ht. J. Hydrogen Energy, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 1-7, 1995 Copyright 0 1994 International Association for Hydrogen Energy

Elsevier Science Ltd 0360-3199(94)00099-9 Printed in Great Britain

036&3199/95 $9.50 + 0.00

TWENTY YEARS OF THE HYDROGEN MOVEMENT* 1974-1994

T. NEJAT VEZIROCiLUt Clean Energy Research Institute, University of Miami, FL 33124, U.S.A.

(Received for publication 9 August 1994)

Abstract-It is now the 20th anniversary of the beginning of the Hydrogen Energy Movement. Over the 20 years, there have been accomplishments in every front - from the acceptance of the concept as an answer to energy and environment related global problems, to research, development and commercialization. The Hydrogen Energy System has now taken firm roots. Activities towards the implementation are growing.

1. INTRODUCTION

It is the 20th Anniversary of the beginning of the Hydrogen Movement. It was just a little over 20 years ago, during the first international conference on Hydro- gen Energy, the Hydrogen Economy Miami Energy Conference, or the THEME Conference for short, which was held in March of 1974 in Miami Beach, Florida, U.S.A. In the afternoon of the second day, a small group, later to be named “Hydrogen Romantics”, got together: Cesare Marchetti, John Bockris, Tokio Ohta, Bill Van Vorst, Anibal Martinez, Walter Seifritz, Hussein Abdel- Aal, Bill Escher, Bob Zweig, the late Kurt Weil, myself and a few other enthusiasts, whose names escape me. There was a passionate, yet deliberate, debate. It was agreed that the Hydrogen Energy System (Fig. 1) was an idea whose time had arrived. It was the permanent solution to the depletion of conventional fuels, it was the permanent solution to the global environmental prob- lems.

Then the discussion turned to whether there was a need for a formal organization. It was Anibal Martinez of Venezuela, incidentally one who took part in setting up the petroleum cartel OPEC, who urged the founding of a society dedicated to crusade for the establishment of (what it seemed to the gathering and later proven to be so) the inevitable and the universal energy system. It was ironic that he was proposing the establishment of an organization which would make OPEC obsolete. The rest is history. IAHE was established by the end of that year, and started working in earnest.

*Presented at the opening of the 10th World Hydrogen Energy Conference, Cocoa Beach, Florida, U.S.A., 2&24 June 1994.

t President, International Association for Hydrogen Energy.

Fig. 1. A schematic diagram of the hydrogen energy system.

2. ACCOMPLISHMENTS

In spite of the fact that the competition-conventional fuels - are subsidized, since the damage they cause to the health of the people, to the well-being of this planet, and to the integrity of everything living and/or standing on it, are paid for not by conventional fuels but by the society; in spite of the fact that equivalent subsidies are not yet extended to hydrogen (for example, through a carbon tax and/or a CO, tax); in spite of these handicaps; in the twenty years since the Hydrogen Movement began, hydrogen has made significant progress, significant in- roads in several directions in the energy field - because of its unmatched superior properties and characteristics as an energy carrier.

In the twenty years, a lot of ground has been covered. There has been progress on every front. All those who took part in the Movement, all those who are taking part in this Movement, can be very proud. There is every

1

2 T. N. VEZIROCjLU

International Conferences- 10 WHEC, Cocoa Beach, 1994

9 WHEC, Paris. 1532 6 WHEC. tlonolulu. 1990

7 WHEC, t&cow, 1ssi 6 W”EC, Vienna, 1966

6 WHEC, Toronto, 1964 4 WHEC, Pasadena. 1962

3 WHEC, Tokyo. 1980 2 WHEC, Z(lrich, 1976

1 WHEC, Miami Beach, 1976 THEME Conferenc% 1974

e

I 1974 1994

Fig. 2. International conferences on hydrogen energy.

reason why we should be satisfied, why we should celebrate this milestone, the 20th Anniversary of the Hydrogen Movement. Let us survey the happenings and achievements of the last twenty years

2.1. Conferences

One of the first activities of the International Associ- ation for Hydrogen Energy was to organize the biennial World Hydrogen Energy Conferences (WHECs) to pro- vide a platform for the Hydrogen Energy community, for the scientists, energy engineers, environmentalists, deci- sion makers and the thinkers of the future of the Planet Earth.

