uhs 2062 lectures at utm skudai. prepared by siti rokiah siwok [email protected]

UHS 2062 LECTURES at UTM Skudai. Prepared by Siti Rokiah Siwok [email protected]

Motivation IO psychologists generally define work motivation as the internal force that drives a worker to action, as well as the external factors that encourage the actions (Locke & Latham, 2002 in Aamodt, 2007). Motivation is a force that serves three functions, namely energizes, directs and sustains

Motivation and work Ability and skill determine the employee can do the job. Motivation determines whether the employee will do the job properly. Generally psychologist agree that increased employee motivation results in increased job performance. Motivation cannot be directly observed. There are many theories of work motivation.

Many motivation theoriesmotivation theories

Needs Theories of Motivation Needs involve specific physiological or psychological deficiencies that the person /organism is driven to satisfy. Examples : Food to satisfy hunger (physiological ) Love to satisfy the need to be loved and to love (psychological )

Needs theories of Motivation Need theories are based on the idea that there are psychological needs, that lie behind human behaviour. When our needs are unmet we experience tension or disequilibrium which we try to put right; which means we behave in ways that satisfy our needs. Needs theories of motivation propose that motivation is the process of interaction among various needs and the drives to satisfy those needs.

Needs Theories of Motivaton: Basic Needs Theories 1. Need hierarchy theory ( Maslow) 2. ERG Theory ( Alderfer) Mc Clellands Achievement Motivation Theory

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological needs are the ones required for survival. Security needs involve keeping oneself free from harm. Social needs are the desire for love, friendship, and companionship. Esteem needs are the need for self-esteem and the respect of others. Self-actualization needs describe the desire to live up to ones full potential. ****People may be seeking to meet more than one category of needs at a time.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Hierarchical, meaning that the lower-level needs have to be satisfied before one is concerned with the next level (like the staircase). Each level is taken a step at a time and thus the higher level need cannot be reached until the lower- level need is satisfied The first two bottom levels are called the deficiency needs while the top two are called the growth needs.

What are the needs of these children?

What are the needs of the children?

What are the needs of these two people?

.and these?

Evaluation of Maslows Theory Maslow theory is popular and stood the test of time, but not very much supported by research. The biggest problem with regards to the levels. need there be five? Or two or three enough? What about people who skip levels? What about overlapping of levels?

ERG Theory To address the limitation of Maslows Theory,, Clayton Alderfer proposed the ERG theory, which like Maslow's theory, describes needs as a hierarchy. The ERG theory is based on the work of Maslow, so it has much in common with it but also differs in some important aspects. Overlapping of levels has been addressed by reducing the number of levels to three The letters ERG stand for three levels of needs: Existence, Relatedness, and Growth.

ERG Theory Existence = basic physiological and safety needs Relatedness = social needs Growth = needs to develop ones potential

ERG Theory Like Maslows theory, ERG theory also postulates that the once the lower level of needs have been satisfied, the next higher level becomes a stronger motivator. In addition, with the presence of various factors at the work place, such as a companys policy, ERG theory also can explain why a higher-level need sometimes do not become more important once a lower-level need has been satisfied. Different from Maslows, with ERG theory, people can skip levels.

Basic Needs Theory: Criticism Received a great deal of attention from people in various fields, especially psychology. Both theories did a good job of describing various types of needs, and, differentiating the lower-form and the higher-order needs, but neither has led to any useful application or strategy for improving work motivation. Not very useful for prediction ( Riggio, 2009)but Maslows theory is useful as guidelines ( Aamodt, 2010). Example: If we provide recognition, enrichment and a safe working placeit does increase employee motivation

Mc Clellands Achievement Motivation Theory This theory states that there are three needs central to work motivation: 1. The needs for achievement 2. The needs for power 3. The needs for affiliation

Needs for Achievement The compelling drive to succeed and to get the job done. Love the challenge of work. Motivated by the desire to get ahead of the job, to solve problems and to be outstanding in their work performances. Associated with task-oriented, preferring situations with moderate levels of risk or difficulty, and also desiring feedback on goal attainment.

