Tsunami

For other uses, see Tsunami (disambiguation).

2011 Thoku earthquake and tsunami, An aerial view of damagein the Sendai region with black smoke coming from the NipponOil Sendai oil refinery

A tsunami (plural: tsunamis or tsunami; from Japanese:, lit. harbour wave";*[1] English pronunciation:/sunmi/ or /tsunmi/*[2]) , also known as a seis-mic sea wave or as a tidal wave, is a series of wavesin a body of water caused by the displacement of a largevolume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake.Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater ex-plosions (including detonations of underwater nuclear de-vices), landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite impacts andother disturbances above or below water all have the po-tential to generate a tsunami.*[3] In being generated bythe displacement of water, a tsunami contrasts both witha normal ocean wave generated by wind and with tides,which are generated by the gravitational pull of the Moonand the Sun on bodies of water.Tsunami waves do not resemble normal sea waves, be-cause their wavelength is far longer. Rather than appear-ing as a breaking wave, a tsunami may instead initiallyresemble a rapidly rising tide, and for this reason theyare often referred to as tidal waves. Tsunamis generallyconsist of a series of waves with periods ranging fromminutes to hours, arriving in a so-called wave train.*[4] Wave heights of tens of metres can be generated bylarge events. Although the impact of tsunamis is limitedto coastal areas, their destructive power can be enormousand they can affect entire ocean basins; the 2004 IndianOcean tsunami was among the deadliest natural disastersin human history with at least 230,000 people killed ormissing in 14 countries bordering the Indian Ocean.The Greek historian Thucydides suggested in his late-

5th century BC History of the Peloponnesian War, thattsunamis were related to submarine earthquakes,*[5]*[6]but the understanding of a tsunami's nature remained slimuntil the 20th century and much remains unknown. Ma-jor areas of current research include trying to determinewhy some large earthquakes do not generate tsunamiswhile other smaller ones do; trying to accurately forecastthe passage of tsunamis across the oceans; and also toforecast how tsunami waves would interact with specificshorelines.

Taken at Ao Nang, Krabi Province, Thailand, during the 2004Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami in Thailand

3D tsunami simulation

1 Terminology

Numerous terms are used in the English language to de-scribe waves created in a body of water by the displace-ment of water. None of the terms in frequent use areentirely accurate.

1

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2 2 HISTORY

Tsunami warning bilingual sign in Ulee Lheue, Banda Aceh inAcehnese and Indonesian

1.1 Tsunami

The term tsunami, meaning harbor wavein literaltranslation, comes from the Japanese, composed ofthe two kanji (tsu) meaning "harbour" and (nami),meaning "wave". (For the plural, one can either followordinary English practice and add an s, or use an invari-able plural as in the Japanese.*[7])There are only a few other languages that have an equiva-lent native word. In Acehnese language, the words are ibeuna*[8] or aln buluk*[9] (depending on the dialect).In Tamil language, it is aazhi peralai. On Simeulue is-land, off the western coast of Sumatra in Indonesia, inDevayan language the word is smong, while in Sigulai lan-guage it is emong.*[10]In Singkil (in Aceh province) and surrounding, the peopleuse the word gloro/galoro for tsunami.*[11]*[12] In Niaslanguage, it is called oloro/galoro*[13] and in Ende it iscalled ae mesi nuka tana lala*[14]

1.2 Tidal wave

Tsunami aftermath in Aceh, Indonesia.

Tsunami are sometimes referred to as tidal waves.*[15]

This once-popular term derives from the most commonappearance of tsunami, which is that of an extraordinarilyhigh tidal bore. Tsunami and tides both produce waves ofwater that move inland, but in the case of tsunami the in-land movement of water may be much greater, giving theimpression of an incredibly high and forceful tide. In re-cent years, the termtidal wavehas fallen out of favor,especially in the scientific community, because tsunamiactually have nothing to do with tides, which are pro-duced by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun ratherthan the displacement of water. Although the meaningsoftidalincluderesembling*[16] orhaving theform or character of*[17] the tides, use of the term tidalwave is discouraged by geologists and oceanographers.

1.3 Seismic sea wave

The term seismic sea wave also is used to refer to thephenomenon, because the waves most often are gener-ated by seismic activity such as earthquakes.*[18] Priorto the rise of the use of the termtsunamiin English-speaking countries, scientists generally encouraged theuse of the termseismic sea waverather than the in-accurate termtidal wave.However, liketsunami,seismic sea waveis not a completely accurate term,as forces other than earthquakes including underwa-ter landslides, volcanic eruptions, underwater explosions,land or ice slumping into the ocean, meteorite impacts, oreven the weather when the atmospheric pressure changesvery rapidly can generate such waves by displacing wa-ter.*[19]*[20]

2 History

See also: List of historic tsunamisWhile Japan may have the longest recorded history of

Lisbon earthquake and tsunami in 1755

tsunamis, the sheer destruction caused by the 2004 IndianOcean earthquake and tsunami event mark it as the mostdevastating of its kind in modern times, killing around230,000 people.*[21] The Sumatran region is not unused

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3.1 Seismicity 3

The Russians of Pavel Lebedev-Lastochkin in Japan, with theirships tossed inland by a tsunami, meeting some Japanese in 1779

to tsunamis either, with earthquakes of varying magni-tudes regularly occurring off the coast of the island.*[22]Tsunamis are an often underestimated hazard in theMediterranean Sea region and Europe in general. Ofhistorical and current (with regard to risk assumptions)importance are e.g. the 1755 Lisbon earthquake andtsunami (which was caused by the AzoresGibraltarTransform Fault), the 1783 Calabrian earthquakes, eachcausing several ten thousand deaths and the 1908Messinaearthquake and tsunami. The latter took more than123,000 lives in Sicily and Calabria and is among themost deadly natural disasters in modern Europe. TheStoregga Slide in the Norwegian sea and some examplesof Tsunamis affecting the British Isles refer to landslideand meteotsunamis predominatly and less to earth quakeinduced waves.As early as 426 BC the Greek historian Thucydides in-quired in his book History of the Peloponnesian Warabout the causes of tsunami, and was the first to arguethat ocean earthquakes must be the cause.*[5]*[6]

The cause, in my opinion, of this phe-nomenon must be sought in the earthquake. Atthe point where its shock has been the most vi-olent the sea is driven back, and suddenly re-coiling with redoubled force, causes the inun-dation. Without an earthquake I do not see howsuch an accident could happen.*[23]

The Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus (Res Ges-tae 26.10.15-19) described the typical sequence of atsunami, including an incipient earthquake, the suddenretreat of the sea and a following gigantic wave, after the365 AD tsunami devastated Alexandria.*[24]*[25]

3 Generation mechanisms

The principal generation mechanism (or cause) of atsunami is the displacement of a substantial volume ofwater or perturbation of the sea.*[26] This displacement

of water is usually attributed to either earthquakes, land-slides, volcanic eruptions, glacier calvings or more rarelyby meteorites and nuclear tests.*[27]*[28] The wavesformed in this way are then sustained by gravity. Tidesdo not play any part in the generation of tsunamis.