WHEC Conferences have been to most of the major countries around the world. The first WHEC Conference was held in Miami in 1976, and the others followed in two year intervals in Zurich, Tokyo, Pasadena, Toronto, Vienna, Moscow, Honolulu, Paris, and now in Cocoa Beach (Fig. 2).

I would like to add that in parallel with the WHEC Conferences, there have been organized several other conferences dedicated to specific applications of hydro-

CADES OF HYDROGEN MO 1974-1994 -

Energy, Hydrogen Economy, Hydrogen Energy System

A

Fig. 3. Acceptance of “hydrogen energy”, “hydrogen economy”, “hydrogen energy system” concepts.

/TWO DECADES OF HYDROGEN MOVEMENT’ 1974-1994

I .

Organizations Dedicated to Hydrogen Energy A

none China “ydr~ge” Assoc. Korea” Hydrogen ASSCC Swdlrh “ydropsn AIWK. A.R.H.A. ,“.S.A.) CAN. ,“.S.A., “J.C. (Canada, WCTC-CMOC,~~~~ZWI~“~, W.F.C.C.(Gsmlny)

’ Before 1974 1994

Fig. 4. Organizations dedicated to hydrogen energy.

gen, such as on transportation, on fuel cells, on hydrogen- metal interactions, etc. Also the number of national and international conferences devoted to hydrogen energy, or having sessions on hydrogen energy, are increasing in number.

2.2. Concept

Before the THEME Conference, little attention was paid to hydrogen as an energy carrier. The words “Hydrogen Energy”, “Hydrogen Economy”, “Hydrogen Energy System” were unknown even to most of those well-versed in energy.

Today, these words are well-known and accepted (Fig. 3). Not only the scientists and engineers, but also the public at large is becoming exposed to the concept. We see more and more articles and news items in the popular press about the environmental benefits of hydrogen, about hydrogen as the fuel of the future, and about happenings in hydrogen energy technologies.

The expressions “Hydrogen Energy”, “Hydrogen Economy”, “ Hydrogen Energy System” have entered the scientific literature, newspapers and into everyday vocabulary.

2.3. Organizations

Twenty years ago, there was no organization dedicated to hydrogen energy. Today, national and international organizations devoted to hydrogen energy or to the applications of its unique and particular properties, cover the globe from one end to the other, from the United States to Japan, from Korea to Sweden. As it can be seen from Fig. 4, there are at least 13 such organizations and their numbers are growing. Many of these organizations are also forming alliances with environmental groups, establishing chapters and educating the uninitiated.

2.4. Periodicals

Twenty years ago, there was no periodical dedicated to hydrogen energy. The International Journal of Hydro- gen Energy (IJHE), which is the official journal of the

TWENTY YEARS OF THE HYDROGEN MOVEMENT 3

TWO DECADES OF HYDROGEN MOVEMENT 1974-1994 I

Periodicals

Int J. Hydrogen Energy Hydrogene InformatIon (France) H.E.S.S. Journal (Japan)

none The Hydrogen Letter (U.S.A.) H, Digest (U.S.A.) Hydrogen Today (U.S.A.) Fuel Cells Newsletter (U.S.A.) E.E.T.E. (Russia)

Before 1974 1994

Fig. 5. Periodicals on hydrogen energy.

International Association for Hydrogen Energy (IAHE), is in its 20th year. In 1975, it started as a quarterly. Three years later, it became bimonthly; in 1982, it became monthly. We just had to increase the page budget because of the growing number of the papers being received. In addition to IJHE, there are now several other periodicals

not only in English, but also in many other languages (Fig. 5).

2.5. Books

The number of hydrogen energy related books has shown an exponential growth over the last 20 years. The THEME and the WHEC Conference proceedings now stand at 40 volumes. In addition, dozens of volumes have been published on hydrogen energy, hydrogen fuelled transportation, hydrogen fuel cells, hydrogen-metal in- teractions in all the major languages of the world (Fig. 6).

