A Journal of British Columbia Natural History

TrumpeterSwansof the Stikine

A Preliminary Survey

Romancingthe Harlequin

Caddisfly Architecture

Disturbing Ideas

CORDUJLERA

SUBSCRIPTIONS:FBCN members: $15.00

Others & Institutions:$20.00

Please mail to:Box 473

Vernon, BC,V1T 6M4

(Back issues are availableat $7.50 each.)

SUBMISSIONS,CORRESPONDENCE

and LETTERS:Please mail to:

The Editor,Cordillera,Box 625,

Kamloops, BC.V2C 5L7

Printed in Canada.All rights reserved.

N0 part of this periodicalmay be reproduced without

written consent of the •Federation of B.C. Natural-ists. The views expressed inCordillera are not necessar-ily those of the Federation.

ISSN1196-474X

Bishop & Rimmer

Printed by:Wayside Press Ltd.

Vernon, BC.

Front cover:Photograph by Syd Roberts

The very first birding experience that Ican remember was feeding swans in thepark. It was late 1940, during the Londonblitz, and tranquility was scarce. The birdswere huge to a three year old and even atthat age, I found their slow, quiet beautyfascinating. I have probably been a birderever since.

At that same time, in North America,Trumpeter Swans (Cygnus buccinator] werebelieved to be endangered. The interiorpopulation had dwindled to only 66 birds,found around Yellowstone Park, in the1930s. Thanks to intense conservationefforts and protection, their numbers havesince increased in spectacular fashion. Onthe Thompson River in winter, TrumpeterSwans are now far more common thanTundra Swans (C. columbianus). The coastalpopulations have increased in a similar way.

Some years ago I was countingtrumpeters at Savona in January, when asmall girl appeared with a pail of feed. Theswans came to meet her and soon she wasstanding among 40 magnificent creatures,almost as tall as herself. I wondered what

was happening in that young mind; was theimpact of the encounter going to be aspermanent as it had been for me? It was thefirst time I had seen wild trumpeters comingto hand.

Trusting flocks now occur annually atSavona and Kamloops. and no doubt othersdo as well, or will in the future. It seems tome that the benefits of these interactiveexperiences are greater than the dangers, andto see toddlers and seniors enjoying theswans with equal pleasure indicates theirbroad appeal.

Riverside Park in Kamloops is just afew steps from the downtown core. Theswans are usually present from November toFebruary, always ready to pose for yourcamera, or spark the imagination of anothersmall child.

Back Cover:Photograph by Steve Cannings

The Rufous Hummingbird (Selasphorusrufus) is the most abundant and widespreadhummingbird found in British Columbia.This male bird is feeding on an ornamentalvariety of our native Red-flowering Currant(Ribes sanquineum).

Please address all submissions, correspondence and letters to:The Editor, Cordillera, Box 625, Kamloops, BC. V2C SL7

The "cordillera" refers to the many mountain ranges from the Rockies to thePacific Ocean — hence the name of this journal The Cofdittera Management Committeedefined the scope of flie journal as the following: "Hie journal shall touch on all aspects of

natural history, from geology and physiography to ecology. Conservation will undoubtedlybe often discussed, but the focus of each item will be natural history ittformaUoa;

articles shall concern elements that are found in British Columbia, and shall come fromwithin the province or the immediate surrounding regions of the cordillera." Submissions

should not have been previously published or be under consideration for publication elsewhere.

Submissions should be typed or printed neatly, doable-spaced and with 1" margins. Weencourage authors to use WordPerfect or Microsoft Word for a Macintosh-compatible

computer and to submit a 3 1/2" disk with your hard copy.Please contact the Editor for a more detailed style guide.

Line drawings, colour transparencies, or prints with negatives may be submitted.Initial issues of Cordillera will be in black and white with fell colour only on the cover.Please include the artist's or photographer's name and address and a suggested caption.Written permission to publish illustration material will be obtained before publishing.

The Editorial Board reserves the right to alter any article for clarity, content, and scientificaccuracy. A revised manuscript will be sent to the author for approval prior to publication.

The publisher accepts no responsibility for unsolicited articles or illustration material.

CONTENTSDISCOVERY

8

NOTEBOOK

13

16

FEATURES22

36

DEPARTMENTS

2

43

45

47

White Ridge Park:Discovering Mountain Ladyslippers

by Frank Hovenden & Betty Brooks

Caddisfly Architectureby Robert Cannings

Disturbing Ideasby Douglas Cowell

Living with Eaglesby Yorke Edwards

Some Eocene Flowers, Fruits, andSeeds of British Columbia

by Rene Savenye

Trumpeter Swans in the StikineWatershed: A Preliminary Survey

by Bill Sampson

Romancing the Harlequinby Kenneth G. Wright & Trudy A. Chatwin

Comment

From the Museum

Book Reviews

Style Guide

425-

1 Winter 1997

CORDILLERA COMMENT

Travel with usthrough timeand spacewhile sittingon your deck,in your livingroom, orwherever youread...

by Nancy Flood,Content Editor

Nancy Flood teaches biologyat the University College of theCariboo, is membershipsecretary of the Society ofCanadian Ornithologists, andsometimes gets time to watchbirds.

2 Winter 1997

Sit back and relax — travel with us throughtime and space while sitting on your deck, inyour living room, or wherever you read....This issue of Cordillera takes you fromeastern British Columbia ("LivingLandscapes. Columbia Basin: Past, Present,and Future") to the Queen Charlotte Islands("Romancing the Harlequin1') and from theTelegraph Creek area in the north("Trumpeter Swans in the StikineWatershed: A Preliminary Survey") toVictoria in the south ("Living with Eagles").It brings you information about a diversityof organisms, including birds, plants("White Ridge Park: Discovering MountainLady slippers"), and insects ("CaddisflyArchitecture")^ and takes you from thedistant past ("Some Eocene Flowers, Fruits,and Seeds of British Columbia") into thefuture ("Disturbing Ideas" presents newdirections in ecosystem research in theprovince). We hope there is something foreveryone to enjoy.

Speaking of the past, you will notethat this issue, dated "Winter 1997," is longoverdue. For this, we apologize and thankyou for your patience. Of course, evensome of the best and oldest scientificjournals sometimes get months behind; butnobody likes it — readers, editors, or writers— and everyone strives to get caught up, aswill we. In fact, we hope to get two moreissues out in fairly rapid succession: one,almost wholly dealing with rare andendangered species in British Columbia, isalready underway.

Part of our problem is time — orrather, a lack of it. Cordillera is producedentirely by volunteers, from those who writethe papers, to those who review, input, editand re-edit them, lay out the magazine,arrange submitted photos and diagrams and/or find additional ones, keep files, writeletters, find the financial support required,proofread the final copy, etc... And, likemost volunteers, we always have too muchto do: families to care for, houses to clean,things to fix, crises to avert — not tomention our paying jobs to attend to.

Perhaps our biggest problem,however, is a lack of submissions — longpapers, notes, personal reminiscences,descriptions of people in natural history ornatural places, whatever. We simply don'thave a backlog of articles — files full ofthings working their way through thereviewing and editing system, waiting to bepublished — and thus, essentially have towait until we have received enough materialto publish an issue. This is far from ideal.More articles in our files would mean thateach could get all the attention it deserved,rather than sometimes being rushed throughbecause it was needed to fill an empty space.More articles would mean that Cordilleracould come out regularly and that we wouldhave a greater selection to choose from foreach issue — so that those who don't likebirds, for example (hard to imagine...)would not have to put up with too manyarticles on the subject.

So, once again,we ask for your help.Do you have a favourite "Natural Space"that you think others should hear about, orknow someone who should get a pat on theback in our "People in Natural History"section? Have you made some interestingobservations in your back yard, or adiscovery in your local wild place? Haveyou been doing research — formal orinformal, professionally or as a volunteer —that you would like to see published? Or doyou know of someone else who has beendoing research? If so, get writing and sendit to us — or poke your friends/colleagues/relatives/students/teachers and get themwriting! We want to make you famous —and make Cordillera the information-packed, regularly-published, useful,facinating, beautiful, and generallymagnificent publication it should be!*

CORDILLERA

DISCOVERY

White Ridge Park:Discovering MountainLadyslippers

by Frank Hovenden and Betty Brooks

NATURAL

White Ridge is a new (in 1995) Class AProvincial Park that abuts the western edgeof Strathcona Park on Vancouver Island(Figure 1). It is 1343 ha in size and is knownnot only for its rare plants, but also for itswell-developed karst geology. (A karstlandscape is formed as a result of thedissolving action of water on a carbonatebedrock, such as limestone).

In the summer of 1996, the cavingcommunity held a "speleofest" there.

Experienced cavers fromthroughout North America gatheredto explore and map some of theextensive cave systems found in thearea. While hiking with some of thecavers, one of us discovered a smallpatch of Mountain Ladyslipper(Cypripedium montanum] growingon the face of White Ridge (8August 1996} (Figure 2). Although

Figure 2. Mountain Ladyslipper.

Figure 1. Map of White Ridge Provincial Park and surrounding area.

CORPILLERA —

This paper was previously givenin poster form at the 13thNational Cave ManagementSymposium in Bellingham,WA.

3 Winter 1997

CORDILLERA COMMENT

Travel with usthrough timeand spacewhile sittingon your deck,in your livingroom, orwherever youread...

by Nancy Flood,Content Editor

Nancy Flood teaches biologyat the University College of theCariboo, is membershipsecretary of the Society ofCanadian Ornithologists, andsometimes gets time to watchbirds.

2 Winter 1997

Sit back and relax — travel with us throughtime and space while sitting on your deck, inyour living room, or wherever you read....This issue of Cordillera takes you fromeastern British Columbia ("LivingLandscapes. Columbia Basin: Past, Present,and Future") to the Queen Charlotte Islands("Romancing the Harlequin") and from theTelegraph Creek area in the north("Trumpeter Swans in the StikineWatershed: A Preliminary Survey") toVictoria in the south ("Living with Eagles").It brings you information about a diversityof organisms, including birds, plants("White Ridge Park: Discovering MountainLady slippers"), and insects ("CaddisflyArchitecture"), and takes you from thedistant past ("Some Eocene Flowers, Fruits,and Seeds of British Columbia") into thefuture ("Disturbing Ideas" presents newdirections in ecosystem research in theprovince). We hope there is something foreveryone to enjoy.

Speaking of the past, you will notethat this issue, dated "Winter 1997," is longoverdue. For this, we apologize and thankyou for your patience. Of course, evensome of the best and oldest scientificjournals sometimes get months behind; butnobody likes it — readers, editors, or writers— and everyone strives to get caught up, aswill we. In fact, we hope to get two moreissues out in fairly rapid succession: one,almost wholly dealing with rare andendangered species in British Columbia, isalready underway.

Part of our problem is time — orrather, a lack of it. Cordillera is producedentirely by volunteers, from those who writethe papers, to those who review, input, editand re-edit them, lay out the magazine,arrange submitted photos and diagrams and/or find additional ones, keep files, writeletters, find the financial support required,proofread the final copy, etc... And, likemost volunteers, we always have too muchto do: families to care for, houses to clean,things to fix, crises to avert — not tomention our paying jobs to attend to.

Perhaps our biggest problem,however, is a lack of submissions — longpapers, notes, personal reminiscences,descriptions of people in natural history ornatural places, whatever. We simply don'thave a backlog of articles — files full ofthings working their way through thereviewing and editing system, waiting to bepublished — and thus, essentially have towait until we have received enough materialto publish an issue. This is far from ideal.More articles in our files would mean thateach could get all the attention it deserved,rather than sometimes being rushed throughbecause it was needed to fill an empty space.More articles would mean that Cordilleracould come out regularly and that we wouldhave a greater selection to choose from foreach issue — so that those who don't likebirds, for example (hard to imagine...)would not have to put up with too manyarticles on the subject.

So, once again,we ask for your help.Do you have a favourite "Natural Space"that you think others should hear about, orknow someone who should get a pat on theback in our "People in Natural History"section? Have you made some interestingobservations in your back yard, or adiscovery in your local wild place? Haveyou been doing research — formal orinformal, professionally or as a volunteer —that you would like to see published? Or doyou know of someone else who has beendoing research? If so, get writing and sendit to us — or poke your friends/colleagues/relatives/students/teachers and get themwriting! We want to make you famous —and make Cordillera the information-packed, regularly-published, useful,facinating, beautiful, and generallymagnificent publication it should be!*

CORPILLERA

DISCOVERY

White Ridge Park:Discovering MountainLadyslippers

by Frank Hovenden and Betty Brooks

SPACES

White Ridge is a new (in 1995) Class AProvincial Park that abuts the western edgeof Strathcona Park on Vancouver Island(Figure 1). It is 1343 ha in size and is knownnot only for its rare plants, but also for itswe 11-developed karst geology. (A karstlandscape is formed as a result of thedissolving action of water on a carbonatebedrock, such as limestone).

In the summer of 1996, the cavingcommunity held a "speleofest" there.

Experienced cavers fromthroughout North America gatheredto explore and map some of theextensive cave systems found in thearea. While hiking with some of thecavers, one of us discovered a smallpatch of Mountain Ladyslipper(Cypripedium montanum) growingon the face of White Ridge (8August 1996) (Figure 2). Although

Figure 2. Mountain Ladyslipper.

Figure 1. Map of White Ridge Provincial Park and surrounding area.

CORPILLEHA

This paper was previously givenin poster form at the 13 thNational Cave ManagementSymposium in Bellingham,WA.

3 Winter 1997

DISCOVERY

Although we haveworked and

recreated in thisregion for many

years neither of ushad ever seen this

magnificent orchidbefore.

we have worked and recreated in this regionfor many years neither of us had ever seenthis magnificent orchid before (Figure 3).

A review ofthe literatureshowed that therehave only beenscattered reportsof its presence onVancouver Island(in the southernportion), and thatit was currentlybelieved to havebeen extirpatedfrom the island.The last record ofit was fromSpectacle Lake in1958(Szczawinski1975).

The speciesranges fromAlaska south toCalifornia and

Figure 3- Cypnpedium montanum in bloom.east toSaskatchewan. Itis found in a number of scattered locationsin British Columbia, mainly east of theCoast-Cascade Mountains (Straley et al.1985). The only coastal mainland record is

from Bella Coola. It is represented in 8 ofthe province's!4 biogeoclimatic zones, withWhite Ridge being the only site in the^^^^^^^^^^ Mountain Hemlock

zone from which thespecies has beenrecorded (Green andKlinka 1994).

In conjunctionwith the StrathconaWilderness Institute,we revisited the areathis year to relocate thepatch of orchids,accurately describe thesite, and collect aspecimen for the RoyalBritish ColumbiaMuseum (Figure 4).The orchids were foundgrowing on a uniquemicrosite on theexposed limestone faceof White Ridge. Thereare approximately 150to 200 plants growingin an area measuring4 m by 1 m. They are

growing in a small pocket of organic soilmixed with pulverized limestone. Whenvisited on 28 July 1997, the flowers were infull bloom. The site is located on a small

bench, whichruns across thebare limestoneface with slopesin excess of120%. It has awesterly aspectand anelevation of1100 m abovesea level. Thisarea isconstantlybeing disturbedby snow slidesduring thewinter months.

Figure 4. Steve Smithof theStrathconaWildernessInstituteadmires theladyslipper.

4 Winter 1997 CORPILLERA

Although the particular site is somewhatprotected by a band of scrub timber some50 m above, it is in an extremely vulnerablesituation (Figure 5). There are epikarstfeatures directly associated with the site.(The upper layer of karst topography iscalled epikarst.) There is a .3 m tube in thelimestone 5 m west of the site, while a smallcavern is found behind it at the base of theslope.

The plants directly associated with theorchids were the following: Yellow Cedar,(Chamaecyparis nootkatensis), Falsebox(Pachistima myrsiniles), Red Columbine(Aquilegiaformosd), paintbrush (Castillejasp.), Western Mountainbells (Stenanthiumoccidentale), Early Blue Violet (Violaadunca}, and Western Sweet-vetch(Hedysarum occidentale} (Douglas et al.1989-94) (Figure 6).

Other plants growing within a 5 mradius, but not associated directly were:Spreading Phlox (Phlox diffiisa),Marti ndale's Lomatium (Lomatiummartindalei), and Silverleaf Phacelia(Phacelia hastata).