3.1 Seismicity

Tsunami can be generated when the sea floor abruptly de-forms and vertically displaces the overlying water. Tec-tonic earthquakes are a particular kind of earthquakethat are associated with the Earth's crustal deformation;when these earthquakes occur beneath the sea, the wa-ter above the deformed area is displaced from its equilib-rium position.*[29] More specifically, a tsunami can begenerated when thrust faults associated with convergentor destructive plate boundaries move abruptly, resultingin water displacement, owing to the vertical componentof movement involved. Movement on normal faults willalso cause displacement of the seabed, but the size of thelargest of such events is normally too small to give rise toa significant tsunami.

Drawing of tectonic plate boundary beforeearthquake

Overriding plate bulges under strain, causingtectonic uplift.

Plate slips, causing subsidence and releasing energyinto water.

The energy released produces tsunami waves.

Tsunamis have a small amplitude (wave height) offshore,and a very long wavelength (often hundreds of kilome-tres long, whereas normal ocean waves have a wavelengthof only 30 or 40 metres),*[30] which is why they gen-erally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a slight swellusually about 300 millimetres (12 in) above the normalsea surface. They grow in height when they reach shal-lower water, in a wave shoaling process described below.A tsunami can occur in any tidal state and even at low tidecan still inundate coastal areas.On April 1, 1946, a magnitude-7.8 (Richter Scale) earth-quake occurred near the Aleutian Islands, Alaska. It gen-erated a tsunami which inundated Hilo on the island ofHawai'i with a 14-metre high (46 ft) surge. The areawhere the earthquake occurred is where the Pacific Oceanfloor is subducting (or being pushed downwards) underAlaska.Examples of tsunami originating at locations away fromconvergent boundaries include Storegga about 8,000years ago, Grand Banks 1929, Papua New Guinea 1998(Tappin, 2001). The Grand Banks and Papua NewGuinea tsunamis came from earthquakes which desta-bilised sediments, causing them to flow into the ocean

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4 3 GENERATION MECHANISMS

and generate a tsunami. They dissipated before travelingtransoceanic distances.The cause of the Storegga sediment failure is unknown.Possibilities include an overloading of the sediments, anearthquake or a release of gas hydrates (methane etc.).The 1960 Valdivia earthquake (Mw 9.5), 1964 Alaskaearthquake (Mw 9.2), 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake(Mw 9.2), and 2011 Thoku earthquake (Mw9.0) are re-cent examples of powerful megathrust earthquakes thatgenerated tsunamis (known as teletsunamis) that cancross entire oceans. Smaller (Mw 4.2) earthquakes inJapan can trigger tsunamis (called local and regionaltsunamis) that can only devastate nearby coasts, but cando so in only a few minutes.

3.2 Landslides

In the 1950s, it was discovered that larger tsunamis thanhad previously been believed possible could be caused bygiant submarine landslides. These rapidly displace largewater volumes, as energy transfers to the water at a ratefaster than the water can absorb. Their existence wasconfirmed in 1958, when a giant landslide in Lituya Bay,Alaska, caused the highest wave ever recorded, which hada height of 524 metres (over 1700 feet).*[31] The wavedid not travel far, as it struck land almost immediately.Two people fishing in the bay were killed, but anotherboat amazingly managed to ride the wave.Another landslide-tsunami event occurred in 1963 whena massive landslide fromMonte Toc went into the VajontDam in Italy. The resulting wave overtopped the 262 m(860 ft) high dam by 250 metres (820 ft) and destroyedseveral towns. Around 2,000 people died.*[32]*[33] Sci-entists named these waves megatsunami. Scientists dis-covered that extremely large landslides from volcanic is-land collapses may be able to generate megatsunamis thatcan cross oceans.In general, landslides generate displacements mainly inthe shallower parts of the coastline, and there is conjec-ture about the nature of truly large landslides that end inwater. This is proven to lead to huge effect in closed baysand lakes, but an open oceanic landslide large enough tocause a tsunami across an ocean has not yet happenedsince before seismology has been a major area of scien-tific study, and only very rarely in human history. Sus-ceptible areas focus for now on the islands of Hawaii andLa Palma in the Canary Islands, where large masses ofrelatively unconsolidated volcanic shield on slopes occur.Considerable doubt exists about how loosely linked theseslopes actually are.*[34]

3.3 Meteotsunamis

Some meteorological conditions, especially deepdepressions such as tropical cyclones, can generate a

Devastation wrought by Hurricane Ike's meteotsunamic stormsurge over the Bolivar Peninsula in 2008.

type of storm surge called a meteotsunami which raiseswater heights above normal levels, often suddenly at theshoreline.*[35]In the case of deep tropical cyclones, this is due to verylow atmospheric pressure and inward swirling winds caus-ing an uplifted dome of water to form under and travel intandem with the storm. When these water domes reachshore, they rear up in shallows and surge laterally likeearthquake-generated tsunamis, typically arriving shortlyafter landfall of the storm's eye.*[36]*[37]

3.4 Man-made or triggered tsunamis

See also: Tsunami bomb

There have been studies and at least one attempt to createtsunami waves as a tectonic weapon or whether humanbehavior may trigger tsunamis, e.g. in the (debunked)Clathrate gun hypothesis.In World War II, the New Zealand Military Forces ini-tiated Project Seal, which attempted to create smalltsunamis with explosives in the area of today's ShakespearRegional Park; the attempt failed.*[38]There has been considerable speculation on the possibil-ity of using nuclear weapons to cause tsunamis near toan enemy coastline. Even during World War II consid-eration of the idea using conventional explosives was ex-plored. Nuclear testing in the Pacific Proving Ground bythe United States seemed to generate poor results. Op-eration Crossroads fired two 20 kilotonnes of TNT (84TJ) bombs, one in the air and one underwater, above andbelow the shallow (50 m (160 ft)) waters of the BikiniAtoll lagoon. Fired about 6 km (3.7 mi) from the near-est island, the waves there were no higher than 34 m(9.813.1 ft) upon reaching the shoreline. Other under-water tests, mainly Hardtack I/Wahoo (deep water) andHardtack I/Umbrella (shallow water) confirmed the re-sults. Analysis of the effects of shallow and deep un-derwater explosions indicate that the energy of the ex-

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5

plosions doesn't easily generate the kind of deep, all-ocean waveforms which are tsunamis; most of the energycreates steam, causes vertical fountains above the water,and creates compressional waveforms.*[39] Tsunamis arehallmarked by permanent large vertical displacements ofvery large volumes of water which don't occur in explo-sions.

4 Characteristics

When the wave enters shallow water, it slows down and its am-plitude (height) increases.

The wave further slows and amplifies as it hits land. Only thelargest waves crest.