Needs for power The need to direct and control the activities of others and to be influential. Status oriented More motivated to gain influence and prestige than to solve particular problems personally or reach performance goals. Two types of needs of power: 1. Personal power used for personal ends. 2. Institutional power used to achieve organizational objectives.

Needs for affiliation The desire to be likes and accepted by others. These individuals strive to foster relationships. Greatly concerned with interpersonal relationships on the job and prefers to work with others on a task. Motivated by cooperative rather than competitive work situations.

Mc Clellands Achievement Motivation Theory This theory also highlights that each person has different basic needs. Everybody has more or less of each, and each individual has a or a number of particular need/s which predominate/s

Mc Clellands Achievement Motivation Theory Employees who have a strong need for achievement are motivated by jobs that are challenging, and over which they have some control. Employees who have little achievement needs are more satisfied with jobs that involve minimal challenge; also have a high probability of success.

Mc Clellands Achievement Motivation Theory Employees who have strong need for affiliation are motivated by jobs in which they can work with and help other people. Employees who have strong need for power are motivated by jobs in which they can influence others. For this kind of employees, being successful is more meaningful when they can influence other people.

Mc Clellands Achievement Motivation Theory An application of Mc Clellands theory is to match workers motivational profiles to the requirements of jobs. Another application is achievement training programme. This theory is also related to leadership; in which the leader must be aware and responsive to the different needs of the subordinates in order to motivate them.

Mc Clellands Achievement Motivation Theory : Measurement

Mc Clellands Achievement Motivation Theory Mc Clelland used a variation of Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) in which respondents are asked to study each of a series of fairly ambiguous pictures for a few moments and then write the story it suggests One of the criticism towards Mc Clellands theory is the use of TAT, as the scoring can be unreliable. However, meta-analyses show that TAT is a reasonably good measurement tool ( Spangler, 1992 in Riggio 2009)

Behaviour-based Theories of Motivation

These theories are categorized as behaviour- based because the theories focus on behavioural outcomes as crucial in work motivation. The two theories are reinforcement theory and goal-setting theory

Reinforcement Theory Reinforcement theory is based on the principles of operant conditioning; that is, behaviour is motivated by its consequences. A consequence that follows a behaviour and serves to increase motivation to repeat the behaviour is called a reinforcer. Reinforces are of two( 2) types: 1. Positive reinforcers (rewards) 2. Negative reinforcers

Reinforcment Theory: Positive reinforcers Positive reinforcers are referred to as rewards. Desirable to the person. Examples of rewards are praise, money, appreciation etc Negative reinforcers are events that lead to the avoidance of the unwanted state or condition. Negative reinforcers increase the motivation to perform the desired behaviour again in as an effort to keep away the unwanted condition Both positive and negative reinforcers increase motivation to repeat a behaviour.

Reinforcement theory: Punishment Besides reinforcement, this theory uses punishment. Punishment is the unpleasant consequence that directly follows the performance of a behaviour. The role of the punishment is to weaken the tendency to perform a behaviour which is considered inappropriate. Reinforcement theory holds that reinforcement is better than punishment, because punishment only stops the unwanted behaviours whereas reinforcement strengthen and motivates the desired behaviour.

Schedules of Reinforcement Reinforcement in the work place takes place on a partial or occasional reinforcement schedule which can be either the interval or ratio type. For interval schedules are used, the reinforcement is based on passage of time. When ratio schedules are used, reinforcement comes after the performance of the desired behaviours.

Interval schedule 1. Fixed-interval schedule Reinforcement occurs after the passage of a specific amount of time, regardless of performance rate of the job-related behaviours. Predictable 2. Variable-interval schedule Reinforcement occurs after the passage of a non- specific amount of time; depending on the circumstances.

Ratio schedule 1. Fixed-ratio schedule Reinforcement occurs after the employee performed a number of pre-determined number of specified behaviours. Example, an employee is paid according to the number of components assembled or reports written. This type of fixed-ratio payment is called piecework. The strength of this schedule is that reinforcement is dependent on the performance of the desired behaviours. A favored schedule compared to interval schedules.