Time and safety considerations did notpermit an extensive search for other patchesof orchids. However, similar micrositesnearby showed no sign of the plant. Rockclimbing gear will be necessary to undertakea proper search for other specimens at thislocation. Presently, access to White RidgePark is difficult. The bridge over the HeberRiver has been removed and the roads usedby the former Elk River Timber Companyhave been abandoned. The trails that existare primitive. While we oppose anydevelopment in this unique park, we wouldlike to see improved access to aid bothcavers and naturalists.

While this discovery of the MountainLadyslipper growing on Vancouver Island isinteresting, it is the fact that it is growing sofar from its previously reported range on theisland that is particularly significant. To thebest of our knowledge, this is the only reportof it growing in the Mountain Hemlockzone.*

DISCOVERY

Figure 5. A view of the site.

Figure 6. Orchids and associated plants.

LITERATURE CITED:Douglas, G.W., G.B. Straley & D, Meidinger.

1989-1994. The Vascular Plants of BritishColumbia. (4 vol.) B.C. Ministry of Forests,Research Branch, Victoria, BC.

Green, R.N., & Klinka, K. 1994. A field guideto site identification and interpretation forthe Vancouver Forest Region. LandManagement Handbook No. 28. B.C.Ministry of Forests, Victoria, BC.

Straley, G.B., R.L. Taylor & G.W. Douglas.1985. The rare vascular plants of BritishColumbia. Syllogeus No. 59, NationalMuseums of Canada, Ottawa, ON.

Szczawinski A.F. 1975, The Orchids of BritishColumbia. British Columbia ProvincialMuseum Handbook 16, Victoria, BC.

CORPILLERA

Betty Brooks is a naturalist/biologist from Black Creek,Vancouver Island. She has aspecial interest in the rare floraof Vancouver Island.

Frank Hovenden is a foresterwho has worked on the westcoast of Vancouver Island for18 years. He is a member ofthe Comox Valley NaturalistsSociety and writes a columncalled "For the Forest," whichappears in the Record,published in Nootka Sound.

5 Winter 1997

DISCOVERY

NATURAL

HISTORYCaddisfly Architecture

Figure 1. Oxyetbira.

Figure 2. Ecclisocosmoecus.

by Robert Cannings

Hundreds of years ago in England, itinerantsellers of cloth fastened scrap pieces ofcotton and silk to their clothing to advertisetheir wares — because of these scraps(which, in older English are called cadices),these salesmen were dubbed "cadice men."The little caddisfly larvae that labour awayin streams and ponds, covering themselveswith bits of sand and plants, probably gottheir name from these familiar figures.

Caddisflies belong to the insect orderTrichoptera, which means "hairy wings."Although small, mothlike, and mosdyobscure as adults, as immatures they areamong the most bizarre and wonderfulinhabitants of diverse fresh water habitats —from tumbling creeks to soupy, plant-choked ponds. Sticky silk extruded frommodified salivary glands helps them buildan amazing array of structures: cases andretreats that offer protection, camouflage,stability in currents, and efficiency inrespiration and feeding. The behaviourinvolved in making their constructions issimilar to that of the cocoon buildingperformed by many Lepidoptera (moths andbutterflies) larvae; the two orders are closelyrelated. Only a few examples of caddisflyarchitecture are mentioned here.

Many species build to catch food.Using plant debris and silk, larvae in thegenus Hydropsyche gain both food andshelter by constructing a net-walledchamber in front of a tubelike retreat.Polycentropus makes a silken tube set in amaze of threads spread over the streambottom. Animals moving across the threadsare seized and devoured. Neureclipsisconceals itself at the narrow end of atrumpet-shaped tube. Guy lines of silk

support the opening, which filters food fromthe current.

Micro-caddisflies are also calledpurse-case makers because they mouldbivalved (two-sided) silk pouches.Hydroptila's clamshell-like cases arecovered with a single layer of sand grains.Ozyethira has a flattened, bottle-shaped casemade entirely of silk (Figure 1).

If you are a tiny aquatic creature, it'snot easy to live in the rushing waters ofmountain streams. Many caddisflies usetheir cases to help them stay put. Moststream-dwelling larvae build their casesfrom small stones or sand grains. Obviously,this is readily available material, but also, itsweight acts as ballast and prevents theinsects from being swept away. In somegroups, the faster the current, the larger arethe stones incorporated in the case. In coldrapid streams Glossosoma sticks togethersmall stones into a turtlelike shell, whichprotects it on the exposed rocks where itlikes to graze on diatoms. When the larvapupates, it glues the case to a rock and spinsa cocoon inside. Many stream-dwellingspecies build long and tapering cases; theseact as vanes to keep the insect's front endturned into the current, reducing resistanceto the water and promoting stability, muchas do the long, stabilizing tails of manylarval mayflies and stoneflies. Smooth,curved cones of sand are constructed bymany caddisfly groups. For example, someare made by Ecclisocosmoecus (Figure 2),which conceals itself in sand and gravel.Heteroplectron gets by with a hollowed-outtwig lined with silk. Brachycentrus makesdistinctive, four-sided cases from thin pieces

6 Winter 1997

DISCOVERY

Figure 3. Bracbyccntms

Figure 4. Ceradea.

of plant material (Figure 3) and often gluesthem, facing into the current, to rocks orplants.

Camouflage, or disguise, is animportant function of many caddisfly cases.Heiicopsyche makes a case of sand that is adead ringer for a snail shell. This genus isnot yet known from British Columbia, butshould be looked for in streams in thesoutheast. Ceradea cases are also made ofsand, but resemble slippers (Figure 4); theoverhanging lip covers the head of the larva.Most Ceradea larvae feed on detritus, butsome eat freshwater sponges. Thebeautifully camouflaged sand tubes ofMystacides are decorated with coniferneedles (Figure 5). Most larvae crawl on thebottom, but Triaenodes species swim highamong rooted plants, on which they feed.They make their cases from pieces of theseplants, arranging them in intricate spirals(Figure 6). Along the quiet edges of pondsand marshes, Lenarchus glues sedge leaveslengthwise into a tube (Figure 7); the verycommon Limnephilus often patches togethera bristly brush of wood and leaf bits(Figure 8). Large flat pieces of leaf movingalong the bottom of seepage pools belong to

Clostoeca, and in waters with abundantsnails, Philarctus adds these tiny shells to itstubes of sand and sedge seeds.

Tubelike cases offer not only shelter,camouflage, and stability, they also make iteasier for the larva to extract oxygen fromthe water. Flowing water carries moreoxygen than still water and inside its case, alarva can produce its own current.Undulating its abdomen, the larva drawswater in through the front opening of thetube and out the back one, bathing theabdomen and gills in constantly renewedwater. Inside a case, a caddisfly larva canbetter survive periods of unusually hightemperatures or other conditions whereoxygen levels drop below normal. Thus,case making has also allowed some speciesof caddisflies to exploit the still waters ofponds and other habitats far from theoxygen-rich, running waters in which theirancestors lived — and in which manymodern species still dwell.*

fj Figure?. Mystacides.

Figure 6. Triaenodes,

Figure 7. Lenarchus

Figure 8. Limnephilus.

Rob Cannings is Curator ofEntomology at the RoyalBritish Columbia Museum inVictoria.

7 Winter 1997

DISCOVERY

RESEARCH

INDisturbing Ideas

by Douglas Cowell

In the long march towards knowledge,change often appears to come slowly.Researchers spend long days in the field,long years in the lab. Theoreticians mumbleto themselves and lie awake at night. Papersare published and conferences are held. Thehard work of intellectual pursuit and itspractical application goes on day to day,unrecognized by the general public.

Society, however, tends to digest newinformation in spurts. We seem to be in oneof those times of rapid change now, at leastwithin the sphere of how humankind relatesto the natural and physical world.

Figure 1. Windthrovv in a provincial campground. Both humanand natural forces have disturbed this habitat.

The concept of biodiversity has takenroot and bloomed profusely. Scientists andwestern cultures generally have agreed onthe importance of protecting it. The BritishColumbia ministries of Forests andEnvironment, Lands and Parks, in theirBiodiversity Guidebook, have definedbiodiversity as: "the diversity of plants,animals and other living organisms in alltheir forms and levels of organization, and

includes the diversity of genes, species andecosystems, as well as the evolutionary andfunctional processes that link them"(Government of British Columbia 1995:p. 2).

One of the ways we are grappling withthese issues in the mountains of BritishColumbia is through land use planning andresource management. The science oflandscape ecology and a specialty within it,disturbance ecology, is gaining increasinginfluence in this area. It has an importantrole to play.

Landscape ecology is "concerned withthe distribution of ecological types acrossthe landscape, the dispersal and movementof organisms, and the flow of energy andnutrients," according to the BritishColumbia Forest Service's Research Branch."It studies the consequences of natural andhuman-made disturbance on landscapestructure (e.g., edge, corridors, riparian areas,mosaics) and processes (e.g., movement ofsediment and nutrients in watersheds).Landscape ecology is also concerned withhow landscape dynamics change over timeand space" (British Columbia Ministry ofForests 1996) (Figure I).

That's a tall order. To preserve suchcomplexity while still ensuring aneconomically significant flow of forestproducts is not an enviable task. The bestbet, according to current thinking, is toadopt, or at least imitate as closely as ispractical, the only proven managementsystem: the one nature has already put inplace.

So, we now have resource managersbroadening their focus from the productionof commodities to the maintenance ofcomplex life systems and the preservation ofbiodiversity. Disturbance ecology is now animportant field of study, helping to provide

8 Winter 1997

an understanding of, as well as the tools for,modern ecosystem management. It isfounded on what in ecology is called the"non-equilibrium" model, which proposesthat ecosystems are never static, but rather,are dynamic and always changing. Everypart of the landscape seems to be recoveringfrom one disturbance or another.

Classic models assumed that anecosystem existed in a static, self-replicatingmode until a disturbance came along and"injured" it. The system then went about"repairing" itself until it again attained thesteady state. Disturbance ecology challengesthis established structure of beliefs. In fact,it says, many ecosystems are alwaysrecovering from the last disturbance.Change is the only steady state.

DISCOVERY

Avalanche paths,Coquihalla Highway.

Figure 4, A disease centre of Armillaria rootdisease in a 80- to 100-year-old standof Douglas-fir.

Figure 5. Spruce bud worm Choristoneuraoccidentalis.

DISTURBANCESWhat exactly are these natural disturbances?A loose definition of disturbance includesany naturally occurring event that isrelatively discrete in time and that disruptsecosystems, communities, populations,processes, or relationships. Thus, anavalanche is a disruption, whereas a normalsnowfall is not.

There are two general categories ofdisturbances: abiotic and biotic. Abioticdisturbances include events such as floods,landslides, avalanches, wildfire, andweather-related phenomena (e.g., snow, ice,frost, drought, and wind) (Figures 2 and 3).Their common feature is that the factorscausing the disturbance are non-living.Biotic disturbances, in contrast, are causedby living agents. Such disturbances thusinclude disease and grazing or browsing(e.g. by mammals or insects) (Figures 4 and 5).

The wide variety of naturaldisturbances, the various ways they takeeffect, and the ways they interact withenvironments and with each other, make fora complex mix of possibilities. Here aresome observations about how naturaldisturbances function.

Fire is the largestnatural disturbancein many parts ofBritish Columbia.

CORPILLERA 9 Winter 1997

Figure 6. Lightning is ;imajor cause ofstand-re placingfire in BritishColumbia.

Figure 7. Landslides, such as this one along theLiard River, are an important naturaldisturbance in mountainous areas.

Figure 8.Advanceddecay of aDouglas-fircaused byScbiveinitziibutt rot.

TIME AND SPACEDisturbances can act over a great range ofspace and time. Consider a lightning storm(Figure 6); in one valley a strike lights up asingle tree, which quietly burns itself out inthe middle of the night. In the next valley it

sets off a fire that roars out to cover 23 000ha during the next few days, burning veryintensely in places,

Most traces of the first fire are gonewhen the hole in the canopy around thatsingle tree closes ten years later. In theadjacent valley, the effects of the samelightning storm echo down through time andare still evident centuries later.

MANY LEVELSThe effects of a disturbance are felt at manylevels of biological organization.

Consider, for example, a landslide 50 macross (Figure 7). It comes crashing downthe mountain, taking out a swath of forest,overwhelming a valley stream and buryingsome wet meadowlands in debris andboulders. As well as killing individual plantsand animals, it disrupts ecosystem and standdevelopment, returns areas to earlier stagesof succession, and changes habitat mosaics.Thus, it has effects right from the individualto the landscape level.

VARIATIONSDisturbance regimes often vary greatly, bothwithin a single landscape and across aregion. Some forested areas are particularlyvulnerable to root rot, others to landslides.Forests just below the ridge in a certainvalley repeatedly get toppled by wind,whereas you would have to look closely tofind even single trees blown down anywhereelse in this same valley.

At least 80% of the natural mortality inSitka Spruce/Western Hemlock forestsalong the exposed west coast is caused bywind. In coastal Douglas-fir forests butt rotmay make individual trees more vulnerableto damage and death during strong winds(Figure 8). A hurricane-force storm comingashore in the winter of 1906 laid down over30 000 ha of forest on northern VancouverIsland and the adjacent mainland. Yet, in thesouthern Interior, less than 15% of thenatural mortality of Ponderosa Pine (Pinusponderosd) is wind-induced. Variationsindeed!

10 Winter 1997

INTERACTIONOften several types of disturbances interact(Figure 9). For instance, insect attacks in astand of trees can lead to a build-up of deadmaterial, making the area more vulnerableto fire. Conversely, fire-damaged trees maybecome stressed and therefore prone toinsect attack. A young, vigorous stand,regenerating after a fire, is apt to be moreresistant to bark beetle attack than the standit replaced.

VARIABILITYThe wide range of possible disturbances,their various intensities and scales, and theinteractions between them, usually producestructurally complex ecosystems withtangled webs of energy flow and nutrientcycling. The adjectives "raggedness" and"patchiness" are often used when ecologistsrefer to such forests (Figure 10). Add to themix the effects of human-caused disruptionssuch as logging, agriculture, and roadbuilding, and the opportunities forcomplexity are multiplied yet again.

Ecosystem complexity and thedisturbances that create it provide new andvaried niches for a variety of plants andanimals. These niches are spatial andecological opportunities for many species. Awhole mountainside may boast shimmeringfields of purple the summer after a forest firecomes through and opens a niche forFireweed (Epilobium angustifolium) —even where there was not a single individualof this pioneering species the year before.

A landslide into a valley immediatelylays bare fresh mineral soil which, withindays, may be seeded by plants that can onlyestablish themselves in such a situation. Asmall pond, perhaps forming behind the pileof rock and rubble, may offer opportunitiesfor aquatic plants and animals where nonehad existed before,

STRUCTURE AND PROCESSTypically, resource managers have focusedmore on structure — objects on the ground— and less on natural processes. It's

comparatively easy, forexample, for a forestmanager to deal with trees,which can be seen andtouched. It's much moredifficult to understand anddeal successfully withprocesses such as naturaldisturbances, nutrient flow,and evolution.

Landscape ecologyteaches, however, thatnatural processes design andcreate the structure anddetermine the direction ofongoing change in landscapestructure (Figure 11).Obviously then, in order toprovide successful long-termmanagement results,planners must understandand deal with the processes at work. It is inthe understanding of processes that ecologywill probably make its greatest contributionto ecosystem management.

Tn the 1880s, when settlers first arrivedin the East Kootenays and the OkanaganValley, they seldom bothered to build roads.The low elevation stands of Ponderosa Pinewere so open they could drive their wagonsalmost anywhere; there was virtually nounderbrush. It was an ecosystem adapted tofrequent fires. With thick, fire-resistant bark

Figure 9. A dramatic exampleof two disturbanceregimes workingtogether, Phellinnsu'f/mbuu lot madethis WesternRedcedar vulnerableto wind.

Figure 10. Many fires are patchy and leave patchy,complex landscapes.

CORDILLERA 11 Winter 1997

Figure 11.Stand replacement at itsmost obvious. It is oftensurprising how quickly anew suite of plants andanimals will move in toreplace what is lost.

Figure 12.Fire is the largestnaturaldisturbance inmany parts ofBritish Columbia.

Douglas Cowell is a writer andphotographer who has beenpublishing in British Columbiamagazines for 18 years,covering topics about land use,resources, and environment.He has worked as logger andsilvicultural contractor forMacMillan Bloedel, and as anenvironmental activist forGreenpeace Canada.

12 Winter 1997

and no lower branches to catch fire, thesepines were practically fireproof. Often, theywere several hundred years old and hadendured dozens, if not hundreds, of fires.