Tsunamis cause damage by two mechanisms: the smash-ing force of a wall of water travelling at high speed, andthe destructive power of a large volume of water drainingoff the land and carrying a large amount of debris with it,even with waves that do not appear to be large.While everyday wind waves have a wavelength (fromcrest to crest) of about 100 metres (330 ft) and a height ofroughly 2 metres (6.6 ft), a tsunami in the deep ocean hasa much larger wavelength of up to 200 kilometres (120mi). Such a wave travels at well over 800 kilometres perhour (500 mph), but owing to the enormous wavelengththe wave oscillation at any given point takes 20 or 30 min-utes to complete a cycle and has an amplitude of onlyabout 1 metre (3.3 ft).*[40] This makes tsunamis diffi-cult to detect over deep water, where ships are unable tofeel their passage.The reason for the Japanese name harbour waveisthat sometimes a village's fishermen would sail out, andencounter no unusual waves while out at sea fishing, and

come back to land to find their village devastated by ahuge wave.As the tsunami approaches the coast and the waters be-come shallow, wave shoaling compresses the wave and itsspeed decreases below 80 kilometres per hour (50 mph).Its wavelength diminishes to less than 20 kilometres (12mi) and its amplitude grows enormously. Since the wavestill has the same very long period, the tsunami may takeminutes to reach full height. Except for the very largesttsunamis, the approachingwave does not break, but ratherappears like a fast-moving tidal bore.*[41] Open baysand coastlines adjacent to very deep water may shapethe tsunami further into a step-like wave with a steep-breaking front.When the tsunami's wave peak reaches the shore, the re-sulting temporary rise in sea level is termed run up. Runup is measured in metres above a reference sea level.*[41]A large tsunami may feature multiple waves arriving overa period of hours, with significant time between the wavecrests. The first wave to reach the shore may not have thehighest run up.*[42]About 80% of tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean, butthey are possible wherever there are large bodies of water,including lakes. They are caused by earthquakes, land-slides, volcanic explosions, glacier calvings, and bolides.

5 Drawback

An illustration of the rhythmic drawbackof surface waterassociated with a wave. It follows that a very large drawbackmay herald the arrival of a very large wave.

All waves have a positive and negative peak, i.e. a ridgeand a trough. In the case of a propagating wave like atsunami, either may be the first to arrive. If the first partto arrive at shore is the ridge, a massive breaking waveor sudden flooding will be the first effect noticed on land.However if the first part to arrive is a trough, a draw-back will occur as the shoreline recedes dramatically, ex-posing normally submerged areas. Drawback can exceedhundreds of metres, and people unaware of the dangersometimes remain near the shore to satisfy their curiosityor to collect fish from the exposed seabed.A typical wave period for a damaging tsunami is about12 minutes. This means that if the drawback phase isthe first part of the wave to arrive, the sea will recede,with areas well below sea level exposed after 3 minutes.During the next 6 minutes the tsunami wave trough buildsinto a ridge, and during this time the sea is filled in anddestruction occurs on land. During the next 6minutes, thetsunami wave changes from a ridge to a trough, causing

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6 7 WARNINGS AND PREDICTIONS

flood waters to drain and drawback to occur again. Thismay sweep victims and debris some distance from land.The process repeats as the next wave arrives.

6 Scales of intensity and magni-tude

As with earthquakes, several attempts have been made toset up scales of tsunami intensity or magnitude to allowcomparison between different events.*[43]

6.1 Intensity scales

The first scales used routinely to measure the intensityof tsunami were the Sieberg-Ambraseys scale, used in theMediterranean Sea and the Imamura-Iida intensity scale,used in the Pacific Ocean. The latter scale was modifiedby Soloviev, who calculated the Tsunami intensity I ac-cording to the formula

I =1

2+ log2 Hav

where Hav is the average wave height along the near-est coast. This scale, known as the Soloviev-Imamuratsunami intensity scale, is used in the global tsunami cat-alogues compiled by the NGDC/NOAA*[44] and theNovosibirsk Tsunami Laboratory as the main parameterfor the size of the tsunami.In 2013, following the intensively studied tsunamis in2004 and 2011, a new 12 point scale was proposed,the Integrated Tsunami Intensity Scale (ITIS-2012), in-tended to match as closely as possible to the modifiedESI2007 and EMS earthquake intensity scales.*[45]

6.2 Magnitude scales

The first scale that genuinely calculated a magnitude fora tsunami, rather than an intensity at a particular locationwas the ML scale proposed by Murty & Loomis based onthe potential energy.*[43] Difficulties in calculating thepotential energy of the tsunami mean that this scale israrely used. Abe introduced the tsunami magnitude scaleMt , calculated from,

Mt = a logh+ b logR = D

where h is the maximum tsunami-wave amplitude (in m)measured by a tide gauge at a distance R from the epicen-tre, a, b and D are constants used to make the Mt scalematch as closely as possible with the moment magnitudescale.*[46]

7 Warnings and predictions

See also: Tsunami warning systemDrawbacks can serve as a brief warning. People who ob-

Tsunami warning sign

serve drawback (many survivors report an accompanyingsucking sound), can survive only if they immediately runfor high ground or seek the upper floors of nearby build-ings. In 2004, ten-year-old Tilly Smith of Surrey, Eng-land, was onMaikhao beach in Phuket, Thailand with herparents and sister, and having learned about tsunamis re-cently in school, told her family that a tsunami might beimminent. Her parents warned others minutes before thewave arrived, saving dozens of lives. She credited hergeography teacher, Andrew Kearney.In the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami drawback was not re-ported on the African coast or any other east-facing coaststhat it reached. This was because the wave moved down-wards on the eastern side of the fault line and upwards onthe western side. The western pulse hit coastal Africa andother western areas.A tsunami cannot be precisely predicted, even if themagnitude and location of an earthquake is known.Geologists, oceanographers, and seismologists analyseeach earthquake and based on many factors may or maynot issue a tsunami warning. However, there are somewarning signs of an impending tsunami, and automatedsystems can provide warnings immediately after an earth-quake in time to save lives. One of the most successfulsystems uses bottom pressure sensors, attached to buoys,which constantly monitor the pressure of the overlyingwater column.Regions with a high tsunami risk typically use tsunamiwarning systems to warn the population before the wavereaches land. On the west coast of the United States,which is prone to Pacific Ocean tsunami, warning signsindicate evacuation routes. In Japan, the community iswell-educated about earthquakes and tsunamis, and alongthe Japanese shorelines the tsunami warning signs are re-

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Seahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_Seismic_Intensity_scalehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Macroseismic_Scalehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami_warning_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilly_Smithhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surreyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maikhao_beachhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phuket_Provincehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquakehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanographerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismologisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami_warning_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami_warning_system

7.1 Forecast of tsunami attack probability 7

minders of the natural hazards together with a networkof warning sirens, typically at the top of the cliff of sur-roundings hills.*[47]The Pacific Tsunami Warning System is based inHonolulu, Hawaii. It monitors Pacific Ocean seismicactivity. A sufficiently large earthquake magnitude andother information triggers a tsunami warning. While thesubduction zones around the Pacific are seismically ac-tive, not all earthquakes generate tsunami. Computersassist in analysing the tsunami risk of every earthquakethat occurs in the Pacific Ocean and the adjoining landmasses.

Tsunami hazard sign at Bamfield, British Columbia

A tsunami warning sign on a seawall in Kamakura,Japan, 2004

The monument to the victims of tsunami atLaupahoehoe, Hawaii

Tsunami memorial in Kanyakumari beach

A Tsunami hazard sign (Spanish - English) inIquique, Chile.