Ratio schedule 2. Variable-ratio schedule Involves reinforcement that is dependent on the performance of behaviours, but the number of responses required for a particular reinforcement varies. Example is the salesman on comission Generates very high level of motivation because : the reinforcement is dependent on the performance The surprise element ( you never know when the reinforcement is coming). That is one reason why gambling is such an additive behaviour.

Ratio schedule verses interval schedule Different types of schedule lead to different patterns of responding and thus have important implications for the use of reinforcement in motivating employees. Generally, ratio schedules results in higher motivation levels than fixed intervals. A point to ponder: majority of civil servants are paid on fixed-interval reinforcement schedules.

Reinforcement: Organizational Behaviour Modification Reinforcement principles are used informally on a day- to-day basis to motivate workers through the compensation systems and other forms of rewards for work outcomes ( Riggio, 2009, page 191) When reinforcement theory is applied formally as a program to increase employee motivation, it takes in the form of organizational behaviour modification (OBM) In OBM, target behaviours are specified, measured and rewarded.

Reinforcement: Organizational Behaviour Modification OBM have been used to motivate workers to be productive a bring about higher-quality work and to cut down absenteeism, tardiness ad work accidents. In a study by Markham, Scott and Mc Kee, 2002 in Riggio 2009), by simply recognising employees work attendance, absenteeism was reduced. In a study ( Austin, Kessler, Riccobona and Bailey, 1996 in Riggio 2009) of roofing crews, roofers were offered monetary incentives for reducing the hours to complete a roofing job Also the roofers could earn time off if they maintained high safety standards using a safety checklist.

Extrinsic versus intrinsic motivation Which one is better to implement at the work place? Why?

Incentives at the Work place: Considerations Timing of incentives Contingency of the consequences Type of incentives used Use of individual-based versus group based incentives Use of rewards versus punishment Fairness of the reward system. (Aamodt, 2010)

Goal-setting theory Emphasis on the role of specific, challenging performance goals. Employees commitment to the goals are key determinants to motivation. Goal setting theory have been used in settings outside work such as weight loss, study and exercise. Goals must clear, specific, attainable and if possible quantified.

Goal setting theory In goal setting programmes, large and challenging tasks are broken down into series of smaller more attainable goals. Example? Difficult or challenging goals may also produce greater levels of motivation, if the goals are accepted by the employees. (Example: if employees participate in goal setting, compared to goals set by supervisors.)

Goal setting theory The key element in goal setting theory is the commitment of the employee. Without the commitment, the goals will not be motivating. Strategies to influence employees commitment: Extrinsic rewards Peer pressure via individual or groups Intrinsic motivation by the use of feedback Negative reinforcement may be used too.

Goal setting theory Creates a great deal of research. Possible reasons for the effectiveness of goal-setting as a motivational technique: 1. The setting of specific challenging goals stimulate high quality planning from the employees. This quality planning contributes to better performance in achieving goals. 2. The use of feedback enhance performance

Goal setting theory Specific Measureable Attainable Relevant Time bound SMART ( Rubin, 2002 in Aamodt 2010) ? What are your definitions of SMART?

Job design theories of motivation Job design theories stress the structure and design jobs as key factors in motivating employees The proponents of this theory believe that if job are well designed, having all the elements that satisfy employees need, then employees will be motivated. What do you think?

Job designed theories of motivation Herzberg two factor theory Job Characteristics Model ( Hackman and Oldham, 1976)

Herzberg Two factor theory Herzberg argues that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are two separate and independent dimensions. His theory is based on his study on n white-collar professional workers, by asking them to describe what made them feel especially good or bad about their jobs. His results are clustered into two categories.