Early in this century, the provincialgovernment began fighting fires to protecttheir forests. Without the previouslyfrequent fires, the understorey, which hadbeen kept in check, soon grew in thick andtall, providing fuel ladders into the crownsof the trees. This, together with old grazingpractices that changed the mix of grassspecies, and early logging that often took thelargest and most fireproof trees, putPonderosa Pine stands increasingly at risk.Today many Ponderosa Pine stands haveburned and, in a number of cases, Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) has grown in toreplace the pine (Figure 12).

We had worked hard for decades toprotect our pines but had only guaranteedtheir destruction. This is because we focusedon the structure but missed the process.

FUTURE CHANGEUsing the lessons of landscape ecology, wecan now more successfully integrate ourhuman activities into the natural landscapeby understanding natural processes andlandscape structures. Disturbance ecology

can help us reduce the impact of our human-made disturbances on the natural processesat work.

Natural disturbance is the key processthat gave us the landscape structures wehave today, and is one of the parametersaround which species and ecosystemsevolved. It's not surprising then, that a widerange of research is underway in theprovince to improve our understanding ofthese processes. In a future issue we willreview a number of these projects. We allwould do well to become more comfortablewith this kind of disturbing knowledge.*

LITERATURE CITED:Bannerman, Susan. 1997. Landscape Ecology

and Natural Disturbances: Relationships toBiodiversity. Extension Note 10. B.C.Ministry of Forests, Research Program.Victoria, BC.

British Columbia Ministry of Forests. 1996.Landscape Ecology. Forest Research News,Winter 1996:1-7. B.C. Ministry of Forests,Research Program, Victoria, BC.

Government of British Columbia. 1995.Biodiversity Guidebook (Forest PracticesCode of British Columbia). B.C. Ministryof Forests & B.C. Environment, Victoria, BC.

Lertzman. Ken, Tom Spies, & Fred Swanson.1997. From ecosystem dynamics toecosystem management. Pp. 361-382 inThe Rain Forests of Home. (P.K.Schoonmaker. B. von Hagen, & E.C. Wolf,eds.) Island Press, Washington, DC.

Parminter, John. (In Prep.) Natural disturbanceecology in Conservation Biology Principlesfor Forest Management. (J. Volier & S.Harrison, eds.) B.C. Ministry of Forests,Research Program, Victoria, BC.

Perry, David A. & Michael P. Amaranthus.1997. Disturbance, recovery, and stability.Pp. 31 -56 In Creating a Forestry for the 21 stCentury. (K.A. Kohm & J.F. Franklin, eds.)Island Press, Washington, DC.

Rogers, Paul. 1996. Disturbance Ecology andForest Management: A Review of theLiterature. General Technical Report INT-GTR-336. U.S. Department of Agriculture,Forest Service, Ogden, UT.

White, Peter S. 1987. Natural Disturbance, PatchDynamics, and Landscape Pattern inNatural Areas. Natural Areas Journal7(l):14-22.

CORPILLERA

Living With Eagles

by Yorke Edwards

Throughout history eagles have beensymbols of military power and culturalprestige. Examples of their use includeimages on the flags of nations and in the artof aboriginal people. This is especially trueof the famed art of First Nations people onthe British Columbia coast, where BaldEagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) areabundant in forest edges along ocean shores.

For two decades I have lived inVictoria with a distant pair of eagles. (To betruthful, they could actually have been asuccession of pairs.) Their territory includesareas near the city, as well as inside it. Muchof their hunting is easily seen from the city'sshores, and their nest is built in a residentialcommunity, where their domestic behaviouris watched closely by human neighbours(Figure 1). Those with windows facing thenest spread the news to households not sofortunately placed: almost daily bulletinsabout nest building, the growth of youngones in the nest, or the food that adults carryto the nest-bound young.

Most Bald Eagles living on BritishColumbia's ocean shores usually spend partof each day on perchs in favourite treesoverlooking the water. Although theyappear to be loafing, they are hunting, "still-hunting" to be exact, as they watch thewater for the next meal to appear. Except inthe nesting season, especially productiveplaces for still-hunting can attract numerouseagles. Such sites include areas where treesoverlook strong and turbulent tidal waters,which may occasionally bring stunned orinjured fish to the surface, or places witheddies and upwellings, which carry varioussmall invertebrates or little fish up from thedepths. In these latter sites, larger creatureslike ducks and gulls are attracted to the rich

Figure 1. "Our" eagle nest inVictoria.

mix, and they too may be eaten by theeagles, which are at the top of the foodchain.

Our urban eagles hunt high-energywaters that are biologically rich. Althoughtides race through a narrow channelbetween the city and the Trial Islands thereare no shoreline trees for still-hunting, andthe nearest large trees for nesting are wellinside the city. The eagle pair, therefore,still-hunts from a tall post on an islandshore, and that post is an essential part oftheir territory. The post is about half akilometre from our house at the city's shore.As we scan across Enterprise Channel, theislands are seen as rocky and windswept,with extensive meadows rising up a centralhill (Figure 2). Those grasslands are part ofthe "oak meadows," which the City ofVictoria's growth has now largelydestroyed. The islands are treeless exceptfor wind-dwarfed Garry Oaks (Quercusgarryana), which grow in shrubby patchesthat are sheltered in rocky hollows wellback from the shore.

Figure 2. Treeless TrialIslands.

13 Winter 1997

Figure 11.Stand replacement at itsmost obvious. IT is oftensurprising how quickly anew suite of plants andanimals will move in toreplace what is lost.

Figure 12.Fire i,s the largestnaturaldisturbance inmany parts ofBritish Columbia.

Douglas Cowell is a writer andphotographer who has beenpublishing in British Columbiamagazines for 18 years,covering topics about land use,resources, and environment.He has worked as logger andsilvicultural contractor forMacMillan Bloedel, and as anenvironmental activist forGreenpeace Canada,

12 Winter 1997

and no lower branches to catch fire, thesepines were practically fireproof. Often, theywere several hundred years old and hadendured dozens, if not hundreds, of fires.

Early in this century, the provincialgovernment began fighting fires to protecttheir forests. Without the previouslyfrequent fires, the understorey, which hadbeen kept in check, soon grew in thick andtall, providing fuel ladders into the crownsof the trees. This, together with old grazingpractices that changed the mix of grassspecies, and early logging that often took thelargest and most fireproof trees, putPonderosa Pine stands increasingly at risk.Today many Ponderosa Pine stands haveburned and, in a number of cases, Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) has grown in toreplace the pine (Figure 12).

We had worked hard for decades toprotect our pines but had only guaranteedtheir destruction. This is because we focusedon the structure but missed the process.

FUTURE CHANGEUsing the lessons of landscape ecology, wecan now more successfully integrate ourhuman activities into the natural landscapeby understanding natural processes andlandscape structures. Disturbance ecology

can help us reduce the impact of our human-made disturbances on the natural processesat work.

Natural disturbance is the key processthat gave us the landscape structures wehave today, and is one of the parametersaround which species and ecosystemsevolved. It's not surprising then, that a widerange of research is underway in theprovince to improve our understanding ofthese processes. In a future issue we willreview a number of these projects. We allwould do well to become more comfortablewith this kind of disturbing knowledge.*

LITERATURE CITED:Bannerman, Susan. 1997. Landscape Ecology

and Natural Disturbances: Relationships toBiodiversity. Extension Note 10. B.C.Ministry of Forests, Research Program.Victoria, BC.

British Columbia Ministry of Forests. 1996.Landscape Ecology. Forest Research News,Winter 1996:1-7. B.C. Ministry of Forests,Research Program, Victoria, BC.

Government of British Columbia. 1995.Biodiversity Guidebook (Forest PracticesCode of British Columbia). B.C. Ministryof Forests & B.C. Environment, Victoria, BC.

Lertzman, Ken, Tom Spies. & Fred Swansea1997. From ecosystem dynamics toecosystem management. Pp. 361-382 inThe Rain Forests of Home. (P.K.Schoonmaker, B. von Hagen, & E.C. Wolf,eds.) Island Press, Washington, DC.

Parminter, John. (In Prep.) Natural disturbanceecology in Conservation Biology Principlesfor Forest Management. (J. Voller & S.Harrison, eds.) B.C. Ministry of Forests,Research Program, Victoria, BC.

Perry, David A. & Michael P. Amaranthus.1997. Disturbance, recovery, and stability.Pp. 31-56 In Creating a Forestry for the 21stCentury. (K.A. Kohm & J.F. Franklin, eds.)Island Press, Washington, DC.

Rogers, Paul. 1996. Disturbance Ecology andForest Management: A Review of theLiterature. General Technical Report INT-GTR-336. U.S. Department of Agriculture,Forest Service, Ogden, UT.

White, Peter S. 1987. Natural Disturbance, PatchDynamics, and Landscape Pattern inNatural Areas. Natural Areas Journal7(1): 14-22.

CORDILLERA

Living With Eagles

by Yorke Edwards

Throughout history eagles have beensymbols of military power and culturalprestige. Examples of their use includeimages on the flags of nations and in the anof aboriginal people. This is especially trueof the famed art of First Nations people onthe British Columbia coast, where BaldEagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) areabundant in forest edges along ocean shores.

For two decades I have lived inVictoria with a distant pair of eagles. (To betruthful, they could actually have been asuccession of pairs.) Their territory includesareas near the city, as well as inside it. Muchof their hunting is easily seen from the city'sshores, and their nest is built in a residentialcommunity, where their domestic behaviouris watched closely by human neighbours(Figure 1). Those with windows facing thenest spread the news to households not sofortunately placed: almost daily bulletinsabout nest building, the growth of youngones in the nest, or the food that adults carryto the nest-bound young.

Most Bald Eagles living on BritishColumbia's ocean shores usually spend partof each day on perchs in favourite treesoverlooking the water. Although theyappear to be loafing, they are hunting, "still-hunting1 ' to be exact, as they watch thewater for the next meal to appear. Except inthe nesting season, especially productiveplaces for still-hunting can attract numerouseagles. Such sites include areas where treesoverlook strong and turbulent tidal waters,which may occasionally bring stunned orinjured fish to the surface, or places witheddies and upwellings, which carry varioussmall invertebrates or little fish up from thedepths. In these latter sites, larger creatureslike ducks and gulls are attracted to the rich

Figure 1. ''Our" eagle nest inVictoria.

mix, and they too may be eaten by theeagles, which are at the top of the foodchain.

Our urban eagles hunt high-energywaters that are biologically rich. Althoughtides race through a narrow channelbetween the city and the Trial Islands thereare no shoreline trees for still-hunting, andthe nearest large trees for nesting are wellinside the city. The eagle pair, therefore,still-hunts from a tall post on an islandshore, and that post is an essential pan oftheir territory. The post is about half akilometre from our house at the city's shore.As we scan across Enterprise Channel, theislands are seen as rocky and windswept,with extensive meadows rising up a centralhill (Figure 2). Those grasslands are part ofthe "oak meadows," which the City ofVictoria's growth has now largelydestroyed. The islands are treeless exceptfor wind-dwarfed Garry Oaks (Quercusgarryana), which grow in shrubby patchesthat are sheltered in rocky hollows wellback from the shore.

Figure 2. Treeless TrialIslands.

13 Winter 1997

Figure 3- A Bald Eagle inflight.

...does this indicatethat the "wild andmighty eagle" has

fallen into an urbanlifestyle?

The eagles1 man-made post, about sixmetres high, and marking the location of aburied cable for a lighthouse, is the onlyelevated perch overlooking the channel. Onmost days an eagle is on it — andsometimes two of them. This eagle pair'stogetherness includes frequent perching sideby side on the post, often for hours; thisperhaps illustrates the strength of their year-round pair bond, as well as the local scarcityof perches for still-hunting.

Through the years, their bulky nests inthe city have been prone to destruction bythe region's notoriously strong winds, whichtoss large trees about and every few yearsblow old trees down. In the last six yearsthere have been four successive nests, twoin a grove of large Grand Firs (Abiesgrandis) and Douglas-firs (Pseudotsugamenziesii), and then one in a large BlackCottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp.trichocarpd), where the nest was perilouslyplaced on outer branches. The first two nestsfell with the trees that contained them; thethird lasted for two successful nestingseasons, then fell from the cottonwood in asevere windstorm. As I write, one or twoeagles are on the post almost daily, but onlybriefly because they have started to build anew nest in the same cottonwood, higher inthe tree this time, and with thicker branchesfor support.

Their attachment to the city is obvious,a condition contrary to the reputation ofeagles throughout much of human history.

But does this indicate that the ''wild andmighty eagle" has fallen into an urbanlifestyle?

Eagles have long been celebrated fortheir independence and fearlessness(Figure 3). They were considered big andwild and free, and they were birds of power,their images leading armies into battles.They still appear on some countries'national documents, in rather angry poses.Their reputations have thus been highlymagnified. Have our urban eagles, incontrast, become tame and urbanized? Notlikely; they just need a lofty nest site in a bigtree. In this case, the only suitable trees arefound in the city and they are thus forced tobe city nesters if they are also to use the wildparts of their territory, which supply theirfood.

This eagle pair actually defends itsisland territory only during the nestingseason, but they stay together on it throughmuch of the year. They perch on their postparts of most days, overlooking EnterpriseChannel for a few hours or sometimes formost of a day. That post is the centre of theirterritory. Other eagles approaching it innesting season are escorted away, theintruders easily hastened from the defendedterritory. Outside the nesting season, othereagles are tolerated if they keep theirdistance. Most intruders are singleimmatures, but there have been up to fiveyoung there at once, and all were tolerated ifthey stayed far from the post.

Enterprise Channel is well known forits powerful tides. At full and new moons itcan contain a rush of roaring water, but in itscalmest moods, it is glassy smooth. Thesewaters are rich in food for eagles. Its shoresand waters also attract ducks, cormorants,gulls, grebes, auklets, guillemots, andnumerous seals.

Birds seem to comprise the main partof the eagles' diet, but fish are eaten too.Two kinds of observations have providedinformation on what these eagles eat. First,it is sometimes possible to actually glimpsewhat they have caught. When carrying prey

14 Winter 1997 COBJMLLERA

NOTEBOOK

or eating it they are usually distant, soidentifying their food can be difficult.Several dozen of my identifications suggestthat the Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola), asmall diving duck, is a preferred type ofprey in winter. {In summer Buffleheads areraising young on inland lakes.) Gulls aretaken year-round, but the kinds of gullscaught are difficult to identify, especiallywhen they are limp and distant; in winter upto five or more gull species are available. Anoccasional Pelagic Cormorant(Phalacrocoraxpelagicus) is taken, and afew fish of unknown species have beenglimpsed. Fenwick Lansdowne. the well-known bird artist, watched food deliveries tothe first nest in the cottonwood, and onseveral occasions saw that the prey was a rat(Landsdowne, pers. comm.)- The Black Rat(Rattus rattus) is established near mostshores in the Victoria region.

Second, food remains dropped fromthe eagles' nests have offered informationon summer prey. Under one nest I foundfish bones, the remains of a NorthwesternCrow (Corvus caurinus), part of a yearlingGlaucous-winged Gull (Larus glaucescens),and several male Harlequin Ducks(Histrionicus histrionicus} in their eclipseplumage. (Ducks and geese go into aneclipse plumage in summer after mating. Todo this, they lose old feathers, grow newdull-coloured feathers, but not flightfeathers, then grow a new set of their formercolourful feathers, including those forflying. Unable to fly for a month or morewhen in their eclipse plumage, they areespecially vulnerable as prey.) After mating,male harlequins fly to the sea to go into thiseclipse plumage, leaving females andducklings on mountain rivers. The males'preferred habitat then becomes shallowwaters off rocky shores, where escapeattempts underwater can be visible to anenemy hovering overhead.

The urban eagles are not on theirterritory continuously. For about a week,several times a year, no eagle hunts from theisland post. This may be because the pair is

on brief visits to distantgatherings of eagles at salmonstreams, or perhaps to inshorewaters teeming with herring.There is also a whole monthevery year when the eagles areabsent. In 18 consecutiveSeptembers I have seen an eagleon the islands on only two days,both early in the month and onlya few days apart. Distant andtraditional annual travel is theprobable cause for their absence.This is a time when eagles needabundant food, because one or two grownyoungsters are flying, while still demandingfood. Hungry, mobile, and unable to feedthemselves, the young ones need a largefood supply and some experience incatching it themselves.