Tsunami Evacuation Route signage along U.S.Route 101, in Washington

As a direct result of the Indian Ocean tsunami, a re-appraisal of the tsunami threat for all coastal areas is be-ing undertaken by national governments and the UnitedNations Disaster Mitigation Committee. A tsunamiwarning system is being installed in the Indian Ocean.Computer models can predict tsunami arrival, usuallywithin minutes of the arrival time. Bottom pressure sen-sors can relay information in real time. Based on thesepressure readings and other seismic information and theseafloor's shape (bathymetry) and coastal topography, themodels estimate the amplitude and surge height of theapproaching tsunami. All Pacific Rim countries collabo-rate in the Tsunami Warning System and most regularlypractice evacuation and other procedures. In Japan, suchpreparation is mandatory for government, local authori-ties, emergency services and the population.Some zoologists hypothesise that some animal specieshave an ability to sense subsonic Rayleigh waves froman earthquake or a tsunami. If correct, monitoring theirbehavior could provide advance warning of earthquakes,tsunami etc. However, the evidence is controversial andis not widely accepted. There are unsubstantiated claimsabout the Lisbon quake that some animals escaped tohigher ground, while many other animals in the same ar-eas drowned. The phenomenon was also noted by me-dia sources in Sri Lanka in the 2004 Indian Ocean earth-quake.*[48]*[49] It is possible that certain animals (e.g.,elephants) may have heard the sounds of the tsunami asit approached the coast. The elephants' reaction was to

One of the deep water buoys used in the DART tsunami warningsystem

move away from the approaching noise. By contrast,some humans went to the shore to investigate and manydrowned as a result.Along the United States west coast, in addition to sirens,warnings are sent on television and radio via the NationalWeather Service, using the Emergency Alert System.

7.1 Forecast of tsunami attack probability

Kunihiko Shimazaki (University of Tokyo), a memberof Earthquake Research committee of The Headquar-ters for Earthquake Research Promotion of Japanesegovernment, mentioned the plan to public announce-ment of tsunami attack probability forecast at Japan Na-tional Press Club on 12 May 2011. The forecast in-cludes tsunami height, attack area and occurrence prob-ability within 100 years ahead. The forecast would inte-grate the scientific knowledge of recent interdisciplinarityand aftermath of the 2011 Thoku earthquake andtsunami. As the plan, announcement will be availablefrom 2014.*[50]*[51]*[52]

8 Mitigation

See also: Tsunami barrierIn some tsunami-prone countries earthquake engineeringmeasures have been taken to reduce the damage causedonshore.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Tsunami_Warning_Centerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honoluluhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamfieldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawallhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamakura,_Kanagawahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laupahoehoehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii_(island)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanyakumarihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iquiquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_101_in_Washingtonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_101_in_Washingtonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_(state)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_modelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathymetryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topographyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Rimhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_waveshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lankahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquakehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquakehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Weather_Servicehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Weather_Servicehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_Alert_Systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Tokyohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_National_Press_Clubhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_National_Press_Clubhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinarityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunamihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunamihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami_barrierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake_engineering

8 10 FOOTNOTES

A seawall at Tsu, Japan

Japan, where tsunami science and response measuresfirst began following a disaster in 1896, has pro-duced ever-more elaborate countermeasures and re-sponse plans.*[53] That country has built many tsunamiwalls of up to 12 metres (39 ft) high to protect populatedcoastal areas. Other localities have built floodgates of upto 15.5 metres (51 ft) high and channels to redirect thewater from incoming tsunami. However, their effective-ness has been questioned, as tsunami often overtop thebarriers.The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster was directly trig-gered by the 2011 Thoku earthquake and tsunami, whenwaves exceeded the height of the plant's sea wall.*[54]Iwate Prefecture, which is an area at high risk fromtsunami, had tsunami barriers walls totalling 25 kilome-tres (16 mi) long at coastal towns. The 2011 tsunami top-pled more than 50% of the walls and caused catastrophicdamage.*[55]The Okushiri, Hokkaid tsunami which struck OkushiriIsland of Hokkaid within two to five minutes of theearthquake on July 12, 1993 created waves as much as30 metres (100 ft) tallas high as a 10-story building.The port town of Aonae was completely surrounded bya tsunami wall, but the waves washed right over the walland destroyed all the wood-framed structures in the area.The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and mod-erating the height of the tsunami, but it did not preventmajor destruction and loss of life.*[56]

9 See also Deep-oceanAssessment and Reporting of Tsunamis

Disaster preparedness

Earthquake Early Warning (Japan)

Higher Ground Project

Index of wave articles

List of earthquakes

List of natural disasters

Minoan eruption

Rogue wave

Seiche

Sneaker wave

Supervolcano

Tauredunum event

Tsunamis in lakes

Tsunami-proof building

Tsunami Society

Tsunamis affecting New Zealand

Tsunamis in the United Kingdom

Kaikoura Canyon landslide tsunami hazard

10 Footnotes[1] Tsunami Terminology. NOAA. Retrieved 2010-07-

15.

[2] Wells, John C. (1990). Longman pronunciation dictio-nary. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 736. ISBN 0-582-05383-8. Entry: tsunami

[3] Barbara Ferreira (April 17, 2011).When icebergs cap-size, tsunamis may ensue. Nature. Retrieved 2011-04-27.

[4] Fradin, Judith Bloom and Dennis Brindell (2008).Witness to Disaster: Tsunamis. Witness to Disaster.Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. pp. 42,43.

[5] Thucydides: A History of the Peloponnesian War,3.89.14

[6] Smid, T. C. (April 1970). 'Tsunamis' in Greek Literature.Greece & Rome 17 (1) (2nd ed.). pp. 100104.

[7] [a. Jap. tsunami, tunami, f. tsu harbour + nami waves.Oxford English Dictionary]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawallhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsu,_Miehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1896_Meiji-Sanriku_earthquakehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floodgatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disasterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunamihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iwate_Prefecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_tsunami#1993:_Okushiri,_Hokkaido,_Japan_(%E5%8C%97%E6%B5%B7%E9%81%93%E5%8D%97%E8%A5%BF%E6%B2%96%E5%9C%B0%E9%9C%87)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okushiri,_Hokkaid%C5%8Dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okushiri,_Hokkaid%C5%8Dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokkaid%C5%8Dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993_Hokkaido_earthquakehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster_preparednesshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake_Early_Warning_(Japan)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_Ground_Projecthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_wave_articleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earthquakeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_disastershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_eruptionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogue_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seichehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sneaker_wavehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcanohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tauredunum_eventhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunamis_in_lakeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami-proof_buildinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami_Societyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunamis_affecting_New_Zealandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunamis_in_the_United_Kingdomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaikoura_Peninsulahttp://nthmp-history.pmel.noaa.gov/terms.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOAAhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-05383-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-05383-8http://blogs.nature.com/barbaraferreira/2011/04/17/when-icebergs-capsizehttp://blogs.nature.com/barbaraferreira/2011/04/17/when-icebergs-capsizehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)http://shop.nationalgeographic.com/ngs/product/books/kids-books-and-atlases/animals-and-nature/witness-to-disaster%253A-tsunamishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geographic_Societyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydideshttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Thuc.+3.89.1http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Thuc.+3.89.1