Two-factor theory Two-factor theory was proposed by Herzberg (1966), in which job related factors are divided into two categories: hygiene factors and motivators. Hygiene factors are those job-related elements that related from, but not involving the job itself. Examples : pay and benefits making friends (These are results of the work, but do not involve the work itself)

Herzbergs Two Factor theory 1. Motivators Factors when present seem to cause job satisfaction 2. Hygienes Factors when absent tend to cause job dissatisfaction

Herzbergs Two Factor Theory Motivators Hygienes Responsibility Achievement Recognition Content of work Advancement Growth on job Company policy and administration Supervision Interpersonal relations Working conditions (physical and social) Salary

Herzbergs theory: How to motivate employees To eliminate job dissatisfaction, basic hygiene factors must be provided. But, providing basic hygiene factors will only prevent employees dissatisfaction; it will not necessarily motivate them! Need the motivators.

Two-factor theory: Criticism This theory make sense but has not receive research support. The theory is being criticized because of the methods to develop the two factors

Comparison of Maslows, ERG and Herzberg MaslowERGHerzberg Self -actualizationGrowthMotivators Self-esteem Belonging and love (social) RelatednessHygiene factors SafetyExistence Physiological needs

Job Design Theories : Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model Hackman and Oldham proposed the job characteristics model, which states that five core job characteristics influence three critical psychological states that in turn lead to motivation. Skill variety, task identity, and task significance all affect workers experience of meaningfulness of their work. Autonomy influences workers experience of responsibility for work outcomes. Feedback provides workers with information about the results of their work activities.

Job Design Theories : Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model Skill variety: the degree to which a job requires the worker to use a variety of abilities and skills to perform work- related tasks. A job that demands a range of skills is likely to be perceived as challenging and meaningful. Task identity: The degree to which a job requires the completion of an entire job or function. The employee need to see the observable product of work efforts. Task significance: The degree to which a job has a substantial impact on other people with the organization such as coworkers or persons outside the organization such as the customers.

Job Design Theories : Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model Autonomy: the degree to which the jobs allow the employee freedom and independence to choose how to schedule and carry out the necessary tasks. Feedback: the degree to which the jobs allow the employee to receive direct and clear information about the effectiveness of performance.

Job Design Theories : Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model The five core job characteristics are assessed and then combined to produce a single motivation potential score ( MPS) using the formula: MPS MPS = (Skill variety+ Task Indentity+Task Significance) 3 X Autonomy X Feedback

Job Design Theories : Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model Besides the five core job characteristics combined to give the MPS, certain moderators can affect the success of the model in predicting employee motivation. One such moderator is growth need strength, which is an individuals need and desire for personal growth and development on the job. Improving the dimensions of the five core job characteristics have motivating effects only on those employees who are high in growth need strength.

Job Design Theories : Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model The job characteristics model involves moderators, including growth need strength the notion that certain workers feel a need to grow in their jobs. According to this theory, improving the dimensions of the five core job characteristics should motivate employees who are high in growth need strength. Employees who are low in growth need strength are not likely to be motivated by jobs that give enriched opportunities for responsibilities, autonomy and accountability.

Job Design Theories : Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model Workers must be high in growth need strength if programs such as job enrichment are going to produce motivation. Job enrichment involves redesigning jobs to give workers greater responsibility in the planning, execution, and evaluation of their work.

Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model : Instrument Hackman and Oldham developed a questionnaire to measure the five core characteristics, called the Job Diagnostic Survey ( JDS). The instrument creates a lot of interest and the results are favourable.

Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model: Application This model has been found to predict motivation of employees to come to work ( Riggio, 2009). Employees who have enriched motivating jobs have better attendance records compared to employees whose have jobs which are lacking in critical job characteristics ( Rentsh & Steel, 1998 in Riggio 2009) It was also found that employees with enriched jobs have greater psychological well-being ( de Jong et al., 2001 in Riggion, 2009)

Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model: Application The two job design theories of motivation have lead to an intervention strategy called job enrichment, which involves redesigning jobs to give employees greater responsibility in the planning, execution and evaluation of their work p/s Job enrichment is NOT the same as job enlargement

Cognitive Theories of Motivation

Cognitive theories of motivation emphasize the role that cognition plays in determining employee motivation. These theories are also based on the assumptions that employees are rational beings who cognitively assess personal costs and benefits before taking actions; 1. Equity theory 2. VIE theory

Cognitive Theories of Motivation :Equity Theory Equity theory states that workers are motivated to keep their work inputs in proportion to their outcomes.in According to equity theory, workers are motivated to reduce perceived inequities. The perception of equity/inequity is determined by comparing the workers input-outcome ratio to a similar comparison of others.