Dead and dying salmon that have justspawned, attract eagles to easy food in manyrivers flowing into North Pacific waters. Notever)' salmon run spawns in September.Kirk (1992) notes that there are Septemberruns of Coho Salmon (Oncorhynchuskisutch} and Chinook Salmon(Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) in substantialrivers draining the state of Washington'sOlympic Mountains. These runs, whichattract many eagles to annual feasts, appearto be the closest ones to the Trial Islandsoccurring in September. As seen fromVictoria's shore, that huge peninsula is analpine wall of landscape just 28 km acrossthe strait; westward the strait narrows toabout half that width. Eagles could easilycross it to rivers where even inexperiencedoffspring would find abundant food.

Will eagles use the Trial Islands foranother 18 years? The islands make up anEcological Reserve protected by BC Parks.They should thus continue to provide eagleterritory if there is a tall post by the channel,if large trees still grow not too distant inquiet neighborhoods, and if the islands'waters stay wild and free of urbancontaminations. +

Figure 4. An eagle chick —what's for lunch?

LITERATURE CITED:Kirk, Ruth. 1992. The

Olympic rain forest: anecological web. Univ. ofWashington Press,Seattle, WA.

CORDILLERA

Yorke Edwards is a retiredbiologist living in Victoria,

15 Winter 1997

NOTEBOOK

Some Eocene Flowers, Fruits,and Seeds of British Colvunbia

by Rene Savenye

Many people living in British Columbiatoday associate the Okanagan area withorchards, which produce fruits such asapples, pears, cherries, apricots, andpeaches. What most people don't realize is

that the origin of some of these fruitsextends back about 50 million years to theMiddle Eocene Epoch of the Cenozoic Era(Table 1). Fossils of leaves, flowers, fruits,and seeds indicate that the oldest known

Table 1. A portion of the GeologicalTime Scale. The Mesozoic,Paleozoic, and Precambriancms, which preceded theCenozoic. are not shown.

Era

Cenczoic

Period

Quaternary

Tertiary

EpochHolocenePleistocenePliocene

Miocene

Oligocene

Eocene

Paleocene

Years before present10000

20000005100000

24 600 000380GOOQQ

549CH)00065QGOOQO

FossilLocalities

Figure 1. Some fossil localities in the interior of British Columbia.

16 Winter 1997

examples of such genera as Primus (cherry),Mains (apple), and Ribes (currants andgooseberries), as well as others, werepresent at this time in various sites in BritishColumbia. In this article, I shall discuss andidentify some of the fossil flowers, fruits,and seeds collected from the BritishColumbia Interior, especially from sites inthe Princeton area (see Figure 1).

In previous articles I have describedfossils in general (Cordillera, Summer1995), and fossil insects in particular(Cordillera, Summer 1996). Together theyrepresent some of the great diversity ofEocene fossils known from BritishColumbia.

Some 50 000 000 years ago, theinterior of British Columbia was quitedifferent, geologically and climatologically,from what it is today. Tectonic activityresulted not only in the formation of large

CORDILLERA

stratovolcanoes, which produced lava flowsand ash falls, but also in faulting, whichresulted in depressions, or grabens; whenrilled with water, these depressions becameintermontane lakes along the westernCordillera. Other lakes may have formedwhen lava flows dammed river valleys.Over time, the lakes became filled withvolcanic ash, and with sediments carried inby rivers coming from the surroundinguplands. As the sediments were beingdeposited, the remains of once-livingorganisms were being buried with them.Today we find these remains as fossil fish,insects, and plants. The plant and insectremains indicate that the Middle Eoceneclimate was generally warmer than it istoday (Ludvigsen 1996). In lowland areas, arather tropical climate prevailed. In contrast,in the Okanagan Highlands, geologic upliftand the presence of large volcanoes duringthe Middle Eocene together produced asomewhat cooler climate. This variety ofclimatic zones, in addition to the effects ofvolcanic activity, resulted in a mix of plantlife. Compared with other known fossilforests of that time, the biodiversity of theOkanagan forests is amazing. More than 400species of plants are known from Okanaganlacustrine deposits. The presence of manyspecies of fruit-bearing plants suggests thatduring the Middle Eocene, the Okanaganwas the scene of a rapid diversification ofplants.

The Middle Eocene forests of theinterior of British Columbia have no moderncounterpart. To see a modem forest that iscomparable (although not identical) to the50 000 000-million-year-old OkanaganHighland forest, one would have to visit theupland forests of Taiwan, or the forests ofnorthern Japan. The mix of temperateconiferous trees (such as firs, spruces, andpines) alongside tropical plants (such asmagnolias, laurel, and mahogany), ispuzzling. The explanation for this may comewith future fossil discoveries.

Many of the fossil flower, fruit, andseed genera illustrated in this paper are nowextinct, but can be placed in modern

families. All are floweringplants, also known asangiosperms. The fact thatmany have now disappearedmay indicate that theangiosperms wereundergoing rapid change inresponse to the changinggeology and climate.Although many species did become extinctin British Columbia, related species aresurviving in certain regions of Asia andelsewhere.

The beautifully preserved flowershown in Figure 2 is from the genusFlorissantia. This is an extinct genus, whichhas now been placed in the Cocoa TreeFamily (Sterculiaceae) (Manchester 1992).It is preserved as a transversely compressedcalyx. This specimen comes from theHorsefly River Beds near Horsefly.Florissantia usually occurs in tuffaceouslake-deposited shales, so it was probablypart of the lakeside vegetation in volcanicareas. The good state of preservationsuggests that the flower was not transportedfar after falling off the plant. Vegetativeorgans of Florissantia have not yet beenidentified. The genus is known only fromwestern North America.

Figure 3 shows another Florissantiaflower, which is laterally compressed andshows prominent veins diverging from itsbase. It also shows part of a long pedicel,which suggests that the flowers werependant. This, together with flower size,

Figure 3- Florissantia.

Compared with otherknown fossil forests of

that time, thebiodiversity of the

Okanagan forests isamazing.

CoRpILLERA 17 Winter 1997

NOTEBOOK

may indicate that Florissamia waspollinated by insects or birds. The specimenwas collected from the Allenby Formationnear Princeton.

Figure 4. Porana

Figure 7. Bohlenia.

Although the specimen shown inFigure 4 looks like a regular flower, it isapparently a fruit belonging to the genusPorana, a member of the Morning GloryFamily (Convolvulaceae). On one smallpiece of shale I split, I found five of thesefossils. Their high quality of preservation,and the large number of them in such asmall space, suggests that they werepreserved close to where they fell, ratherthan being transported any great distance.Although extinct in British Columbia,Porana is a tropical genus still found innorthern India and in Burma.

Figure 5 shows a fossil that belongs tothe Sycamore Family (Platanaceae). Itconsists of a complete and a partialinflorescence of the extinct genusMacginicarpa. What appear to be persistentstyles show along the edge. The stylesappear to be grouped in sets of five, which isa feature of Macginicarpa. Individualmature achenes would be released from thefruiting head. The specimen was found nearPrinceton at Whipsaw Creek.

The fossils shown in Figures 6 and 7,which were also found at Whipsaw Creek,are both of fruits. Both are from extinctplants that belonged to the SoapberryFamily (Sapindaceae). The first one isDeviacer, and its winged fruit has aresemblance to the winged fruit of theMaple Family (Aceraceae). This type ofwinged fruit is called a samara.

The second fruit (Figure 7) belongs tothe genus Bohlenia (Wolf and Wehr 1987).When complete, it is a trilocular (three-parted) samara. Here, only one is preserved.The samaras are joined for about half theirproximal margin along a vascularized stalk,and a vascular strand then extends across thesamara to the centrally located seed. Thesamara completely surrounds the seed. Anetwork of veins, which branch at acuteangles, supplies the samara. The samaras arealmost indistinguishable from those bomeby plants in the living Asian genus

18 Winter 1997 COBJHLLERA

NOTEBOOK

Dipteronia. Bohlenia has characteristics ofboth maples and some soapberries, hintingthat the two families may have a commonancestor. Bohlenia flowers have not beenidentified in the fossil record (Erwin andStockey 1990). Unlike the vegetative organsof angiosperms, flowers are much less likelyto be preserved because of their delicatestructure and relatively short life span.

Members of the Elm Family(Ulmaceae) have left a good variety offossils, including the Ulmus fruit shown inFigure 8. The fruit consists of an ovalendocarp, from which extend two prominentstyles. These Ulmus fruits differ from Early

Middle Eocene Coldwater Beds nearQuilchena. A related living genus,Cercidiphyllum, of China and Japan, goesby the common name Katsura.

The Birch Family (Betulaceae) is alsowell represented in the fossil record. Fromthe early Middle Eocene at Princeton comesa representative of the extinct genus

Figure8. An i'lmusfn\\l.

Eocene species found elsewhere by theirlack of wing development around theendocarp. Well-preserved specimens mayshow peripheral hairs around the endocarpand styles (Manchester 1989). The fruitswere dispersed by wind. These fossils arevery common at the site near Cache Creek.

A group of wind-pollinatedangiosperms, together known as theTrochodendroid Group, have also left fossilfruits. Illustrated here, in Figure 9, is apedicel holding three fruits of the extinctgenus Joffrea. This specimen came from the

Figure 10. Palaeocarpinus.

Palaeocarpinus (Figure 10). Its fruitconsists of a small nutlet surrounded by anumber of bracts. Fine ridges are present onthe surface of the nutlet. Presumably thebracts were an aid for wind dispersal. The

CORDILLERA 19 Winter 1997

NOTEBOOK

prefix paiaeo, meaning "old" or "ancient"'refers to the fact that this genus is anancestor of the more modern genusCarpinus.

The extinct birch, Betula leopoldae, isrepresented by an infructescence withattached trilobed bracts, a structure which ischaracteristic of the Betula genus (Figure11). A single dispersed, trilobed bract is alsoillustrated (Figure 12). As is true of birchestoday, the bracts and the attached fruitwould have been dispersed by wind. Both ofthese specimens come from the Princetonarea. Betula leopoldae may be the earliestrecord of a species in this genus that is fullycorroborated by the presence of leaves andstaminate and pistillate flowers typical ofBetula. It shows that plants with thecharacteristics of Betula were present by the

Middle Eocene, and that evidence for theearly evolution of plants in this groupshould be looked for in older rocks (Craneand Stockey 1987).

Another member of the Birch Familyis the genus Alnus, the alders. Figure 13shows a fossil of the familiar alder catkin,which is actually its mature, female (orpistillate), seed-producing flower. The muchlonger male, pollen-producing catkins occurin the same deposits. The Alnus forms foundin the fossil record are very similar to themodern species. This specimen was foundat Whipsaw Creek.

A more unusual fossil fruit comesfrom a plant in the genus Eucommia,belonging to the Eucommia Family(Eucommiaceae) (Figure 14). Today it isnative to China and the only species in the

Figure 11. Betula leopoldaeinfructescence.

Figure 12. Betula leopoldae brad

Figure 13 Alnus catkin

Figure 14. Eucommia.

20 Winter 1997

NOTEBOOK

family is Eucommia itlmoides. As its speciesname suggests, the plant sharescharacteristics with the elms. The fruit isdistinctive. The fine lines visible in thephotograph are polymerized latex strands,very similar to those found in the leaves andfruits of the modem species. These fossilsoccur near Quilchena. The counterpart ofthis particular fossil is now at Simon FraserUniversity, in the paleontology collection ofDr. Rolf Mathewes, who kindly identifiedthe fossil forme.

It is not uncommon to find fossilswhich, even when shown to expertpaleontologists, still remain unidentifiable.For example, Figure 15 is of a flower,showing stamens with thin filaments andswollen anthers, It was found near CacheCreek. The fossil shown in Figure 16,discovered near Princeton, appears to be afruit, possibly with seeds. Experts could notidentify either specimen; however, they nowhave a record of them for future reference.At some point in the future, when morepieces of the evolutionary puzzle are inplace, it may be possible to identify thesespecimens.

Because fossil flowers, fruits, andseeds are of great significance tounderstanding the evolution of angiosperms,I would like to close by urging any buddingpaleontologists to make their collectionsknown to professional paleontologists,museum curators, or other experts. Whoknows what buried treasures lie entombednot only in Eocene lakebed sediments, butalso in the personal collections of amateurs?Collect, enjoy, and share \+

LITERATURE CITED:Crane, P.R. & R.A. Stockey. 1987. Betula

leaves and reproductive structures from theMiddle Eocene of British Columbia,Canada. Canadian Journal of Botany65:2490-2500.

Erwin, D.3VI. & R.A. Stockey. 1990.Sapindaceous flowers from the MiddleEocene Princeton chert (AllenbyFormation) of British Columbia, Canada.Canadian Journal of Botany 68:2025-2034.

Figure 15, An unknown flower.

Figure 16. An unknown fruit.

Ludvigsen, R., ed. 1996. Life in Stone, a NaturalHistory of British Columbia's Fossils.U.B.C. Press, Vancouver, BC.

Manchester, S.R. 1989. Systematics and fossilhistory of the Ulmaceae. Pp. 221-251 inEvolution, Systematics and Fossil Historyof the Hamamelidae, Vol. 2: 'Higher'Hamamelidae. (P.R. Crane & S.Blackmore, eds.) Systematics AssociationSpecial Volume 40B. Claredon Press.Oxford. UK.

Manchester, S.R. 1992. Flowers, fruits andpollen of Florissantia, an extinct malvaleangenus from the Eocene and Oligocene ofwestern North America. American Journalof Paleontology: 79:9964008.

Wolfe, J.A. & W. Wehr. 1987. Middle Eocenedicotyledonous plants from Republic,northeastern Washington: U.S. GeologicalSurvey Bulletin 1597:1-26.

CORPILLERA

Rene Savenye is a long timemember of the VancouverNatural History Society and iscurrently president of the WhiteRock and Surrey Naturalists.He has an active interest inmany aspects of NaturalHistory.

21 Winter 1997

FEATURES

This paper providesa preliminary

assessment of thenumber, timing,and direction ofswan migration

through the region,locates and

describes the ecologyof their habitat, and

relates this to thenatural history of

the species.

Trumpeter Swansin the

Stikine WatershedA Preliminary Survey

by Bill Sampson

ABSTRACTTrumpeter Swans (Cygnus buccinator) can be found during winter and early spring at inland lakes inthe Stikine watershed, and in ice-free creeks and ponds along the margins of the lower Stikine andIskut River flood plain. During migration they use lakes and river corridors throughout the region.Although these regular occurrences are known to local residents, an inventory of population numbersand habitat had not been done. This study used aerial surveys to count swans and map their habitat,and local residents have helped to establish an historical baseline. Parts of the Stikine watershed arenear the northern geographical limit of this species' winter range, and these areas are considered interms of critical habitat and the environmental processes that maintain it.

INTRODUCTIONThis paper was written to provide informationabout Trumpeter Swans (Cygnus buccinator)in the Stikine watershed.

During April 1997, aerial surveys wereused to locate Trumpeter Swan habitat, thena preliminary draft of this paper wasdistributed to local residents. Many peopleprovided historical information aboutTrumpeter Swans for this project, alongwith their swan observations from 1997.This paper provides a preliminaryassessment of the number, timing, anddirection of swan migration through theregion, locates and describes the ecology oftheir habitat, and relates this to the naturalhistory of the species. It also identifiesfuture research needed on swans in theStikine watershed.

The government of British Columbiahas calculated wildlife habitat capability forungulates, bears, and salmon in the Stikinewatershed. Resource developmentcompanies have evaluated some biologicalprocesses in areas they want to use, and oneregional report notes that swans occurred "inwetlands in the Craig River Valley in thefall of 1987" (Smith and Gerath 1989).During the early 1980s BC Hydro studiedstream morphology, fisheries resources,benthic communities, and wildlife habitat,and described some of the wetland andalluvial ecosystems that happen to be usedby Trumpeter Swans, but these studiesdidn't relate inland aquatic habitat, or indeedother habitats, to birds. The Birds of BritishColumbia shows only one summer record

22 Winter 1997 COBJHLLEHA

FEATURES

of a Trumpeter Swan in the area of theStikine watershed (Campbell et al.1990).

STUDY AREAThe Stikine River encompasses a largeportion of northwestern British Columbiaand part of southeastern Alaska (Figure 1).It includes seven physiographic land units,spanning a climatic gradient from theextremely wet maritime climate at the coastto the cool dry continental climate of theinterior. The Stikine River is 640 km long,and has the fifth largest watershed in theprovince (5200 km2). (The four largestwatersheds are those of the Fraser.

Columbia, Liard, and Skeena Rivers.) Fromits source in the upland plateaus of SpatsiziPark, it flows north for 80 km to itsconfluence with the Chukachida River andthen west for 265 km to the Grand Canyonof the Stikine. It then turns southwest,running for 90 km past Telegraph Creek andthrough the Tahltan Highlands. Finally, itruns south for 205 km through the CoastMountains to its estuary near Wrangell,Alaska.