9

[8] Proposing The Community-Based TsunamiWarning Sys-tem

[9] Novel Alon Buluek

[10] Tsunami 1907: Early Interpretation and its Development

[11] 13 Pulau di Aceh Singkil Hilang

[12] Singkil, Kisah Kota yang Tenggelam

[13] Gempa dan Tsunami di Nias dalam Buku Nias Amoeata Hoelo Nono Nihakarangan E. Fries

[14] Perjalanan Nama Tsunami

[15] http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/tidal%20wave

[16]Tidal, The American Heritage Stedman's Medical Dic-tionary. Houghton Mifflin Company. 11 November2008.Dictionary.reference.com

[17] -al. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). RetrievedNovember 11, 2008, Dictionary.reference.com

[18] The Caribbean Disaster EmergencyManagement Agency:Tsunami Smart: Glossary

[19] Earth Science Australia: Tsunami...Tidal Waves

[20] Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology: TsunamiFrequently Asked Questions

[21] Indian Ocean tsunami anniversary: Memorial events held26 December 2014, BBC News

[22] The 10 most destructive tsunamis in history, AustralianGeographic, March 16, 2011.

[23] Thucydides: A History of the Peloponnesian War,3.89.5

[24] Kelly, Gavin (2004). Ammianus and the GreatTsunami. The Journal of Roman Studies 94 (141): 141167. doi:10.2307/4135013. JSTOR 4135013.

[25] Stanley, Jean-Daniel & Jorstad, Thomas F. (2005), "The365 A.D. Tsunami Destruction of Alexandria, Egypt:Erosion, Deformation of Strata and Introduction of Al-lochthonous Material"

[26] Haugen K, Lvholt F, Harbitz C, K; Lovholt, F; Harb-itz, C (2005). Fundamental mechanisms for tsunamigeneration by submarine mass flows in idealised geome-tries. Marine and PetroleumGeology 22 (12): 209217.doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2004.10.016.

[27] Margaritondo, G (2005). Explaining the physicsof tsunamis to undergraduate and non-physics stu-dents. European Journal of Physics 26 (3): 401.Bibcode:2005EJPh...26..401M. doi:10.1088/0143-0807/26/3/007.

[28] Voit, S.S (1987). Tsunamis. An-nual Review of Fluid Mechanics 19 (1):217236. Bibcode:1987AnRFM..19..217V.doi:10.1146/annurev.fl.19.010187.001245.

[29] How do earthquakes generate tsunamis?". University ofWashington.

[30] Facts and figures: how tsunamis form, Australian Geo-graphic, March 18, 2011.

[31] George Pararas-Carayannis (1999).TheMega-Tsunamiof July 9, 1958 in Lituya Bay, Alaska. Retrieved 2014-02-27.

[32] Petley, Dave (Professor) (2008-12-11).The Vaiont (Va-jont) landslide of 1963. The Landslide Blog. Retrieved2014-02-26.

[33] Duff, Mark (2013-10-10). Italy Vajont anniversary:Night of the 'tsunami'". BBC News. Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved2014-02-27.

[34] Pararas-Carayannis, George (2002). Evaluation of thethreat of mega tsunami generation from postulated mas-sive slope failures of the island volcanoes on La Palma,Canary Islands, and on the island of Hawaii. Science ofTsunami Hazards 20 (5): 251277. Retrieved 7 Septem-ber 2014.

[35] Monserrat, S.; Vilibc, I.; Rabinovich, A. B. (2006).Me-teotsunamis: atmospherically induced destructive oceanwaves in the tsunami frequency band (PDF). NaturalHazards and Earth System Sciences 6 (6): 10351051.doi:10.5194/nhess-6-1035-2006. Retrieved 23 Novem-ber 2011.

[36] Ike's Texas-Sized Tales Of Survival. CBS News. 17September 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2013.It waslike an atomic bomb going off. Right after the eye passed,whole houses came by us at 30 miles an hour.

[37] Eyewitness video of Supertyphoon Haiyan's meteot-sunamic storm surge on November 6, 2013

[38]The Hauraki Gulf Marine Park, Part 2. Inset to TheNew Zealand Herald. 3 March 2010. p. 9.

[39] Glasstone, Samuel; Dolan, Philip (1977). Shock effectsof surface and subsurface bursts - The effects of nuclearweapons (third edition). Washington, DC: U.S. Depart-ment of Defense; Energy Research and Development Ad-ministration.

[40] Earthsci.org, Tsunamis

[41] Life of a Tsunami. Western Coastal & Marine Ge-ology. United States Geographical Survey. 22 October2008. Retrieved 2009-09-09.

[42] Prof. Stephen A. Nelson (28 January 2009).Tsunami. Tulane University. Retrieved 2009-09-09.

[43] Gusiakov V.Tsunami Quantification: how we measurethe overall size of tsunami (Review of tsunami intensityand magnitude scales)" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-10-18.

[44] National Geophysical Data Center / (NGDC/WDS)Global Historical Tsunami Database

[45] Lekkas E.,Andreadakis E., Kostaki I. & Kapourani E.(2013). A Proposal for a New Integrated Tsunami In-tensity Scale (ITIS2012)". Bulletin Seismological Societyof America 103 (2B). doi:10.1785/0120120099.

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10 12 FURTHER READING

[46] Abe K. (1995). Estimate of Tsunami Run-up Heights fromEarthquake Magnitudes. Tsunami: progress in predic-tion, disaster prevention, and warning. ISBN 978-0-7923-3483-5. Retrieved 2009-10-18.

[47] Chanson, H. (2010). TsunamiWarning Signs on the EnshuCoast of Japan. Shore & Beach, Vol. 78, No. 1, pp. 5254. ISSN 0037-4237.

[48] Lambourne, Helen (2005-03-27). Tsunami: Anatomyof a disaster. BBC.

[49] Kenneally, Christine (2004-12-30). Surviving theTsunami: What Sri Lanka's animals knew that humansdidn't. Slate Magazine.

[50] Forecast of earthquake probability is within 30 yearsahead, however Tsunami attack probability is much lowerthan earthquake so that the plan is set to be within 100years ahead. Yomiuri Shimbun 2011-05-13 ver.13S page2, [Newly public announce of Tsunami attack probabil-ity...Earthquake Research committee of Japan]. YomiuriShimbun (in Japanese). 2011-05-12. Retrieved 2011-05-13.

[51] IndiaTimes Kunihiko Shimazaki speaks during a pressconference in Tokyo Thursday, May 12, 2011

[52] Margie Mason (2011-05-12). Experts: Early warningsmitigated Japan disaster. Associated Press.

[53] Journalist's Resource: Research for Reporting, fromHarvard Shorenstein Center. Content.hks.harvard.edu.2012-05-30. Retrieved 2012-06-12.