Cognitive Theories of Motivation :Equity Theory According to equity theory, lack of motivation is caused by two types of perceived inequity: 1. Underpayment inequity 2. Overpayment inequity

Underpayment inequity Will motivate these actions: Increasing outcomes Decreasing inputs Changing the comparison other Leaving the situation

Overpayment inequity Actions that will be taken: 1. Increasing inputs 2. Decreasing outcomes 3. Changing comparison others 4. Distorting the situation

Role of individual differences Research has examined the individual differences serve as moderators of equity. The construct equity sensitivity has been the focus. Individuals vary in their concerns over the equity of input-output ration

New Perspectives on Equity Theory Equity Sensitive I prefer an equity ratio equal to that of my comparison other

New Perspectives on Equity Theory Benevolent I am comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of my comparison other

New Perspectives on Equity Theory Entitled I am comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of my comparison other

Equity Theory: Application and criticism A theory well researched but majority in laboratory settings. More support in the underpayment inequity condition. Since employees have different equity sensitivity, only certain individuals are motivated by equity. Thus the ability of this theory to predict motivation is limited. No particular applications have been developed directly from this theory.

Cognitive Theories : VIE Expectancy theory (VIE theory) states that motivation is dependent on expectations concerning effortperformanceoutcome relationships. Most often associated with Vroom ( 1964); modified by Graen ( 1969) and Porter & Lawler (1968)

Expectancy Model of Motivation PerformanceReward Effort Perceived effort performance probability Perceived value of reward Perceived performance reward probability If I work hard, will I get the job done? What rewards will I get when the job is well done? What rewards do I value?

VIE Three core components: Valence : positiveness or desirability or undesirability of an outcome Instrumentality : beliefs in ones ability to perform the necessary behavior or the perceived relationship between the performance of a particular behaviour and the likelihood that a certain outcome will result. Expectancy : belief that the behavior will actually lead to the outcome.

Expectancy Theory of Motivation: Key Constructs Valence - value or importance placed on a particular reward Instrumentality - belief that performance is related to rewards Expectancy - belief that effort leads to performance

VIE Instrumentality and expectancy are probabilities expressed such as : If I spend X amount of effort, I will probably complete Y amount of work ( expectancy component) If I complete a Y amount of work, I will be likely be promoted ( instrumentality component)

VIE : Review This theory shows that motivation is a complex phenomenon, influenced by many variables. The most complicated models of motivation, but thorough. Generated huge amount of studies, both supporting and criticizing certain aspects of the theory. Researchers noted the difficulties in measuring VIE in several studies. A popular model for understanding work motivation. Although no single agreed-upon strategy for application, VIE leads to many practical suggestions for managers to motivate their employees.

The Relationship Between Motivation and Performance Numerous factors related to systems/technology variables, individual differences, group dynamics, and organizational factors may affect work performance directlyregardless of levels of worker motivation. Although motivation is important, it is only one determinant of work behavior.

Motivation is the force that drives our actions

And with the right motivation What cant we do?

References: Aamodt, M.G (2007). Industrial /organizational psychology. An applied approach. Belmont, CA: Thomson Aamodt, M.G (2010). Industrial /organizational psychology. An applied approach (6 th ed) Belmont, CA: Thomson Riggio, R. E. ( 2009). Introduction to Industrial/Organizational Psychology (5 th ed). New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall. Arnold, J ( 2005). Work Psychology. Understanding Human Behaviour in the Workplace (4 th ed). England : Pearson Education Ltd. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation http://www.wadsworth.com/cgi- wadsworth/course_products_wp.pl?fid http://www.wadsworth.com/cgi- wadsworth/course_products_wp.pl?fid http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/mcgregor/ Chapter 7 ( Motivation). Riggios Slides for Instructors.

uhs 2062 lectures at utm skudai. prepared by siti rokiah siwok [email protected]

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