The Iskut River is the largest tributaryof the Stikine, originating near Iskut Villageon Highway 37 at Kluachon Lake. It flows43 km south through Kluachon,

Stikine WatershedFigure 2: Upper Iskut RiverFigure 5: Lower Stikine / Iskut Wetlands

\,' ',_„,- Telegraph Creek

USA ' BC

To the ""*•.. ; FigureSPacificOcean

Figure 1. Map showing the Stikine watershed (in Canada). The lakes in theupper Iskut watershed and the lower Stikine/Tskut wetlands,inside the squares, are shown in more detail in Figures 2 and 5.

The Stikine River is640 km long, andhas the fifth largest

watershed in theprovince (5200

km2).

CORPILLERA 23 Winter 1997

FEATURES

Eddontenajon, Tatogga, Kinaskan, andNatadesteen Lakes (Figure 2), and thencontinues south for another 110 km beforeturning west to run 80 km through the CoastMountains to its confluence with theStikine, 11 km upstream from the border ofBritish Columbia and Alaska.

Figure 2, Map of the lakes inthe upper Iskutwatershed. Swansoverwinter inshallow areas at theinlet and outlet.

The valley floors in the lower reachesof the watershed are level flood plains,which end abruptly at the base of extremelyrugged glacial mountains. Lower elevationsare in the Coastal Western Hemlock Zoneof the Boundary Ranges Ecosection.Specifically, they are in the NorthernVariant of the Wet Maritime Subzone(CWHwm3) (Demarchi 1996). The CWHSubzone, maintained by mild Pacific airand heavy rainfall, extends 70 km upstreamto about the Scud River in the StikineValley, and 46 km to Bronson Creek in theIskut valley. Here, precipitation is greater

than 2500 mm per year, which helps tocreate a mosaic of flood plain, wetland, andice-free winter habitats. This is a fascinatingarea in which to observe birds and otherwildlife, particularly at the riparian interfacebetween the low elevation temperate old-growth forest and the valley bottomwetlands.

The Tahltan Highland Ecosection is a50-km-wide transition zone along theStikine River between the Boundary Rangesand the interior plateaus. A sharpprecipitation gradient through this zonecreates a warm dry climate in some westernsections of the interior plateaus. Springcomes early to Telegraph Creek and thesurrounding area, and early migrantwaterfowl can often find beaver ponds andcreek outlets that are free of ice before theend of March.

Farther east and north, a series ofuplifted plateaus has been eroded intocomplicated drainage systems and steepmountains separated by wide valleys, suchas the upper Iskut, Klastline, and Klappanvalleys. The boreal forests found throughoutthe plateau region are less influenced byPacific air; there, the lakes and wetlands canremain frozen until May.

TRUMPETER SWANSTrumpeter Swans may eat insects and otherinvertebrates, but primarily they feed on theaquatic plants and rhizomes that grow infresh water lakes, marshes, and rivers. Theycan eat up to 9 kg of aquatic vegetationevery day, and their long necks allow themto excavate and pull up emerging shootsfrom a metre underwater (McKelvey 1984,Rasmussen 1996). Their traditional winterhabitat includes shallow, ice-free inlandwaters and coastal estuaries, where they reston open water or ice. They can quicklydeplete a food source, and when food islimited they may become aggressive towardeach other (pers. obs.). Food limitation mayalso cause them to be in poor reproductivecondition by spring, which can then reducetheir chances of survival and reproductive

24 Winter 1997 CORDILLERA

FEATURES

success (Mitchell 1994). In agriculturalareas, such as the Comox Valley, they mayfeed on waste produce or in pastures, wherethey can cause significant crop loss and fielddamage (Trumpeter Swan Sentinel Society1997).

Historically, Trumpeter Swans rangedthroughout America north of Mexico, andthey nested in a wide band across Alaska,Canada, and the northern United States(Mitchell 1994). Initial losses were causedby explorers, trappers, and settlers, whotraded the meat, skins, down, and quills tothe Hudson's Bay Company (Bellrose 1976,Anonymous 1990). Road development,water diversions, city and farmdevelopment, and the wholesale destructionof forests, caused the extirpation of theTrumpeter Swan from eastern NorthAmerica. Large-scale agriculturaldevelopment drained many wetlands anddestroyed prairie nesting habitat (Guiguet1958). The loss of habitat, particularlywinter habitat, continues to be the majorproblem for Trumpeter Swans and otherwaterfowl (Mitchell 1994, Subcommitteeon the Interior Population of TrumpeterSwans 1997).

By 1900, the Trumpeter Swan wasnearly extinct. In 1920, estimates of theremaining numbers ranged from 35 toseveral hundred birds and an internationaleffort to conserve the remaining trumpeterswas underway. In 1933, only 66 wereknown to exist in the United States(Subcommittee on the Interior Population ofTrumpeter Swans 1997). In 1947, therewere still fewer than 1000 trumpeters, andperhaps fewer than 100 new broods thatyear for the entire species, scatteredthroughout isolated places and refuges(Callighar 1962). By 1973, although thepopulation had been protected for manyyears, it was still dangerously low (Guiguet1973). In 1984, the estimated populationwas 9000 (McKetvey 1984) and in 1990 itwas 15 630 (Mitchell 1994).

East of the Rocky Mountains remnantnesting populations survived in northeastern

British Columbia, near Grand Prairie,Alberta and in the Red Rock Lake andTeton Marsh areas in Yellowstone Park. TheGrand Prairie birds wintered with theYellowstone birds at the head of the SnakeRiver, in Idaho, at Red Rock Lakes NationalWildlife refuge. That flock increased fromfewer than 50 birds in 1935, when therefuge was created, to 380 birds in 1954(McKelvey 1984). It reached a high of 589birds in 1990, but had fallen to 364 in 1995(Caithamer 1996). Other populations haveexpanded from reserves and reintroductions;together they are called the Rocky Mountainpopulation. This population has experiencedmajor winter mortality caused bycompetition for winter habitat. Survivaloften depends on feeding programs, andbirds may be in poor condition for springmigration. The Rocky Mountain populationnumbered 1747 in 1990, 2200 in 1992, 2517in 1995 and now stands at about 3000(Caithamer 1996).

The Pacific Coast population hasexpanded to about 16 000. They overwinterfrom southeastern Alaska to northernOregon, including about 8000 that winteralong the British Columbia coast(Trumpeter Swan Sentinel Society 1997).Some birds winter at scattered interiorlocations. In early spring they begin tomigrate towards nesting areas in northernBritish Columbia, the Yukon, and Alaska.

The early surveys were difficult andmissed some areas, but we know that byabout 1920 a remnant Trumpeter Swanpopulation had been fragmented intoisolated pockets. Some were in parks, butmany survived in wilderness areas that weretoo remote from hunters or too inhospitablefor early development.

About 1000 Trumpeter Swans havenow been reintroduced to central and easternNorth America (Mitchell 1994). Thesebirds, making up what is called the InteriorPopulation, depend on continuedmanagement, including feeding programs,health care for individuals, transplanting ofbreeding pairs, and fostering of cygnets.

By 1900, theTrumpeter Swan was

nearly extinct. In1920, estimates of

the remainingnumbers ranged

from 35 to severalhundred birds andan international

effort to conserve theremaining

trumpeters wasunderway.

CORPILLERA 25 Winter 1997

FEATURES

Overall, TrumpeterSwan conservation isa success story. Thereare now more than20 000, and their

public profile ensuresthat they will

continue to beprotected.

In fall, the swansmay migrate alone,inpairs, infamily

units, or in groups offamily units.

Eggs are taken from wild populations orfrom nonmigratory pairs to supply fosterbirds for reintroduction. In areas whereTrumpeter Swans have been extirpated,efforts to re-establish them, spanning 38years, have not been very successful. Someprograms have been abandoned(Anonymous 1991) and others arequestionable (Caithamer 1996).Transplanted birds often have lower survivalrates than wild populations (Anonymous1990). Mating pairs that are moved to newareas in the spring may return to their homelake in fall and then simply stay there thenext spring, and nonmigratory birds facehigher risks of disease epidemics andproblems with parasites.

Overall, Trumpeter Swan conservationis a success story. There are now more than20 000, and their public profile ensures thatthey will continue to be protected. In 1990,however, they were still designated as a rarespecies by the Committee on the Status ofEndangered Wildlife in Canada(COSEW1C) and in 1996, they were listedas one of 14 rare birds in British Columbia.They are still the rarest swans in the worldand loss of habitat from continuing land andresource development poses a serious threatto their survival (Mitchell 1994). The BritishColumbia Conservation Data Centre givesTrumpeter Swans a G4 global rating for rareand endangered species, which means theyare a globally significant, rare, andvulnerable species (The B.C. ConservationData Centre 1997).

LOCAL KNOWLEDGE OF TRUMPETERSWANS.People often remember seeing swans, andthey notice family size, and behaviour(Table 1). Trumpeters have been seen in thesame areas near the Craig River in the IskutValley for the past 17 years (D. Watsonpers. comm.). They stopped at SawmillLake, and Glenora Ranch during the 1950sand 1960s (N. Ball pers. comm.). Largenumbers regularly stop at Mess Lake and,during the early 1980s, many of these wore

green neck bands (K. Cottrell pers. comm.).Each September, from 1992 through 1996,an adult pair was observed at a lake in theupper Spatsizi Valley; in 1997 only oneswan was present (R. Collingwood pers.comm.).

hi fall, the swans may migrate alone, inpairs, in family units, or in groups of familyunits. The family units are easily identified,and they are almost always referred to bypeople who have been watching swans.Family units consist of two adults and up toeight cygnets, and when several familiesarrive at a rest stop together they move apartto rest and feed. The cygnets may delay adeparture by signaling (by not bobbing theirheads) that they are unwilling to leave a reststop. When two or more family units want tofly together, they perform displays thatcommunicate this intention (pers. obs.). Fallmigrants leave the Stikine watershed areabefore harsh weather sets in.

The fall migration through this regionpeaks in October. Swans are seen north ofthe Stikine along river corridors such as theSheslay and Dease, as well as throughout theStikine watershed itself, and in lakes andponds south of the Stikine along the Bell-Irving and Nass Rivers. Groups of swanshave not been observed during winter in theDease River. Nor have large groups of swansbeen observed flying down the Iskut orStikine valleys, through the BoundaryRanges. Migration occurs in a southerlydirection, inside the Boundary Ranges,before the end of October. Some migrantsarrive at predictable times and linger forabout the same period every year.

Families usually rest until all of thecygnets are ready to leave, although someyoung are left behind. We saw our firstabandoned cygnet in November 1975; itcould fly, but stayed in one area until it died.The most recent sighting was 27 November1997; one lone cygnet was standing on ice atthe north end of Dease Lake and another wassitting on shelf ice on the Dease River, 50km north of the lake. The nearest otherswans were at Tatogga Lake, 120 to 170 kmsouth of this.

26 Winter 1997 CORDILLERA

FEATURES

Table 1. Recent 'Immperer Swan sightings in the Stikine watershed

DATE

Apr 19&7 GtenoraApr 29/97 MessLk.

320

May 01/97 Scud a

Get 06/9?Oett>7/97OS 07/97

Oel21/97Oc* 21/97Od 21/870^21^7Oct22«7

15723201t,18.

Trumpeter Swans overwinter inshallow ice-free areas between Kinaskan,Tatogga, and Natadesleen Lakes,particularly at the inlets and outlets of theselakes. Swans have been observed over a 30-year period at the outfall of Kinaskan Lake(S. Bridcut pers. comm.). Swans remain in

ice-free areas for extended periods attemperatures below -30°C (McKelvey1984). They were seen at Kinaskan Lake on11 February 1995 when the temperature was-18°C, and at Natadesleen Lake on 12January 1998, when it was -22°C.

The BritishColumbia

Consen>ation DataCentre gives

Trumpeter Swans aG4 global rating for

rare andendangered species,which means they

are a globallysignificant, rare,and vulnerable

species (The B.C.Conservation Data

Centre 1997).

CORDILLERA 27 Winter 1997

FEATURES

debris, which then settles out to createlevees (Figure 3). The levees prevent floodsfrom evenly filling the entire valley floorwith sediment. Data on silt deposits tochannel margins by two fall floods thatpeaked 26 October 1993 and 23 September1994 showed that open areas averaged 75mm less depth of deposit than levee sites,which typically have thick riparian brush(Sampson unpubl. data). Figure 3 showschannels, bordered by levees, that surroundwetlands used by Trumpeter Swans. Thereare hundreds of kilometres of raised leveeswinding along the margins of the network ofsloughs and creeks that lace the wetlands.The levees support the oldest trees on theflood plain, indicating that the wetlandecosystem has been stable.

The wetland habitats used byTrumpeter Swans cannot flood quicklybecause of the raised levees, and they drainslowly after being flooded because the plantcommunities and meandering outlet creeksimpede drainage. Sediments, along withlitter and debris that remain in the wetlandafter flooding, neutralize and fertilize theecosystem (Beak Consultants Ltd. 1982).Raised bogs in the same areas are acidic, butthe flood plain wetlands have robust marshplants, complex aquatic communities, anddeep meandering creeks bordered bywillows and lush sedge, forb, and grasscommunities. The Stikine/Iskut wetlands arenoted as among the most productivewetlands in the province (Clement 1992).

This Trumpeter Swan habitat isavailable during winter when rivers andlakes in other parts of the Stikine watershedand surrounding boreal forests are coveredby ice. The lower river channels may be ice-free, especially in warm winters and in latewinter (BC Hydro 1983). Many areas showwide temperature variations, depending onthe influence of tributaries, snow melt, orrainfall. Side channels may become free ofice whenever there is fresh snow cover (BCHydro 1982). Along the base of the steepforested hillsides, the ponds and creeks are

influenced by groundwater that maintainsmidwinter ice-free areas (Figure 4).

A 4500-ha wetland complex occursdownstream of the British Columbia/Alaskaborder. Above the border, another 3000-hawetland complex (Figure 5) straddles theKatete River and follows the base of steep

_ Marsh

100 foot ContourConlour Interval = 500 feet

2 km

Figure 5. Map showing the 3000 ha wetland in the lower watershedbetween the British Columbia/Alaska border and the IskutRiver.

29 Winter 1997

FEATURES

Figure 6.

Figure 8,

mountainsides to the Iskut River (Figure 6).Wetlands become more widely scatteredfarther upstream in the Stikine Valley. Someare contained by levees between flood plainchannels, and many are associated withtributary deltas, springs, and beaver ponds(Figure 7). Wetlands occur in the Iskut

Lower Stikine/Iskut wetlands.Thephotographsshown infigures 4. 13,14, were takennear the base ofthe mountainsat the margin ofthe wetlands.

Valley near tributaries and along the lowerCraig River (Figure 8), and a 130-hawetland straddles the Inihini River (Figure9). The British Columbia Protected AreasStrategy (Prince Rupert Regional ProtectedAreas Team 1996) describes the LowerStikine and Lower Iskut Rivers as a "HighRanking Area of Interest." Wetlandecosystems in the United States portion ofthe lower Stikine are protected within theStikine-LeConte Wilderness Area.

THE 1997 TRUMPETER SWAN SURVEYFrom an aircraft it is impossible todifferentiate between Trumpeter Swans andother swans, however, almost all the swansfound during winter surveys in SoutheastAlaska were Trumpeter Swans (Walsh1992). We often see small ducks with them.Swans in the lower watershed are seldom, if

Trumpeter Swansresting and feeding atthe outlet of Lasthike. Tliis is near themouth of the CraigRiver, 30 kmupstream from themouth of the IskutRiver, and inside theRock and Rollmineral claim,

Figure 7. Trumpeter Swans using a pond thathas recently become ice-free nearDarsmith Creek in the StikineValley, 22 km upstream of theStikine/Iskut confluence.

30 Winter 199: CORPILLERA

FEATURES

ever, seen in places that would interfere withtaking off, or where they could be stalked,and they are alert and war)' of people.

The literature indicates that suitablewinter and early spring habitat is critical forTrumpeter Swan survival (McKelvey 1984,Michell 1994). We knew that swans canfind these habitats in the Stikine watershed.Harsh winter conditions delayed our 1997survey, but also ensured that many areaswere still covered by ice in early April. InApril 1997 approximately 2000 km of riverand side channel and 150 km2 of wetlandhabitat in the Stikine watershed weresurveyed for swans from an airplane(Figure 10).