[54] Phillip Lipscy, Kenji Kushida, and Trevor Incerti. 2013."The Fukushima Disaster and Japans Nuclear PlantVulnerability in Comparative Perspective.Environmen-tal Science and Technology 47 (May), 6082-6088.

[55] Kyodo Press Tsunami toppled more than 50% of seawall in Iwate prefecture(JA)

[56] 1993 7 12 (in Japanese).

11 References

IOC Tsunami Glossary by the IntergovernmentalOceanographic Commission (IOC) at theInternational Tsunami Information Centre (ITIC)of UNESCO

Tsunami Terminology at NOAA

In June 2011, the VOA Special English service ofthe Voice of America broadcast a 15-minute pro-gram on tsunamis as part of its weekly Science inthe News series. The program included an interviewwith a NOAA official who oversees the agency'stsunami warning system. A transcript and MP3 ofthe program, intended for English learners, can befound at The Ever-Present Threat of Tsunamis.

abelard.org. tsunamis: tsunamis travel fast but not atinfinite speed. retrieved March 29, 2005.

Dudley, Walter C. & Lee, Min (1988: 1st edition)Tsunami! ISBN 0-8248-1125-9 website

Iwan, W.D., editor, 2006, Summary report ofthe Great Sumatra Earthquakes and Indian Oceantsunamis of December 26, 2004 and March 28,2005: Earthquake Engineering Research Institute,EERI Publication #2006-06, 11 chapters, 100 pagesummary, plus CD-ROM with complete text andsupplementary photographs, EERI Report 2006-06.ISBN 1-932884-19-X website

Kenneally, Christine (December 30, 2004). Sur-viving the Tsunami.Slate. website

Lambourne, Helen (March 27, 2005). Tsunami:Anatomy of a disaster.BBC News. website

Macey, Richard (January 1, 2005).The Big Bangthat Triggered A Tragedy,The Sydney MorningHerald, p 11quoting Dr Mark Leonard, seismol-ogist at Geoscience Australia.

Interactive Map of Historical Tsunamis fromNOAA's National Geophysical Data Center

Tappin, D; 2001. Local tsunamis. Geoscientist.118, 47.

Girl, 10, used geography lesson to save lives,Telegraph.co.uk

Philippines warned to prepare for Japan's tsunami,Noypi.ph

12 Further reading Boris Levin, Mikhail Nosov: Physics of tsunamis.Springer, Dordrecht 2009, ISBN 978-1-4020-8855-1.

Kontar, Y. A. et al.: Tsunami Events and LessonsLearned: Environmental and Societal Significance.Springer, 2014. ISBN 978-94-007-7268-7 (print);ISBN 978-94-007-7269-4 (eBook)

Kristy F. Tiampo: Earthquakes: simulations, sourcesand tsunamis. Birkhuser, Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-7643-8756-3.

Linda Maria Koldau: Tsunamis. Entstehung,Geschichte, Prvention, (Tsunami development,history and prevention) C.H. Beck, Munich 2013(C.H. Beck Reihe Wissen 2770), ISBN 978-3-406-64656-0 (in German).

Walter C. Dudley, Min Lee: Tsunami! Universityof Hawaii Press, 1988, 1998, Tsunami! Universityof Hawai'i Press 1999, ISBN 0-8248-1125-9, ISBN978-0-8248-1969-9.

http://books.google.com/?id=5YjaGdQOJIwC&pg=PA21&dq=abe+magnitude+scale+tsunami+1981&q=abe%2520magnitude%2520scale%2520tsunami%25201981http://books.google.com/?id=5YjaGdQOJIwC&pg=PA21&dq=abe+magnitude+scale+tsunami+1981&q=abe%2520magnitude%2520scale%2520tsunami%25201981https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-3483-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-3483-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert_Chansonhttp://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:203103http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:203103https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Numberhttps://www.worldcat.org/issn/0037-4237http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4269847.stmhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4269847.stmhttp://www.slate.com/id/2111608http://www.slate.com/id/2111608http://www.slate.com/id/2111608https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yomiuri_Shimbunhttp://www.yomiuri.co.jp/science/news/20110512-OYT1T00947.htmhttp://www.yomiuri.co.jp/science/news/20110512-OYT1T00947.htmhttp://www.yomiuri.co.jp/science/news/20110512-OYT1T00947.htmhttp://www.yomiuri.co.jp/science/news/20110512-OYT1T00947.htmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yomiuri_Shimbunhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yomiuri_Shimbunhttp://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=tsunami-wave-of-changehttp://www.foxnews.com/world/2011/05/12/experts-early-warnings-mitigated-japan-disaster/http://www.foxnews.com/world/2011/05/12/experts-early-warnings-mitigated-japan-disaster/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Presshttp://journalistsresource.org/studies/government/international/tsunami-japan/http://journalistsresource.org/studies/government/international/tsunami-japan/http://www.stanford.edu/~plipscy/LipscyKushidaIncertiEST2013.pdfhttp://www.stanford.edu/~plipscy/LipscyKushidaIncertiEST2013.pdfhttp://www.47news.jp/CN/201104/CN2011041201000147.htmlhttp://www.47news.jp/CN/201104/CN2011041201000147.htmlhttp://library.skr.jp/19930712_nanseioki.htmhttp://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1328&Itemid=1142&lang=enhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergovernmental_Oceanographic_Commissionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergovernmental_Oceanographic_Commissionhttp://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.phphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCOhttp://nthmp-history.pmel.noaa.gov/terms.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOAAhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Englishhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_of_Americahttp://www.voanews.com/learningenglish/home/science-technology/Large-Tsunamis-Do-Not-Happen-Often-But-the-Threat-is-Always-Present-123226568.htmlhttp://www.abelard.org/briefings/tsunami.phphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0824811259http://tsunami.org/references.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/193288419Xhttp://www.eeri.org/http://www.slate.com/id/2111608/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Newshttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4381395.stmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Heraldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Heraldhttp://maps.ngdc.noaa.gov/viewers/hazards/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1480192/Girl-10-used-geography-lesson-to-save-lives.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraph.co.ukhttp://www.noypi.ph/index.php/nation/3283-key-locations-in-philippines-warned-to-prepare-for-tsunami.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781402088551https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781402088551https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789400772687https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789400772694https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783764387563https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783764387563https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linda_Maria_Koldauhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783406646560https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783406646560https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0824811259https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780824819699https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780824819699

11

13 External links World's Tallest Tsunami geology.com

Tsunami Data and Information National Geophys-ical Data Center

IOC Tsunami Glossary International Tsunami In-formation Center (UNESCO)

Tsunami & Earthquake Research at the USGS United States Geological Survey

Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission

Tsunami National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad-ministration

Wave That Shook The World Nova

Recent and Historical Tsunami Events and RelevantData Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory

Raw Video: Tsunami Slams Northeast Japan Associated Press

http://geology.com/records/biggest-tsunami.shtmlhttp://ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard/tsu.shtmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geophysical_Data_Centerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geophysical_Data_Centerhttp://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1328&Itemid=1142&lang=enhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCOhttp://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Geological_Surveyhttp://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/ioc-oceans/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergovernmental_Oceanographic_Commissionhttp://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administrationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administrationhttp://www.pbs.org/nova/tsunami/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nova_(TV_series)http://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/database_devel.htmlhttp://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/database_devel.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Marine_Environmental_Laboratoryhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k4w27IczOTkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press