2.6. Visual programs

Twenty years ago, we heard little or nothing in the visual media about hydrogen, with the exception that it

TWO DECADES OF HYDROGEN MOVEMENT 1974-1994

Books A

none

Proceedklgs: WHEC (40 vols)

Books In: English Japanese GbrllWl Rlmslan French ltallan Spanish Polish

Before 1974 1994

TV Documentaries

Before 1974 1994 1

Fig. 7. Visual programs on hydrogen energy.

was the fuel for the rockets in space programs. Since then, many imaginative and popular programs and documen- taries have been produced by major television organiza- tions and companies working on hydrogen energy tech- nologies (Fig. 7).

2.7. Electric power generation

Hydrogen is a unique fuel with unmatched properties. One of its unique properties is that it can be converted to electricity electro-chemically in fuel cells with high efficiencies. It is not subject to the limitations of the Carnot Cycle, which is the case with the present day thermal power plants - whether they burn fossil fuels or nuclear fuels. Because of this high utilization efficiency advantage of hydrogen, electric utilities, electric power equipment manufacturers and power industry research organizations have taken a particular interest in electric power generation through hydrogen fuel cells. Tokyo Electric Utility started experimenting with a 4.5 MW Pratt and Whitney fuel cell years ago. Now, they have a second, an 11 MW fuel cell, on line. Major power generating equipment manufacturers have become in- volved in research, development and marketing of hy- drogen fuel cell power plants. Several new companies have been formed specifically to work on fuel cells (Fig. 8).

There are many types of fuel cells. They have different and unique properties making each type suitable for a particular application: phosphoric acid fuel cells, alkaline fuel cells, proton exchange membrane fuel cells, molten carbonate fuel cells, and solid oxide fuel cells. Some of these have aheady been commercialized, demonstration projects have been started for some, and the others are in the research and developmental stage.

In addition to having high utilization efficiencies, hydrogen fuel cells are clean (the only by-product being water), and quiet (i.e. no moving parts). They are versatile; they can be used for large scale power generation in central power plants, as well as for small scale electricity production in distributed mode. Because of all these unique characteristics, there is no doubt that hydrogen

Fig. 6. Books on hydrogen energy. fuel cell generating capacity will grow fast.

4 T. N. VEZIROC;LU

/TWO DECADES OF HYDROG 1974-1994

Electric Power Pr

r

none Ey ~

Before 1974 1994

Fig. 8. Companies and organizations involved in hydrogen fuel cell electric power generation.

2.8. Surface vehicles

Hydrogen’s unique properties make it suitable as a fuel for motive power, both for I.C. engine powered vehicles and electric powered vehicles. In addition to its unsurpassed environmental characteristics, the lean burn- ing property of hydrogen makes it a suitable and efficient fuel for stop-and-go type city driving. Mazda Corporation of Japan has reported that hydrogen is the best fuel for WHnkel Engines.

The efficiency advantage of hydrogen fuel cells is being put into use in electric cars, in which hydrogen fuel cells provide the motive power rather than electric batteries. Hydrogen fuel cells can and do overcome the short driving range, poor acceleration, and low velocity handi- caps of battery powered electric cars. As it can be seen from Fig. 9, all the major car companies of the world are now involved in research and development of hydrogen fueled motor vehicles. Some of these companies are preparing to offer hydrogen fueled cars in 1998 in California, and in other states and countries, which may pass zero emission vehicle laws.

Y Land Vehicles A

-I GM I I Ballard

none Energy Partners H-Power

/ Before,g74 lki!!g4 I

DECADES OF HYDROGEN MOVEM 1974-1994

Naval Applications

Fig. 10. Naval applications of hydrogen..

2.9. Naval applications

Because it does not produce any harmful chemicals, because of its stealth characteristics, because its higher efficiency will provide longer under water cruising range, the German Navy has decided that its next generation of submarines will have hydrogen fuel cell power plants. Also, the Australian Navy is experimenting with hydro- gen fuel cells in their submarines. The Canadian Navy will do likewise (Fig. 10). Of course, because of the aforementioned characteristics, hydrogen is the right fuel for sea surface transportation, as well.