On 6 April 1997, the Stikine River wassurveyed from Telegraph Creek to ShakesSlough (U.S. side), and the Iskut River wassurveyed from its confluence with theStikine upstream to Kluachon Lake (Figure11). Data collection was not site-specific.There were 25 swans using ice-free areasalong wetland margins between ShakesSlough and the Craig River. There were 39swans in the upper lakes: 22 at the outfall ofKinaskan Lake, and 17 at the outfall ofTatogga Lake. The total count for 6 April1997 was 64 swans.

On this date we also saw a mineexploration company falling timber into awetland (Figure 12) and pumping water for

Figure 10.

Figure 9. Trumpeter Swans usingwetlands near theInihini River in thelower Iskut Valley 15km upstream from themouth of the IskutRiver.

Figure 11. Trumpeter Swans atthe outlet of KinaskanLake, April 1997.

TrumpeterSwans usingice-free areain ShanglesCreek northof the IskutRiver m theStikine valley,April 1997.

Figure 12- Timber clearing for mineral exploration at Rock and Roll claim nearthe Craig River. Evidence of older, as well as more recent, clearingalong the margin of wetlands is visible.

31 Winter 1997

FEATURES

a drill with a diesel engine that was leakingfuel and oil into the marsh. Canada Geese(Branta canadensis) were nesting there inMay, and Trumpeter Swans were at anothercreek close by, within the mineral claimarea.

On 7 April 1997, we surveyed theupper watershed from Telegraph Creek tothe headwaters of the Spatsizi River, thenthe Klappan River from its headwaters; thelake chain on the east side of Mount Edzizawas checked during our return to TelegraphCreek. The purpose was to see whether therewere swans in the upper watershed, andwhether any open water habitat wasavailable. Deep, fast parts of some riversand creeks were open, but all the lakes,marshes, and beaver ponds, were ice-covered. The total count for the day waszero,

On 8 April 1997, parts of the TahltanHighland Ecosection were surveyed, alongwith areas near Telegraph Creek. Twoswans were seen resting on Stikine Riverice, but many ponds and creeks were stillfrozen.

On 9 April 1997, we began a site-specific Global Positioning System (GPS)coordinated survey of the Lower Stikine/Iskut wetlands. Table 2 lists the findings,and Figure 5 shows the sites. The swans

Table 2. Trumpeter Swan count of 9 April 1997.

92N f

• 131wttTBtt i$i

564034N

56 4164 W f31l56 57 93.W 131

S . ^,|W!l**IW infWf- ' - f - r , *F¥TOlPP«"t';' •- • ' •-.«-**t' T • ^ > ' . - -•, , - , "-,'-•'' J *,; • • ,n ^

*'* n^^^^Ei^ '5^ ;-/;?^fc?f ' _ . . - ;H ..*

/^ ";•

32 Winter 1997

were using creeks and springs along wetlandmargins at the base of steep mountains.Some were resting on ice (Figure 13) orflying within the wetland area (Figure 14).Families were always in distinct units andjuveniles appeared grayish, however, whenseveral groups of swans were using thesame creek or marsh perimeter they werecounted together. No swans were observedupstream of the Stikine/Porcupineconfluence; coincidentally, there were noice-free ponds upriver from the Porcupine.The total count for the day was 112 swans.

On 10 April 1997, we did a site-specific GPS coordinated survey of theLower StikineAskut and areas in the IskutValley. We flew down to the mouth of theStikine River and then up to the lakes on theIskut River and then back over Edziza toTelegraph Creek (Table 3).

We spent less time looking for sites on10 April than on 9 April. The objective wasto survey upper Iskut Valley lake habitat andthe lower watershed on the same flight toeliminate counting the same birds twice.The 10 April count for the lower Stikine/Iskut wetland from Barnes Lake upstream tothe Craig River was 113 swans, but theywere in fewer places than on the previousday. We found 34 in the lakes in the upperIskut Valley. The total for this date was 145swans. There were five fewer swans in thelakes area and 88 more swans in the lowerwatershed than on 6 April. Two wetlandhabitats, near the Craig and Inihini rivers inthe Iskut Valley, had similar numbers (onemore at the Craig) on the two days.

During this period, the Dease River,Dease Lake, and the small lakes south ofNatadesleen Lake in the Iskut Valley (exceptfor a small pond near the Ningunsaw River)were still frozen. On 3 April 1997, threeTrumpeter Swans were observed in theStikine Valley 160 km upstream from thelower wetlands, and on 12 April we heardsome flying upstream near Telegraph Creekafter dark.

We continued the survey during thefall and on 14 November 1997, swans were

FEATURES

counted in the lakes at the headwaters of theIskut River. Natadesleen Lake had 16.Kinaskan Lake had 28 at its south end and 7at the north end. There were 20 at the southend of Tatogga Lake (Figure 15), and 2 at thenorth end, for a total of 73 counted that day.

During most of the period 1 to 11January 1998 the temperature throughoutthe inland plateaus stayed between -30°Cand -40"C. On 12 January 1998 we flewfrom Telegraph Creek to Kluachon Lakeand started looking for swans. Kluachon,Eddontenajon, Tatogga, and Kinaskan lakeswere frozen. Natadesleen Lake was ice-covered too, but the river above CascadeFalls was ice-free. There were 19 swansresting on ice beside the open water, sixadults and thirteen cygnets. The temperaturewas -22°C, and the wind was 26 km/hr fromthe north. The area all around the open leadhad been trampled and stained from theswans living there. Several wolves hadcome onto the ice from the north end of thelake about a week earlier.

Table 3. Trumpeter Swan count for 10 April 1997.

LATITUDE LONGTTTU DE LOCATION

570226N 1314432W565530N 184 40 38 W

1051

Upper Shangtes (2 sites) 14

56 39 SON563978N563762N

564223W564187N

562856N57 31 81 N57 41 94 N

13t:t434W18D15&W

Inihini a (Lower Iskut R.)marshy area (Lower iskut R.)mm iy area, Craig Ft

outfafl of Kinaskan t_k.outfall Tatogga Lk. & R.

next200

19110825

27

Figure 13- Trumpeter Swans resting on anice-covered lake in the lowerStikine/Lskut wetlands, April1997.

Figure 14. Trumpeter Swans, near thebase of the steepmountains in the lowerStikine/Iskut wetlands,April 1997.

Trumpeter Swans resting on ice at TatoggaLake. 14 November 1997.

33 Winter 1997

FEATURES

We conclude thatthe Stikine/Iskut

wetlands areimportant restingand staging areas

during earlymigration and

could be critical forpreparing the swans

to move inlandthrough poor

habitat.

TRUMPETER SWANS IN THE STIKINE AREA,SOUTHEAST ALASKA.The United States Forest Service hasdescribed the habitats that are used byoverwintering swans in the Wrangell andPetersburg Ranger Districts (Walsh 1992).This includes the Lower Stikine River andislands in neighbouring southeast Alaska.Five winter aerial surveys have documentedthe numbers, distribution, and movement ofswans; ground checks showed that 3 to 90%were Tundra Swans (Cygnus columbianus].Fresh and brackish water areas providesecure, but limited, wintering areas. Theresults of these counts were as follows:February 1990, 31; February 1991, 50:December 1991,126; January 1992, 110;February 1992, 102. The proportion ofcygnets ranged from 8 to 27.8% (average17.5%) of the total number of swanscounted, and family units were observed tobe present.

The surveys showed that 22 areas onboth the mainland and islands were used byswans during mild winter conditions, but asfeeding places froze over during harshconditions, the swans would concentrate inkey ice-free areas. Swans moved in anydirection, including northward, away fromsites that had frozen. When the weatherwarmed up, the swans dispersed.

Several sites in the Stikine-LeConteWilderness Area are known to local Alaskanresidents as swan habitat. These includeBarnes Lake, Binkley's Slough (FarmIsland), and beaver ponds along thesouthwest slope of Farm Island (C. Ottesen,J. Leslie, D. Ellis pers. comm.). Barnes Lakeis fed by warm springs and is especiallynoted as late winter swan habitat.

CONCLUSIONSThis survey establishes that significantnumbers of Trumpeter Swans use theStikine watershed. Ice-free habitats at theoutfall of lakes in the upper Iskut Valleysupport overwintering swans for prolongedperiods even when the temperature is below-30°C. The margins of the Stikine/Iskut

wetlands in the lower watershed provideearly spring ice-free habitat. These two areasare isolated from each other by theBoundary Ranges and by 200 km of poorwinter habitat. This survey does notdemonstrate a connection between the upperlake and the lower wetland swanpopulations during winter. The green bandsobserved at Mess Lake in the early 1980smay indicate that some south coast birdsdivert to interior fly ways during migration.The migration through the inland valleysbuilds from mid-April in the spring andfrom early October in the fall.

During the survey period, swans weremoving into the lower Stikine/Iskutwetlands and up the Stikine River. Theywere observed at Telegraph Creek on3 April and 12 April 1997. Poor habitatswere abandoned from one day to the next.We conclude that the Stikine/Iskut wetlandsare important resting and staging areasduring early migration and could be criticalfor preparing the swans to move inlandthrough poor habitat.

The southeast Alaska overwinteringpopulation showed a measurablebehavioural response to changes in icecover; they were crowded, but dispersed assoon as other habitats became free of ice.During the survey period some swans wereresting on frozen wetlands and many smallice-free ponds and creeks along the marginsof wetlands. Swans remain in the wetlandsuntil at least the end of December. Weconclude that the geographical limit to thedistribution of overwintering TrumpeterSwans is determined by their ability to findsuitable ice-free habitat.

Local knowledge indicates that theStikineAskut wetlands has provided acontinuing refuge, whereas Trumpeter Swanpopulations in other areas have been lost.The effort to restore some populations, suchas the ulterior population (in central NorthAmerica), is an example of an excessiveamount of biological tinkering that has donevery little to re-create biological diversity. If

34 Winter 1997

the basic social group is a family unit, and ifthis unit teaches the migratory tradition thatdefines a Trumpeter Swan's survivalstrategy, then we conclude that TrumpeterSwans using the remote Stikine/Iskutwetlands are a truly wild and geneticallydiverse population, whose traditions haveremained intact.*

LITERATURE CITED:Anonymous. 1990. Canada File. Borealis

2*(1):48.Anonymous. 1991. Canada File. Borealis

3(1):32.EC Hydro. 1981, Stikine-Iskut Hydroelectric

Development Feasibility Study: Hydrology,River Regime and Morphology, ReportNo. 1110. BC Hydro. HydroelectricGeneration Projects Division, Vancouver,BC.

BC Hydro. 1982. Stiline-Iskut HydroelectricDevelopment Feasibility Study: Hydrology,River Regime and Morphology. AddendumReport on Water Temperature. Report No.1406. BC Hydro, Hydroelectric GenerationProjects Division, Vancouver, BC.

BC Hydro. 1983. Stikine-Iskut HydroelectricDevelopment Feasibility Study: Hydrology,River Regime and Morphology.Addendum Report on Ice Observations.Report No. 1606. BC Hydro, HydroelectricGeneration Projects Division, Vancouver,BC.

Beak Constultants Ltd. 1982. Analysis of thePotential Impacts of HydroelectricDevelopment of the Stikine River Systemin Alaska. File No. K4469E. Prepared forBC Hydro and Power Authority,Vancouver, BC.

Bellrose, F.C. 1976. Ducks, Geese and Swansof North America. Stackpole Books,Harrisburg, PA.

British Columbia Conservation Data Centre.1997. http://www,env.gov.bc.ca/wld/cdc/atrkprov.htm.

Caithamer, D. 1996. Survey of TrumpeterSwans in North America. United StatesFish and Wildlife Service, Laurel, MD.

Callighar, Sally. 1962. Call to a trumpeter. Pp.182-191 in A Treasury of Bird Lore. (J.Krutch and P. Eriksson, eds.) Doubleday,Garden City, NY.

Campbell, R.W., N.K. Dawe, I. McTaggart-Cowan, J.M. Cooper, G.W. Kaiser, &M.C.E. McNall. 1990. The Birds of BritishColumbia, Vol. 1. The Royal B.C.Museum, Victoria, BC & and The CanadianWildlife Service, Ottawa, ON.

Clement, C. 1992. Biophysical Habitat Units ofthe Lower Stikine and Iskut Drainages.B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands andParks, Fish and Wildlife Branch, Smithers,BC.

Demarchi, D.A. 1996. An Introduction to theEcoregions of British Columbia. B.C.Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks,Wildlife Branch, Victoria, BC.

Guiguet, C.J. 1958. The Birds of BritishColumbia: (6) Waterfowl. B.C. ProvincialMuseum Handbook No. 15, Victoria, BC.

Johnstone, G., B. Laffler, G. Emmond & J.Tingle. 1992, AgriculturalRecommendations for the Stikine RiverValley. B.C. Minsitry of Agriculture,Fisheries and Food, Smithers, BC.

McKelvey, R.W. 1984, The Trumpeter Swan.Hinterland Who's Who Series (#CE69-4/53-1992E). Canada Ministry ofEnvironment, Canadian Wildlife Service,Ottawa, ON.

Mitchell, C.D. 1994. Trumpeter Swan (Cygnusbuccinator). In The Birds of NorthAmerica, No, 105. (A. Poole & F. Gill,eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences,Philadelphia, PA & The AmericanOrnithologists' Union, Washington, DC.

Prince Rupert Regional Protected Areas Team(RPAT). 1996. A Protected Areas Strategyfor B.C.: Report from the Prince RupertRegion, April 1996.

Rassmussen, R. 1996. Trumpeter Swan, http://www .aftemet.com/~teal/sswan.html.

Smith, D. & R.F. Gerath. 1989. Iskut ValleyRoad Option Study. Report to the B.C.Ministry of Energy, Mines and PetroleumResources. Thurber Consultants,Vancouver, BC.

Subcommittee on the Interior Population ofTrumpeter Swans. 1997. Mississippi andCentral Flyway Management Plan for theInterior Population of Trumpeter Swans.U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Twin Cities,MN.

Trumpeter Swan Sentinel Society. 1997.Comox, BC. http://www.vquest.com/swan/trivia, html.

FEATURES

United States GeologicalSurvey. 1976-1994.Discharge Statistics forMonths and Days. U.S.Dept. of the Interior, U.S.Geological Survey, WaterResources Division,Juneau, AK.

Walsh, PJ. 1992. Winter SwanSurveys on the StikineArea. Unpubl. Report tothe U.S. Department ofAgriculture, ForestService, Tongrass NationalForest, Petersburg, AK.

CORPILLEKA

Bill Sampson graduated fromUBC with a B.Sc. in Botany in1974 and lives near TelegraphCreek with his family. Theytrap in winter and fish forsalmon in summer, which givesthem many opportunities toexplore and appreciate theregion.

Maps were produced byDr. Ross Nelson, of theGeography Department,University College of theCariboo.

35 Winter 1997

FEATURES

Romancing theHarlequin

By Kenneth G. Wright & Trudy A. Chatwin

ABSTRACTWe have learned a lot in recent years about the Harlequin Duck (Histrionicus histrionicus), panly as aresult of a large-scale banding and resighting program. This paper describes the natural history of theharlequin, including its winter and summer habitats, breeding system, and food habits. It alsodiscusses conservation issues facing the species.

It is November, and a cold south wind isblowing on the stormy shores of Hem wellProvincial Park at the southern tip ofHornby Island. Shafts of light through darkclouds backlight the sandstone reefs where asoft brown female Harlequin Duck(Histrionicus histrionicits) and her suite ofstriking drakes haul out on the rocks.Peering through the spotting scope, we canbarely make out the code on a male's greenleg band. "Its NE. a bird that we banded atCape Lazo last year," whispers Ken

Figure 1. Harlequin drakes, Sahspring Island.

excitedly. Between bouts of hot tea andmuch hand warming, we managed to read atotal of 11 bands on the shores of HornbyIsland that day.

The Harlequin Duck is so brightlycoloured that it was named for itsresemblance to a medieval clown (Figure 1).The nuptial male is slate blue withcontrasting white and black bands. Theflanks and crown of the head are a rich rustyred. The male bird seems to be punctuatedby white periods, commas, and questionmarks. This colouring, in contrast to ourdark winter coast, combined with thecourtship antics of head bowing andchasing, provide hours of bird watchingdelight.

The rocky reefs and rich intertidalareas of rugged Hornby Island are afavourite winter and spring haul-out forHarlequin Ducks, and it is here that ourpassion for this beautiful sea duck began.Indeed, Ken has gone on to working onthem year-round, studying the ducks in theirsummer nesting areas along mountainstreams, as well as in their fall, winter, andspring moulting and feeding sites.