12 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

14.1 Text Tsunami Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami?oldid=660610026 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Magnus Manske, TwoOneTwo,

Mav, Zundark, The Anome, Berek, Tarquin, Manning Bartlett, Mark, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Yearofthedragon, Youssefsan, Danny,Rmhermen, William Avery, Ray Van De Walker, SimonP, Heron, Dwheeler, Stevertigo, Patrick, Kchishol1970, D, Michael Hardy,Wm, Collabi, Ixfd64, Prefect, Karada, Delirium, Dori, Penmachine, Minesweeper, Pcb21, Egil, Ahoerstemeier, Arwel Parry, Theresaknott, Plop, Jebba, DropDeadGorgias, Glenn, Cimon Avaro, Dod1, Evercat, Rl, GRAHAMUK, Emperorbma, RodC, Janko, Nohat,RickK, Fuzheado, WhisperToMe, Selket, DJ Clayworth, Haukurth, Peregrine981, Tpbradbury, Marshman, Nv8200p, Zero0000, Nricardo,Xevi~enwiki, Shizhao, Khym Chanur, Fvw, Raul654, Scott Sanchez, Proteus, Flockmeal, EldKatt, Adam Carr, Pollinator, Davidmaxwa-terman, Francs2000, Slawojarek, Jeffq, Aliekens, Lumos3, Denelson83, Jni, Bearcat, Robbot, Paranoid, Vardion, Astronautics~enwiki,ChrisO~enwiki, KeithH, Fredrik, Kizor, Chris 73, Jredmond, Aliter, Moondyne, ZimZalaBim, Yelyos, Lowellian, Kesuari, AcademicChallenger, SchmuckyTheCat, Blainster, Diderot, Hippietrail, DHN, Sunray, Jhi, Hadal, Wereon, Fuelbottle, Mushroom, Ruakh, Mandel,Netjeff, Lupo, Seth Ilys, Diberri, Cyrius, Mattflaschen, Rsduhamel, Peter L, Stirling Newberry, Centrx, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Jacoplane,MPF, Andy, Barbara Shack, Sj, Inkling, Cobaltbluetony, Tom harrison, Meursault2004, Ferkelparade, HangingCurve, Herbee, Mon-edula, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Curps, Michael Devore, Henry Flower, Xipirho, Leonard G., Revth, Zaphod Beeblebrox, Dsmdgold, Gil-gamesh~enwiki, Per Honor et Gloria, Sundar, Mboverload, Pascal666, BesigedB, Gugilymugily, Gzornenplatz, VampWillow, Matt Crypto,Adam McMaster, Chameleon, SWAdair, Pne, AdamJacobMuller, Bobblewik, Jrdioko, Jurema Oliveira, Golbez, Mooquackwooftweet-meow, Wmahan, Chowbok, Gadfium, Pgan002, Keith Edkins, Pamri, Fys, Geni, J~enwiki, Mike R, CryptoDerk, Gdr, Knutux, Blank-faze, Kharoon~enwiki, Antandrus, Mustafaa, Beland, Alexd~enwiki, Estel~enwiki, Vc-wp, Piotrus, Khaosworks, Kiteinthewind, Jossi,Rdsmith4, Kesac, CJCurrie, DragonflySixtyseven, John Foley, Bumm13, Kevin B12, Icairns, GeoGreg, Jareha, JulieADriver, Neutrality,Sam, Joyous!, Jcw69, Fg2, Jh51681, Grm wnr, Zisky, Adashiel, Frangibility, Trevor MacInnis, Mh, Canterbury Tail, Zro, Mike Rosoft,PRiis, Ta bu shi da yu, ChrisRuvolo, Freakofnurture, Spiffy sperry, Sparky the Seventh Chaos, Ultratomio, RedWordSmith, Andy Smith,Imaglang, Indosauros, Kathar, Noisy, Discospinster, Bedel23, FT2, Rydel, Wrp103, Ereza, Vsmith, Stephenpace, Zen-master, Wkmuriithi,Westendgirl, Xezbeth, Ponder, Scigeek, Alistair1978, Mani1, Pavel Vozenilek, Rannphirt anaithnid (old), Bender235, ESkog, JoeSmack,Mcpusc, Pmcm, CanisRufus, Aecis, Livajo, *drew, BenWebber, El C, Szyslak, Miraceti, Cedders, Kwamikagami, Perspective, Jantangring,Aude, Shanes, RoyBoy, Triona, Bendono, Aaronbrick, Djd1219, Coolcaesar, Jpgordon, Adambro, JRM, Andrewpmack~enwiki, Bobo192,Yonghokim, Panzuriel, Meggar, Joaop, Ypacara, Mordemur, Robotje, Geek84, Shenme, Viriditas, Xevious, Archfalhwyl, L33tminion,I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc, Neg, Giraffedata, Juzeris, Tomgally, Sasquatch, Kjkolb, Nk, TheProject, JoshRaspberry, Rje, Oarih, JohnFader, Opusaug, Sam Korn, Krellis, Luckyluke, Wayfarer, Schnolle, Jez, Rye1967, Danski14, Wereldburger758, M00dimus, JYolkowski,Etxrge, Anthony Appleyard, Sizzlingsteaks, Megan 189, Atlant, CountdownCrispy, Mr Adequate, Revmachine21, Verdlanco, Plumbago,Pauldavidgill, Riana, Rjstern, AzaToth, Calton, Axl, SlimVirgin, Sowelilitokiemu, Mac Davis, Mailer diablo, Pippu d'Angelo, InShaneee,Cdc, Malo, Yummifruitbat, Bart133, Hohum, Ravenhull, JePe, Klaser, Melaen, GJeffery, BanyanTree, SidP, Volnturista, KingTT, Nikhi-lajain, Zantastik, Dabbler, Almafeta, Knowledge Seeker, Yuckfoo, HenkvD, Evil Monkey, RJFJR, RainbowOfLight, Randy Johnston,Mikeo, Bsadowski1, EventHorizon, Computerjoe, Versageek, Gene Nygaard, Zosodada, Jun-Dai, HenryLi, Dan100, Umapathy, Spaceman, Markaci, Centauri, Mwparenteau, BerserkerBen, Shimeru, Jkl sem, Zntrip, CNRNair, Klestrob44, JALockhart, Sandover, SylvainMielot, Boothy443, Kelly Martin, UFu, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Lemi4, Lkseitz, Sweet Blue Water, Skyrun~enwiki, Wolfsumatra, LOL,MMMMMEEEEE, Gruepig, Theloniouszen, Carcharoth, Jacobolus, Hippalus, Lifung, Pol098, Commander Keane, Everton, Richardrut,JeremyA, MONGO, GeorgeOrr, Tbc2, CiTrusD, Eatsaq, Tactel, Sholtar, Pdn~enwiki, Idwood, Cbustapeck, Ejrs, CryptoStorm, SKAZN-BOI, Terence, Tejastheory, Kjnangre, Sengkang, Relaxation, GregorB, Stochata, Karmosin, SDC, Plrk, Ryan Reich, Wayward, Gim-boid13, Junjk, Kotoviski, A3r0, Dysepsion, Ashmoo, Graham87, Sparkit, Deltabeignet, Magister Mathematicae, Cuchullain, Deadcorpse,FreplySpang, GrundyCamellia, RxS, Broccoli, Mlewan, Little jim, Canderson7, Sjakkalle, Koavf, Erebus555, Ustas~enwiki, DeadlyAssas-sin, Avia, BlueMoonlet, Tangotango, Theinsomniac4life, Xrharris, Seraphimblade, Bruce1ee, MZMcBride, Tawker, FutureNJGov, Pabix,ErikHaugen, SpNeo, Himasaram, Lucm, RonGroth, Mexaguil, CQJ, Wingover, N-Man, Durin, Bhadani, Bdegfcunbbfv, Dar-Ape, Shal-manese, Sango123, Whatthefat, Yamamoto Ichiro, Strikesvl, Whitetigah, SNIyer12, Ravigateway, Titoxd, Sgkay, FlaBot, CAPS LOCK,RobertG, Dan Guan, Jcmurphy, Doc glasgow, Latka, Alhutch, Nivix, JIMBO WALES, Celestianpower, RexNL, Gurch, Tequendamia,Pixel23, ChongDae, Maustrauser, Wikipedia Admin, Goudzovski, Glenn L, Imnotminkus, Cause of death, Jfiling, Butros, MoRsE, Kingof Hearts, Chobot, Visor, Gdrbot, Stephen Compall, Digitalme, Gwernol, Albrozdude, UkPaolo, Lil devil, Roboto de Ajvol, The RamblingMan, Wavelength, Sceptre, Blightsoot, Adam1213, RussBot, Rxnd, Red Slash, Jtkiefer, Anonymous editor, ScrippsONEDetroit, Splash,Warmaster, Richjkl, Pigman, SpuriousQ, Chaser, Akamad, Stephenb, David Woodward, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Bovi-neone, Salsb, Wimt, PaulGarner, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Nahallac Silverwinds, Wiki alf, Robertvan1, Aeusoes1, Johann Wolfgang, JustinEiler, Robchurch, Daanschr, The Obfuscator, Nick, Anetode, Banes, UniReb, Xdenizen, Santaduck, PhilipC, Raven4x4x, Off!, Vivaldi,Amcfreely, Talldave, Tony1, Epipelagic, Bucketsofg, The Peacemaker, Dbfirs, Elizabeyth, Brat32, DeadEyeArrow, Tachyon01, Vish-nuvardhan27, Phenz, N. Harmonik, Tonym88, Javajunkiewa, Wknight94, Avraham, FF2010, TheSeer, Plkrtn, Emijrp, Phgao, Zzuuzz,Gtdp, Theda, Jingjun, E Wing, Pietdesomere, GraemeL, Merfer, JoanneB, Red Jay, Alias Flood, Chrishmt0423, Orcaborealis, Orang-bukit, BME, Fram, Spliffy, RunOrDie, Ybbor, Nickybutt, Kungfuadam, Rhion, RG2, Ramanpotential, Maxamegalon2000, SkerHawx,Serendipodous, Mikegrant, DVD R W, One, Kf4bdy, Veinor, Amalthea, Crystallina, Slyder, Joshbuddy, SmackBot, Alan Pascoe, Yel-lowMonkey, TheBilly, Moeron, Reedy, KnowledgeOfSelf, Royalguard11, Ufundo, Pgk, Cthompson, Vald, Gregory j, PizzaMargherita,Matthuxtable, Delldot, Smartsanu, MindlessXD, Cessator, Frymaster, TheDoctor10, Rachel Pearce, Fnfd, Nscheffey, HalfShadow, Smart-Guy Old, Gaff, Pinpoint23, Willemtijssen, Onsly, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Andy M. 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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami?oldid=660610026