2.10. Space programs

Before 1974, hydrogen was used in rockets by the Soviet and the United States space programs. Now, the other countries which have space programs, have joined them and are using hydrogen as the staple fuel of their space programs, because of another unsurpassed, unmatched property of hydrogen - that of being the lightest fuel (Fig. 11).

Space Transportation

’ Before1974 1994

Fig. 9. Companies involved in hydrogen fuelled vehicles. Fig. 11. Hydrogen in space programs.

TWENTY YEARS OF THE HYDROGEN MOVEMENT 5

TWO DECADES OF 1974-1994

Aerospace Planes

none

U.S. Shuttle Russlan Shuttle European Slinger National Aerospace Plane

Boeing Lockheed McDonnell Douglas Rocketdyne Rockwell International Pratt (I Whitney

Before 1974 1994

Fig. 12. Hydrogen in aerospace planes.

2.11. Aerospace planes

Before 1974, there were no aerospace planes, which of course would have used hydrogen as fuel, because it is the fuel of choice for space programs. Today, we have the American shuttle visiting space, putting communica- tion satellites, observation satellites in orbit, and conduc- ting various scientific experiments. Russia has built a shuttle which can land automatically, without a pilot being in charge. The European two plane Sanger System is on the drawing board, and studies are being conducted as to its practicality. Extensive research and developmen- tal work has been done on the engines, materials and structure of the U.S. National Aerospace Plane with the involvement of the major aerospace companies (Fig. 12). The fuel selected for this plane is the so-called “slush hydrogen” - a mixture of liquid and solid hydrogen - which makes use of another useful property of hydrogen, resulting in reduction of storage size. The latest decision is to continue with research and development work, rather than build a prototype. There is no doubt that the experience gained will be of immense value in building tomorrow’s hypersonic passenger transport - of course, to be fuelled by hydrogen.

2.12. Airplanes

In 1956, a Pratt & Whitney developed hydrogen fueled turbo-jet engine was mounted on one side of a B-57 bomber and some in-flight data were collected. After 1974, hydrogen fueled airplane activities have increased (Fig. 13). In 1988, retired Pan American pilot Bill Conrad converted a four seater Grumman Cheetah to hydrogen. The power plant was a liquid hydrogen fueled I.C. engine. It became the first airplane to take-off, cruise and land on hydrogen power alone, at the Fort Lauderdale Inter- national Airport, Florida, U.S.A.

This was followed by the testing of a hydrogen jet engine mounted on a Tupolev 154 Transport (which was renumbered 155) in Russia. Germany and Russia have signed an agreement of cooperation for the development of hydrogen fueled air transportation.

The European Airbus Company has initiated a pro- gram of research and development work for hydrogen fueled air transport. Their studies indicate that, although hydrogen costs more than jet fuel, the airfares for hydrogen fueled air transportation would be competitive with today’s airfares, because of the great weight and energy savings with (the much lighter) hydrogen fuel.

Japan has initiated research and development work on a hypersonic transport, for which hydrogen is expected to be the fuel of choice, because of its excellent combustion properties, light weight and environmental compatibility.

2.13. Hydride applications

One of the unique properties of hydrogen is that it will combine with certain metals and alloys easily, in large amounts, forming hydrides in exothermic chemical reac- tions. When hydrides are supplied with heat, hydrogen is released. The temperature and pressure characteristics vary for different metals and alloys. Advantage is being taken of these properties for many electrochemical and thermochemical applications (Fig. 14). Smaller size hy- drogen hydride batteries are already commercial. Bigger batteries for electric cars are being developed.

WO DECADES OF HYDROGEN MOVEMENT 1974-1994

Air Transportation

German-Rusrlan

y Hydride Applications P;~:;T: /- i

none

Computer Batterlea Electric Car Bathrles Air Condltionlng Refttgmtlon Heat Pumps Hydrogen Btamge

CO~pdeS: Electrometallurgle GmbH Energy Conversion Dwkes Ergenlcs Ovonlcs

I Before 1974 1994

Fig. 14. Hydrogen hydride applications. Fig. 13. Hydrogen in air transportation.