Our interest in harlequins began manyyears ago, when we were intrigued by thenotion that Harlequin Ducks alternate winter

36 Winter 1997 CoRPILLERA

and summer habitats in the most beautifulparts of the province. Summer finds them inrushing mountain streams for breeding;when this is complete, they .move to therocky shores of our rich coast, where theymoult, court, and spend the rest of the winter(Figure 2).

We are learning much about thebreeding and population ecology ofHarlequin Ducks in British Columbia due toa large-scale mark/resight (banding)program, founded and currently coordinatedby waterbtrd ecologist Ian Goudie of theCanadian Wildlife Service (CWS). From hiswork on this species in eastern Canada, aswell as previous studies by other CWSresearchers on various species of sea ducks,Ian suspected that western Harlequin Duckpopulations may be vulnerable to the effectsof over-harvesting streamside timber, heavymetal contamination, and other humanrelated activities — any of which mayreduce adult survival. Beginning in 1992,Ian began capturing and marking as manyHarlequin Ducks on the coast as possible, sothat individuals could be followed andpopulation survival rates could bemonitored. Although the first attempts atcapture were not always successful,perseverance and refinement of techniqueshas led to the banding of over 2000Harlequin Ducks in the Strait of Georgiaand among the Queen Charlotte Islands.The "Harlequin banding crew" consists ofIan, Ken, and many dedicated volunteers.Biologists from Idaho, Montana, Maine, andAlaska as well as wardens from Banff andJasper National Parks jump at the chance tovisit the coast of British Columbia insummer and join in the capture adventure.They often return in the spring to sightbanded birds they are familiar with fromtheir own study areas on breeding streams.

Trudy's experience with a harlequincapture drive in July of 1994 was one of theearly "misadventures." On a fateful full-moon evening on Halibut Island, she endedup swimming in the frigid waters of HaroStrait to rescue a series of nets collapsed by

Harlequin Duckcoastal habitat.

the unexpected and enormous wake of apassing freighter. Below, Ken describes amore successful banding attempt at CapeLazo, east of Comox in the Strait ofGeorgia. With a population of up to 400Harlequin Ducks, Cape Lazo supports thelargest known moulting concentration ofthis species in British Columbia. Most ofthe birds captured in July are males that areincapable of flight; they moult their wingfeathers about one month earlier thanfemales.

Several volunteers work over twohours to erect a drive-trap on theincoming tide (Figure 3). As the risingtide begins flooding the trap, six peopleclimb into kayaks with high hopes for asuccessful drive. The kayakers spread outover the water to form a surface barrierand to direct the birds towards the trap.Now the kayakers wait till the harlequinsfind the entrance of the trap, which lookslike an escape route because of the fineblack mesh used. After several minutes,one of the harlequins sees the trap andswims toward it with great confidence,closely followed by 90 others.

Now with nearly 100 birdsconfined in the trap, dip nets and meshbags are quickly brought in to retrievethem. Two workers enter the trap through

Drive-trap set-up, Tlell,BritishColumbia.

CORDILLERA 37 Winter 1997

FEATURES

the "door" and wade amongst the boilingmass of diving harlequins until the lastbird is retrieved. Once ashore, bandingand measurement takes place (Figure 4).and each bird is fitted with a uniquecombination of coloured alphanumeric legbands and then released.

By this time the banders arewearing headlamps to finish their work inthe starry night.

THE LIFE OF THE HARLEQUIN DUCKThe harlequin is the only duck in thenorthern hemisphere to breed primarilyalong turbulent streams, and is one of threespecies worldwide to occupy thisspecialized niche (del Hoyo et al. 1992;Figure 5).

As is true of all waterfowl, HarlequinDucks moult annually to renew wornplumage. During this process all feathers(flight and body) are shed and subsequentlyreplaced by a new set. The wing feathers

Figure 4. Researchers banding Harlequin Ducks at Cape LazoBritisli Columbia.

Figure 5. Harlequin Duck pairin breeding habitat,Sanclon. BritishColumbia.

take about 30 days to replace completely,and for three weeks the birds are entirelyflightless (Robertson et al. 1997). When themales arrive on the coast they beginshedding their brilliant nuptial plumage andreplace it with a drab plumage, referred to asthe "basic" plumage, which resembles thatof a dark brown female. It is while they arein basic plumage that they moult their flightfeathers (wing and tail). After the flightfeathers have been replaced, they moultback into their distinct nuptial plumage (lateSeptember), and pair formation occurs.

Recent research in White Rock, BritishColumbia indicates that moult speed isdirectly related with pairing success(Robertson 1997). Some females abandontheir offspring in late summer to return tothe coast for their moult. Moulting takesplace at strategic locations on the coast,which offer abundant food resources andsecure loafing sites, isolated from the mainshoreline. Groups of up to 400 birds cancongregate in these ideal moulting areas.Young of the year don't need to moult intheir first summer, as their plumage is brandnew. After moult is complete, the birdsdisperse widely throughout their winterrange, where small groups become scatteredalong rocky shores in appropriate habitat:usually where a mosaic of reefs, andintertidal or subtidal boulders can be found.Some birds remain on the moulting areasthrough the winter period, but there is ageneral shift to a more disperseddistribution.

Once the males have moulted in lateAugust, they begin courtship. Pairing occursover the course of the fall and entails manyaggressive interactions between competingmales. During the rainy months of Octoberand November, an observer can often watchthree or four drakes chasing a single henover the water and hear them emitting theirdistinctive squeaking noise. HarlequinDucks are monogamous, and pairs willoften remain together for life, re-establishing their bond in successive falls(Figure 6); they are thus an apt symbol for

38 Winter 1997

the famous series of romance novels. Whena pair bond is firmly established, the pair israrely seen more than a few metres apart!This incredible affinity lasts right throughthe winter and spring until the onset ofincubation on the summer breeding grounds.At this time the pair bond dissolves and thedrakes vacate the streams, heading for thecoast.

In the lengthening days of March,Pacific Herring (Ciupea harengus pallasi)spawn in the channels and shorelines of thenorthwest Strait of Georgia. It is inassociation with this food source that thelargest assemblies of Harlequin Ducks arefound worldwide. The concentration ofducks in this area is estimated to represent asmuch as one half of the entire Strait ofGeorgia population (Goudie and Wright, inprep.)- This phenomenon provides anexcellent opportunity to resight bandedbirds, as they are well-fed and spend a largeportion of their time loafing above thetideline on sandstone reefs and shelves, thusdisplaying their individually encoded legbands. Birds banded in Montana, Alberta,Idaho, and Washington are present, bearingthe unique colour combinations used indifferent jurisdictions. In 1995, 200 differentbanded individuals were resighted, and in1996 over 500 were resighted. Thisinformation is providing critical informationon adult survival rates, which is used toevaluate population sizes and demography.

During April, the aggregation shrinks,as the birds begin their migration to inlandbreeding streams. Yearlings mainly stay onthe coast during summer. Although exactmigration routes taken by Harlequin Duckshave not been documented, they areassumed to follow watercourses leading tobreeding streams. The timing of streamreturn coincides with spring thaw. Frombanding research we have learned thatfemales return to their natal streams,whereas males do not do so as regularly; amale's breeding location is determined byits mate's choice. Once a pair has mated,both sexes show incredible site fidelity and

can be found the next year on the samestream, within 100 m of where they wereseen in the previous season (Bengtson1972). Breeding begins at the age of twoyears. Once a pair has arrived on itsbreeding stream, the female seeks out aninconspicuous nest site. The nest is oftenplaced near rushing water, but can be up to50 m away, and always has some degree ofoverhead cover (Palmer 1976). In BritishColumbia, nests have been found in streambanks, on vegetated instream islands, and inthe root balls of fallen trees (Figure 7), fromsea level to 2200 m elevation (Campbell etal. 1990). Predator security is probably themost important factor, but proximity to foodresources and protected brood rearinghabitat are also important factors in nest sitechoice. The nest is simply a hollow scrape inthe ground or a natural depression. It is linedwith luxurious down feathers, which assistin egg insulation and concealment when thefemale is off the nest.

The female begins incubation whenthe clutch is complete, usually from mid-May to late June in British Columbia

A Harlequin Duckpair-

Figure 7. I larlequinDuck nest,NiihatlatchRiver.BritishColumbia.

COIUHLLERA 39 Winter 1997

FEATURES

Harlequin Ducksshould contact the

Conservation Societynon-

12Comp 15, GaHano

Island, BC, VON 1 TO,E-r

- Wright &Chatwin .

(Campbell et al. 1990). Clutch size rangesfrom three to nine eggs, with an average ofabout six. At this point the males are leavingtheir riverine homes for the coast.Incubation lasts approximately 28 days andthe young hatch simultaneously in aprecocial (fully feathered) condition, leavingthe nest within a day or two of hatching(Figure 8). Amazingly, the two-day-oldducklings plunge into the turbulent whitewater and follow their mother to safefeeding areas among log jams and underriparian vegetation, where they remainduring their first few weeks of life.Although the young are capable of flight byabout five to six weeks of age, they remainon their natal streams into early Septemberand occasionally into October (C. Smithpers. comm,). Brood mortality is quite highin the early stages of development. Survivalof ducklings to fledging is about 55% fromhatching to fledging (Bengtson 1972).

FOOD HABITSHarlequins have a diverse diet (Vermeer1984), consisting entirely of invertebratefauna in both marine and freshwaterenvironments. Favourite food items on thecoast include periwinkles (Lacuna spp.),crabs (Hemigrapus spp.), mussels (Mytilusspp.), and many species of marinegastropods (especially Bittium estrechtii).The Pacific Herring spawn in springprovides an especially important foodsource on the staging grounds. This foodmay play a vital role in the breeding successof Harlequin Ducks, and the Strait ofGeorgia has the most significant herringspawns left on the coast.

During the short, stormy days ofwinter the birds spend most of each dayforaging and little time loafing out of the

water. Food is acquired by diving,particularly during lower tides, and bydipping, in which the bird submerges itshead and picks prey off the bottom.

In freshwater streams, their dietconsists of aquatic insect larvae (e.g.,Odonata, Plecoptera, Diptera[Chironomidae], Tricoptera) which theycapture in shallow rapids on theundersurfaces and eddies of instreamcobbles and boulders. Li some rivers,harlequins also feed on the roe of springspawning fish species, particularly theLongnosed Sucker (Catostomus catostomus;Van Tighem 1994). Food availability canvary among years depending on severalfactors. Winter storm severity and naturalinvertebrate cycles have been shown tocause some birds to refrain from breeding inIceland (Bengtson and Ulfstrand 1971).

CONSERVATION OF HARLEQUIN DUCKSHarlequin Ducks are declining throughouttheir North American range (Cassirer et al.1993, Goudie 1989, Reichel and Center1995). More specifically, resighting studiesshow that harlequin populations in the Straitof Georgia may be declining (Goudie andWright in prep.). It is estimated that thereare currently 11 000 Harlequin Ducks withinthe strait. Because juvenile survival is low,Harlequin Duck populations are sensitive toincreases in adult mortality. From bandingstudies, it appears that the estimated survivalrate of females may be below the levelneeded to maintain the population. Duringmoulting and staging, when birds areconcentrated, they are vulnerable tomortality from oil spills, heavy metalcontamination, and changes to theirinvertebrate or herring food supply.

Currently, there is little huntingpressure on Harlequin Ducks in BritishColumbia (i.e., fewer than 1000 areharvested each year based on data from theCWS National Harvest Survey; Breault1998). However, the increasing popularityof hunting sea ducks and the current huntingregulations (i.e., a limit of eight birds per

Figure 8. A Harlequin brood.

40 Winter 1997

FEATURES

day), could seriously exacerbate theobserved reduction in harlequin numbers.Goudie (1989) attributes the decline of theendangered Harlequin Duck on the eastcoast of North America to severe huntingpressure. In 1990 the eastern population waslisted as endangered by the Committee onthe Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada(COSEWIC); populations appear to berecovering slowly since hunting was closedin 1989.

On their stream breeding grounds,harlequins may be affected by poor loggingpractices, including excessive ripariandeforestation (Figure 9). Forestry relatedsiltation causes changes in the freshwaterinvertebrate food supply as well as erosionof riverbank nesting habitats. A 1996 ForestRenewal British Columbia Harlequin Duckinventory project, conducted in theNahatlatch and Mehatl Rivers insouthwestern British Columbia, found thatbreeding harlequins used riparian areas withintact forest cover (Freeman and Goudie1998). Adjacent, logged portions of therivers did not appear to support breeding byHarlequin Ducks. For this reason HarlequinDucks may serve as environmentalindicators of intact riparian ecosystems.

During this winter and in upcomingseasons, students, volunteers, andresearchers will continue to learn moreabout Harlequin Duck habitat requirements,population sizes, and moulting areas. Morenaturalists are discovering the romance ofthe harlequin. This passion, and the work itengenders, is critical if we are to conservepopulations of this beautiful and preciouspart of British Columbia's fauna.*

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSEncouragement and generous financialsupport for Harlequin Duck research hasbeen provided by the British ColumbiaWaterfowl Society (George C. ReifelMigratory Bird Sanctuary), the CanadianWildlife Service, Parks Canada, SimonFraser University Wildlife Ecology

Figure 9- Lodged watershed withno riparian vegetationintact, Glacier Creek,British Columbia.

Program, the Interior Waterfowl WetlandsResearch (IWWR) program of DucksUnlimited Canada and the James L. BaillieMemorial Fund. Ian Goudie providedinformation, inspiration, and reviewed themanuscript. John Ashley, Peter Clarkson,Jeffrey Joy, and Ruth van den Driessche allgave valuable editorial advice on themanuscript. Volunteers gave their time,enthusiasm and energy, making manystudies possible, especially during a periodof limited funding.

LITERATURE CITEDBengtson, S.A, 1972. Breeding ecology of the

Harlequin Duck Histrionicus histrionicus(L.) in Iceland. Ornis Scandinavica 3:1-19.

Bengtson, S.A. & S. Ulfstrand. 1971. Foodresources and breeding frequency of theHarlequin Duck, Histrionicus histrionicusin Iceland. Oikos 222:235-239.

Breault, A. 1998. Migratory game birdpopulations in British Columbia: Surveysand trends. Unpubl. CWS Report, Delta,BC.

Figure 10. Unlogged portion of theNahatlatch River, BritishColumbia.

CORDILLERA 41 Winter 1997

FEATURES

Ken Wright has been beenvolunteering with HarlequinDuck captures since 1994 andis seasonally employed at thePacific Wildlife ResearchCentre. He is the executivedirector of the newly formedHarlequin ConservationSociety.

Trudy Chatwin is an avidnaturalist and has led toursthroughout the wilds of BritishColumbia. She currently worksin Nanaimo as the regionalEndangered Species Biologist.

Campbell, R.W., N.K. Dawe, I. McTaggart-Cowan, J.M Cooper, G.W. Kaiser, &M.C.E.McNall. 1990. The Birds ofBritish Columbia. Vol. 1. Nonpasserines:Loons through Waterfowl. Royal B.C.Museum, Victoria, BC.

Cassirer, F.E., J.D. Reichel, R.L. Wallen & E.C.Atkinson. 1996. Harlequin Duck(Histrionicus histrionicus): ConservationAssessment 2nd Strategy for the U.S.Rocky Mountains. Draft Report.

Chadwick, D. 1993. Bird of white waters.National Geographic 184(5):116-132.

del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. & Sargatal, J., eds. 1992.Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol.1. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain.

Dzinbal, K.A. 1982. Ecology of HarlequinDucks in Prince William Sound, Alaskaduring summer. M.S. Thesis. Oregon StateUniv., Corvallis, OR.

Freeman, S.D. & R.I. Goudie. 1998. Abundance,Distribution and Habitat Use of HarlequinDucks in the Upper Nahatlatch River,British Columbia, 1996/1997. Report toForest Renewal BC.

Goudie, R.I. 1989. Historical status ofHarlequin Ducks wintering in eastern NorthAmerica — a reappraisal. Wilson Bull.101:112-114.

Goudie, R.I., A.V.Kondratyev, S. Brault. M.R.Peterson, B. Conant & K. Vermeer. 1994.

The status of sea ducks in the North Pacificrim; toward their conservation andmanagement. North American Wildlife andNatural Resources Conference Transactions59:27-45. Wildlife Management Institute,Washington, DC.

Goudie, R.I. & K.G. Wright. In prep.Population estimates for Harlequin Ducksin the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia.

Palmer, R.S., ed. 1976. Handbook of NorthAmerican Birds, Vol 3. Yale Univ. Press,New Haven, CT.