14.1 Text 13

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14 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

14.2 Images File:1755_Lisbon_earthquake.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/1755_Lisbon_earthquake.jpg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: The Earthquake Engineering Online Archive - Jan Kozak Collection: KZ128 Original artist: Unknown

File:2004-tsunami.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/2004-tsunami.jpg License: Public domain Con-tributors: Originally at Bild:Davidsvgfoto.JPG. Original artist: David Rydevik (email: david.rydevik@gmail.com), Stockholm, Sweden.

File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg License:CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Original artist: Fred the Oyster

File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

File:Dart_tsunamicover.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Dart_tsunamicover.jpg License: Public do-main Contributors: http://www.magazine.noaa.gov/stories/images/dart_tsunamicover.jpg Original artist: NOAA

File:Hurricane_Ike_Gilchrist_damage.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Hurricane_Ike_Gilchrist_damage.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is from the FEMA Photo Library. Original artist: Jocelyn Augusitno/FEMA

File:Ie_Beuna_Narit_Aceh.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Ie_Beuna_Narit_Aceh.JPG License:CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Si Gam

File:Propagation_du_tsunami_en_profondeur_variable.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Propagation_du_tsunami_en_profondeur_variable.gif License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rgis Lachaume

File:Russians_meeting_Japanese_in_Akkeshi_1779.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Russians_meeting_Japanese_in_Akkeshi_1779.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Russian, anonymous

File:SH-60B_helicopter_flies_over_Sendai.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/SH-60B_helicopter_flies_over_Sendai.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:This Image was released by the United States Navy with the ID 110312-N-0000X-003 (next).This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.Original artist: U.S. Navy photo

File:SanFranHouses06.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/SanFranHouses06.JPG License: Public do-main Contributors:Scanned from the personal collection of en:User:Infrogmation Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here.Original artist: ?

File:Shallow_water_wave.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Shallow_water_wave.gif License: GFDLContributors: Own work Original artist: Kraaiennest

File:Simulacin_Tsunami.ogv Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Simulaci%C3%B3n_Tsunami.ogv Li-cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:

Tsunami_simulation.blend Original artist: Carmen lvarez Cobos File:Tsunami2.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Tsunami2.JPG License: Public domain Contributors:

Own work Original artist: -Ilhador- File:TsunamiHazardSign.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/TsunamiHazardSign.svg License: Public

domain Contributors: Own work;International Tsunami Signs - ISO-approved (2008) (UNESCO) (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (Japan))(The system of the signfor evacuation guide on tsunami) >> >> >> >> Original artist: Kasparvp

File:Tsunami_2004_aftermath._Aceh,_Indonesia,_2005._Photo-_AusAID_(10730863873).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Tsunami_2004_aftermath._Aceh%2C_Indonesia%2C_2005._Photo-_AusAID_%2810730863873%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Tsunami 2004 aftermath. Aceh, Indonesia, 2005. Photo: AusAID Original artist: AusAID

File:Tsunami_wall.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Tsunami_wall.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contribu-tors: Flickr. Original artist: Rudolf Ammann

File:Upwelling.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Upwelling.svg License: Public domain Contributors: File:Upwelling.jpg Original artist: Lichtspiel

14.3 Content license Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

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