6 T. N. VEZIROGLU

ECADES OF HYDROGEN MOVEMENT 1974-1994

- Catalytic Combustion Applications

I Before 1974 1994

Fig. 15. Hydrogen catalytic combustion applications.

There are demonstration projects for hydrogen-hy- dride air conditioning, refrigeration and heat pumps. They do not need chloroflorocarbons, and as such they will not damage the ozone layer. Conversion to hydro- gen-hydride air conditioning and refrigeration systems will put a definite stop to ozone layer depletion.

2.14. Catalytic combustion

Another unique property of hydrogen is the flameless combustion or the catalytic combustion in the presence of small amounts of catalysts, such as platinum or palladium. Catalytic combustion applications have many advantages over those of flame combustion applications: They are safer, they have higher second law efficiencies, as well as being environmentally compatible. Many residential and commercial appliances have been devel- oped using this unique property of hydrogen (Fig. 15).

2.15. International programs

Today the German/Saudi Arabian Hy-Solar Project is producing solar hydrogen in the world’s biggest petro-

TWO DECADES OF HYDROGEN MOVEMENT

I UNDO-ICHET

1 Before 1974 1994

Fig. 16. Hydrogen energy international programs.

ECADES OF HYDROGEN MOVE 1974-1994

International Standards

none

Before 1974

ISOTTC-197 Committee * Detlnlilons . Measurements . . . Handling . safety . Vehicles *Aerospace . Electra-Chemlcsl Devbxs . . Hydrides . Envlronmsnt . Appllcatlons

1994

Fig. 17. International standards for hydrogen energy technologies.

leum country. Saudi Arabians expect eventually to be the permanent exporters of energy, in the form of solar hydrogen; and they are preparing for it.

The Euro-Quebec Project is in its fifth year and moving ahead in all fronts. They are looking into applications of relatively inexpensive hydro power produced liquid hy- drogen imported to Europe from Canada - applications such as city bus transportation and smelting of iron, as well as the development of infrastructure for overseas transportation and storage of liquid hydrogen. Norway and Germany are planning to initiate a similar program.

Japanese WE-NET Program is the most ambitious and most comprehensive hydrogen program in the world. Japan expects to spend about $3 billion over the next 28 years to achieve - what amounts to - in a deliberate and planned way, conversion to hydrogen.

The Space Station, which will use hydrogen for trans- portation, hydrogen fuel cells to provide electricity and potable water, is another important international pro- gram based on hydrogen energy.

Planning for the United Nations Industrial Develop- ment Organization’s International Centre for Hydrogen Energy Technologies (to be established in Istanbul, Turkey) is moving ahead (Fig. 16).

2.16. International standards

Of course, no technology can take roots without stan- dards, and no universal technology can be established without international standards. In 1990, the Interna- tional Standards Organization, based in Geneva, Swit- zerland (which is now an affiliated organization of the United Nations), with the initiative and representations of Gustov Grob of Switzerland, had decided that the time had arrived for preparing international standards for hydrogen energy technologies. They established a com- mittee, ISO/TC-197 Committee, to prepare such stan- dards. In its first meeting, the Committee formed 10 sub-committees, listed in Fig. 17, to work on the standards of hydrogen energy technologies. It is gratifying to know that the Committee’s work is moving ahead, and it had

TWENTY YEARS OF THE HYDROGEN MOVEMENT 7

its fourth meeting the week before the 1OWHEC Con- ference.

3. CONCLUDING REMARKS

In the 20 years, 1974 through 1994, Hydrogen Energy moved in all fronts, making in-roads in all areas of energy. Because of the unrelenting work of scientists, engineers and dreamers, such as the participants of the WHEC Conferences, such as the membership of the International Association for Hydrogen Energy, we can all rejoice in

the progress made in the last 20 years, and this progress has been substantial.

In the next 20 years, the progress will be many fold greater, and Hydrogen Energy System will provide the Planet Earth, the only one known to be hospitable to life, with the energy system it deserves: clean, efficient and abundant energy.

My friends, my colleagues, pioneers of the hydrogen age, your efforts will expedite the spread of the clean and abundant energy system, enhance the quality of life for the peoples of the world, and help preserve our biosphere. I wish you Godspeed.