance andskills.

Americans Should React Effectively to theMany Needs and Challenges Posed by theChanging Nature of Work.

Unprecedented collaboration between the private and publicsectors will be needed to apply our current base of scientificknowledge insightfully and to expand this same knowledge

Conclusions♦


The Psychological Sciences Can BringSignificant Capabilities and Resources toBear on the Challenges Posed by theChanging Nature of Work.

A Science-Based Approach to ProductivityIssues Holds Major Advantages.

First, new information collected within the context of scien-tific models can be combined with existing information in anorderly way. The result is development of a cumulativeintelligence that can be used to further science and to providemore effective solutions to practical problems. Second,existing research findings can be refined and extended topressing problems, thus permitting organizations to takeadvantage of a great deal of knowledge which has alreadybeen gained. A science-based approach could well reducereliance on fads in management which have consumed muchtime and many resources with little systematic gain.

Current Knowledge About Human BehaviorCan Be Applied Now to Improve WorkplaceEfficiency.

We have developed significant bodies of research methodsand findings in our studies of organizations. These scientificresources are the basis for developing integrated knowledgeand theoretical understandings of organizational change. Newresearch would build on the considerable knowledge base thathas already been established, for example, in the areas ofcognitive abilities, physical and psychomotor abilities, taskfunctions, biographical factors, and personality attributes.

Both Traditional and New ResearchTools Need to Be Applied to As YetUnanswered Questions.

Longitudinal research designs are among the traditional toolsthat, when used in actual organizations, can capture dynamicprocesses. Among new tools are the use of field observationsand videotaped records of social interactions. Such tools yieldreliable data while conveying the richness and variability ofnatural settings. For example, concepts and methods drawnfrom comparative, cognitive, developmental, and socialpsychology, animal behavior, psycholinguistics andsociolinguistics, and ethnographic anthropology and sociologyare used in the analyses of videotaped materials. Bothtraditional and emerging research tools need to be used inactual organizations to bridge the gap between basic researchand application. Worksite basic research could provide

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base. Basic psychological research will provide additionalknowledge needed to improve our effectiveness in designingequipment and work environments, organizing work, andeffecting adjustment to work.

New Partnerships among GovernmentAgencies, Universities, and IndustriesCan Provide for the Generation,Communication, and Use of New Knowledge.

If research is going to benefit organizational development andmanagement, two changes in research support need to takeplace: (a) Government and the private sector, the traditionalsupporters of basic research and applied research respectively,need to form partnerships to support a full program of basic,developmental, and applied research in organizationalbehavior and change. In this way, the historic lack of inter-change between basic research and application may becorrected. One element of this program would be support fordevelopmental research in which goals of research andsolution of practical problems are combined in integratedactivities. (b) Support for basic research needs to providemany new opportunities to study complex organizationalbehaviors in natural settings and to develop additionalresearch tools to carry out such studies. These studies requirecontributions of concepts and methods from multiple researchdisciplines, and interdisciplinary research teams need to beencouraged.

Gaining the Benefits of Research WillRequire Burden-sharing AgreementsBetween the Public and Private Sectors.

Research facilities agreements will be needed to provideopportunities for worksite and laboratory experimentation and


observation, along with research plans that relate basic,developmental, and applied research activities, and continuingevaluation. Professional organizations may serve as coordina-tors, linking academic researchers to companies and providinginformation on organization history and climate.

Special Efforts Need to Be FocusedOn Small Businesses.

Major corporations and government agencies, particularly theDepartment of Defense, have large, ongoing programs ofresearch and development that focus primarily on theirspecific needs. These efforts are generally productive, andincorporate contextual information that is crucial for conduct-ing meaningful research and development. Equivalent effortsfor small businesses would be very beneficial to our society inincreasing both productivity and worker satisfaction. Both theDepartment of Labor and the Small Business Administrationshould undertake programs of research that include grants toindustry-government-university partnerships and consortia forbasic, developmental, and applied studies of technological andsocial changes in work. The National Science Foundationcould be a useful partner and source of research managementexpertise in these programs.

Final Word

Challenges to America from the changing nature of workrequire expanded programs of basic and applied research anddevelopment aimed toward increasing American productivityand enhancing the welfare of American workers.

♦

Additional copies of this report areavailable from

American Psychological Society1010 Vermont Avenue, NWSuite1100Washington, DC 20005-4907Telephone: 202-783-2077Fax: 202-783-2083BITNET: APS@APSINTERNET: [email protected]

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