Reichel, J.D. & D,L. Center. 1996. HarlequinDuck Surveys in Western Montana: 1995.Montana Natural Heritage Program.Helena, MT.

Robertson, G.J. 1997. Pair formation, MatingSystem, and Winter Philopatry in HarlequinDucks. Ph.D. Thesis, Simon EraserUniversity, Bumaby, BC.

Robertson, G.J., F. Cooke, R.I. Goudie and W.S.Boyd. 1997. The timing of arrival andmoult chronology of Harlequin DucksHistrionicus histrionicus. Wildfowl 48:155-146.

Van Tighem, K. 1994. Suckers for ducks.Environmental Views (Fall):5-6.

Vermeer. K. 1984. Diet of the Harlequin Duckin the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia.Murrelet64(2):54-57.

Thank you:

with help and encouragement from various institutions and orgmany individuals. We would like to thank the following

this issue:

Federation of British Columbia NaturalistsRoyal British Columbia Museum, VictoriaForest Renewal BC

ia Naturalists Foundation

42 Winter 1997

FROM THE MUSEUM

living Landscapes ProjectThe Columbia Basin:Past, Present, and Future

by Grant Hughes

"While Homer's ancient Greeksexplored the mysterious Mediterranean Sea,aboriginal people were probably prospectingon the shores of Kootenay Lake for thespecial stones they needed to make theirprojectile points and other tools," writesCraig Weir in his manuscript, "Written inStone: Exploring Kaslo's Prehistory." Hisretrospective look gives us an intriguingpicture of times past, which sets the scenefor Living Landscapes—Columbia Basin:Past, Present and Future. This two-yearproject was launched on 31 October 1997 inCranbrook, British Columbia.

The Columbia Basin LivingLandscapes Project will bring togetherexperts, collections, and research in a waythat furthers our appreciation of this specialregion of southeastern British Columbia.Those of you who have visited the area willknow of its unique environment andhistory—before and after the construction ofdams under the Columbia River Treaty.

The Royal British Columbia Museum(RBCM) has many artifacts and specimensfrom the Columbia Basin that can illuminatethe region's story. By collaborating withother experts on research projects — forexample, to study the endangered species orthe history of the area — we can providebetter information and, therefore, work moreeffectively than if each group did so alone.The museum then plans to help developcommunity and school programs that willpromote understanding of the region byresidents, visitors, and internet users.

Our colleagues in the Columbia Basinhave told us, "Around the world, wetlandsare decreasing at an alarming rate. Asnature's most productive ecosystems,wetlands are the nurseries producing andsupporting the great biodiversity of youngflora and fauna species." The ColumbiaBasin has significant wetlands, which needto be studied as areas that protectbiodiversity (Figure 1).

Columbia Basin residents have alsosaid, "We need to capture and preserve theessence of mountain pioneers — peoplewho have devoted their lives to exploringthe mountains through their work andrecreation — and their sheer passion fordiscovery and adventure." The RBCMagrees, and by working with local groups wewill be able to assist in documenting thehistory of the region for present and futuregenerations.

The Columbia Basinhas significant

wetlands, whichneed to be studied as

areas that protectbiodiversity.

Figure 1. A view at Wilinerlooks over themarshes of theColumbia River tothe RockyMountains.

CORDILLERA 43 Winter 1997

FROM THE MUSEUM

Grant Hughes is Director ofCuratorial Services at theRBCM and Project Managerfor Living Landscapes.

Living Landscapes actually has ahistory of its own (see Cordillera, Volume 3,Number 2, Winter 1996). It began in 1994in the Thompson-Okanagan region andbrought together museums, First Nations,naturalists, schools, colleges, andgovernment agencies to conduct researchand educate the public about the human andnatural history of this region. Over 10 000people attended special events in Penticton,Kelowna, Vemon, Merritt, and Kamloops.We received many congratulations from thepublic that attended each of these; ingeneral, people noted that it was one of thevery few events available that was free, forthe whole family, interesting, and educational.

The legacy of research and schoollesson plans continues, as each year, over720 000 people view the World Wide Website (http://royal.okanagan.bc.ca) that hasbeen created. The Web site was recentlymentioned in the Globe and Mail as "one ofthe more ambitious Web-based conservationprojects."

The Columbia Basin LivingLandscapes Project will focus on threemajor aims: compiling and researchingknowledge about the Columbia Basin, usingtechnology to improve communicationabout this area, and strengtheningunderstanding about the Columbia Basinthrough education and training. Our partneris the Columbia Basin Trust, with which weshare the general goals of maintaininghealthy ecosystems and enhancing heritageand culture. Friends of the RBCM are alsocontributing $10 000 to the project forresearch.

By combining our efforts to enrichpeoples' understanding of the ColumbiaBasin, those who live in the region, visit onvacation, or reach there electronically, willhave a better perspective of the diversity andhistory of this magnificent region of BritishColumbia.*

Hans Ruemer. Con.servation Data Centre

The Coeur D'AleneSalamander (Plethodoniciafooensis) is the onlyamphibian restricted to theKootenays in Canada. It israre, and lives along streamsand in damp, rocky seepsalong the western side ofKootcnay Valley fromCrawford Bay south.

Parry's Daisy(Tou'Tisetidiapanyi) is avery rare plant in BritishColumbia. Recordedfrom only a few localitiesin the extreme southeast,it grows in dry, exposedsites from montaneforests up into thealpine.

The Flammulated Owl ( Otus flammeolus) is a rare summer visitor tothe dry forests of the Rocky Mountain Trench in the East Kootenays.This is a young bird just out of the nest and unable to fly.

44 Winter 1997 CORDILLERA

BOOK REVIEWS

The spring of 1997 saw the arrival of a long-awaited contribution to the literature onBritish Columbia's natural history —volume 3 of The Birds of British Columbia.Published by UBC Press in cooperation withthe Canadian Wildlife Service and theWildlife Branch of the British ColumbiaMinistry of Environment, Lands and Parks,and supported by contributions from 25individuals and agencies (including FBCN),this work truly reflects a partnership of thoseinterested in British Columbia's bird life.The series in general, and this volume inparticular, is a "must have" for any resourcemanager, professional ecologist, or seriousornithologist. Because it gives invaluable,detailed information about the province'sbreeding birds, it should also be on thereference shelf of every public library in thecountry.

This volume is the first of two in theseries to deal with passerine birds. Itprovides information on 17 families ofsongbirds, including the flycatchers,swallows, corvids, tits, wrens, thrushes, andvireos. Like preceding volumes, thiscontribution provides information on thedistribution and status of each species, aswell as data on its habitat requirements andmigration and nesting chronologies. It alsopresents information on seasonal changes inthe relative abundance of individuals, aswell as analyses of recent changes in thestatus of most of the 91 species described. Inmost cases, information on coastal andinterior populations is presented separately.

The information in The Birds ofBritish Columbia represents a compilationof sightings and records collected by over10 000 amateurs and professionals. Involume 3, data accompanying museumspecimens, information from documentedobservations, and nest and photographicrecords have been combined withinformation from 60 annual Christmas BirdCounts and 100 annual Breeding BirdSurveys conducted in the province. TheHerculean task of managing these half amillion records has been well worth the

effort. The product is a detailed benchmarkreport on the status of British Columbia'sbirds.

Readers familiar with volumes 1 and 2will find the same types of information thatwas provided for non-passerines, arrangedin the same manner, in the species accountsin this volume. As noted above, volume 3uses data from Breeding Bird Surveys andChristmas Bird Counts to analyzepopulation trends and changes in status formost species; these analyses were notpossible for many of the species covered inthe earlier volumes.

The text is richly illustrated withsuperb quality photographs (mostly incolour) of the birds, their nesting habitat,and frequently their nests and eggs. Thehigh quality of the paper and printingtechniques used to produce the book addsgreatly to the precision of the maps andgraphs. Colour maps printed on the inside ofthe front and back covers provide quickreference to the ecoprovinces andbiogeoclimatic zones of the province.

I have found very few factual errors orobvious omissions. However, the breedingdistribution maps share a flaw in commonwith other breeding bird atlases. In theabsence of data, grid squares are left blank,suggesting a species is not present in thearea; in the vast majority of cases, however,open spaces actually reflect poor observercoverage. The range maps are smoothed toguard against this mis perception.

The audience identified by the authorsincludes naturalists, professional biologists,and resource administrators. It should beemphasized that this is not a field guide, butrather a reference book. The text devoted todescribing the methods used for datamanagement might irritate the casual reader,but will be invaluable for those wanting touse the information for scientific research.Appendices listing contributors to the database are, I feel, an appropriateacknowledgment of the effort of volunteers.

I eagerly await the production of thefinal volume of the series.*

The Birds ofBritish Columbia.Volume 3-Passerines:Flycatchersthrough Vireos.R. Wayne Campbell, Neil K.Dawe, Ian McTaggart-Cowan, John M. Cooper,Gary W. Kaiser, MichaelC.E.McNall&G.E.JohnSmith. UBC Press,Vancouver, BC. 1997. 693pages, maps, photographsand line drawings, hardcover. $95,00 Cdn.

CORDILLERA

Tom Dickinson teachesbiology at the UniversityCollege of the Cariboo inKamloops, BC (where hisstudents hear a jot about birds)and does research on theeffects of forest developmenton songbirds.

45 Winter 1997

BOOK REVIEWS

AMPHIBIANSw OREGON, WASHINGTON

« BRITISH COlUMBf ft

Amphibians ofOregon,Washington, andBritish Columbia.A FieldIdentificationGuide.Charlotte C. Corkran &Chris Thorns. Lone PinePublishing, Vancouver,BC. 1996.174 pages, manyphotographs and linedrawings, soft cover.$21.95Cdn.

Helen Knight is an educatorand naturalist who is currentlyworking as a consultant inoutdoor education and natureinterpretation. She lives alongthe North Thompson River nearClearwater.

Amphibians of Oregon, Washington andBritish Columbia packs into its slenderformat an amazing amount of well-organized information about all stages ofnorthwestern North American amphibians.Excellent photographs throughout assist inidentifying all species, both native andintroduced, that are found in BritishColumbia, Washington, and Oregon.Included are photographs of a]I life stages,making this book truly one for all seasons.In keeping with its intended audiences,common as well as scientific names are usedthroughout. Recent taxonomic problems andchanges are described, and a glossaryincludes terms that could be difficult for thebeginning naturalist.

Amphibians is divided generally intothree broad sections: an introduction, thespecies accounts for salamanders, frogs andtoads, and a final unit which gives usefulinformation on the study of all amphibians.The introductory part of the book includes abeginning pictorial key to the amphibiansand answers the question, "What is anamphibian?". It also describes typicalamphibian habitats, and outlines the bestway to use the book.

The next section gives excellent anddetailed accounts of three major groups ofnorthwestern amphibians: aquaticsalamanders, fully terrestrial salamanders,and frogs and toads. Each speciesdescription includes clear photographs anddetailed information about the adult and allof the life stages. Introductory notes relateinteresting characteristics and behaviours,while range maps, elevation information,data on occurrence in physiographicprovinces, descriptions of life stages(including size and appearance), and a chartshowing the habitat in which each stage isfound, add useful detail to such notes.

Were the book to end with thesespecies descriptions it would still be worththe price of purchase. However, a final

section adds yet more information to helpwith the study of amphibians. Eight keys,with line drawings to illustrate difficultdifferences, are included here: keys to westerneggs, eastern eggs, hatchling salamanders,larval salamanders, metamorphosed andterrestrial salamanders, hatchling tadpoles,tadpoles, and adult frogs and toads. Thekeys are followed by a useful chart withcomparisons of confusing species.

The book ends with a helpful sectionon studying amphibians in the field. Itincludes information on where to look,which species to look for in certain habitats,what equipment to use, and — especiallycommendable — a section on how to handleamphibians without harming them.

The authors have produced a bookpacked full of useful information — a bookthat anyone with even the faintest interest inamphibians would find helpful. But aboveall, the authors have been able to convey tothe reader their enjoyment of the subject,and especially their respect for this group ofanimals.

Whether you are an amateur naturalist,or a serious student of biology, Amphibiansof Oregon, Washington and BritishColumbia is a highly recommended additionto your library.1*

46 Winter 1997

STYLE GUIDE

Guidelines for AuthorsSCOPE OF THE JOURNALCordillera welcomes previouslyunpublished articles on any aspect of naturalhistory, from geology and physiography toecology and evolution. Although discussionof conservation efforts will undoubtedly finda place in Cordillera, the focus of any papershould be natural history. The purpose ofthe journal is to convey to readers newfindings about the natural history of thecordilleran region, new interpretations ofexisting data, or perspectives andinformation that might be difficult to obtainelsewhere. The term "cordilleran region" ismeant to encompass the mountain systems— together with the intervening valleys andplateaus — that characterize the greater panof British Columbia. However, articles fromsimilar areas adjacent to the province willalso be considered. We encouragesubmissions by amateur natural historiansand professional scientists alike; wherenecessary, the editors will attempt to assistauthors in preparing articles for publication.

PREPARING MANUSCRIPTSPlease address all submissions,correspondence, and letters to:

The Editor, Cordillera,Box 625, Kamloops, BC

V2C 5L7

All manuscripts should be typed, double-spaced with at least 1" margins all around.We would be grateful if authors couldsubmit four copies of each article. Ifpossible, please also submit a 3 1/2 inchfloppy disk with the hardcopy of your paper,particularly if you have used Wordperfect orMicrosoft Word in the preparation of yourmanuscript. A two sentence biography foreach author is provided at the end of thearticle. It would be helpful if these weresubmitted with the original manuscript.

Cordillera publishes several general types ofarticles, arranged in sections as describedbelow.

Discovery:The Discovery section consists of articleswritten on four different themes:(1) a "Natural Space" in which a small or

large area containing unusual — orunusually abundant — natural features isdescribed;

(2) "People in Natural History," whichprovides a biographical sketch of anindividual naturalist, amateur orprofessional;

(3) "Research in Review," in which a brief,non-technical account of an ongoingresearch project is provided; and

(4) "Natural History Briefs," which offers ashort introduction to a species, group ofspecies, or physical feature of thecordilleran region.

Notebook:These articles are shorter and moreanecdotal than those found in the "Features"section of the journal. They might, forexample, include personal accounts ofdiscoveries or descriptions and possibleexplanations of phenomena.

Features:Articles in this section are longer(although the manuscript should not belonger than 20 pages double-spaced) andsomewhat more technical than those foundelsewhere in the journal. Features shouldinclude a "Literature Cited" section, ifapplicable, as well as a brief abstract, whichwill appear at the beginning of the paper.

Please address allsubmissions,

correspondence, andletters to;

The Editor

CORDILLERA

Box 625Kamloops, BC

V2C5L7

CORDILLERA 47 Winter 1997

STYLE GUIDE

We encourageauthors to submitillustrations that

might be includedwith their article.

Original linedmivings (eg.,

maps, graphs, ordrawings of plants

or animate),prints (with nega-tives), or slides are

all acceptable.

SPECIES NAMESIn general, the scientific names for allspecies mentioned in an article should beincluded the first time the species is referredto. In the Notebook section, technicalnames will be included for lesser knownspecies, or those that lack standard commonnames (such as plants); however, it may notbe necessary (in this section alone) toinclude the names of well-known species,such as North American birds, especially ifmany taxa are mentioned, such that thenames might become intrusive. Thescientific and vernacular names used willfollow the standards set in the followingpublications:

For the Fishes. Amphibians. Reptiles.Birds and Mammals of British Columbia:The Vertebrates of British Columbia:Scientific and English Names. 1990.Cannings, R.A. & A.P. Harcombe (eds.)Heritage Record #20, Royal B.C. Museum,Wildlife Report #R-24, Wildlife Branch,Victoria, BC.For Other Birds: Checklist of NorthAmerican Birds, 7th Edition. 1998.Committee on Classification andNomenclature of the AmericanOrnithologists' Union, Washington, DC.For Other Fishes: Common and ScientificNames of Fishes from the United States andCanada., 5th Edition. 1991. Robins, C.R., etal., American Fisheries Society SpecialPublication #20.For Plants: The Vascular Plants of BritishColumbia, Parts 1 to 4. 1989-94. Douglas,G.W., G.B. Stanley & D. Meidinger. B.C.Ministry of Forests, Research Branch,Victoria. BC.

ILLUSTRATIONSWe encourage authors to submit illustrationsthat might be included with their article.Original line drawings (e.g., maps, graphs,or drawings of plants or animals), prints(with negatives), or slides are all acceptable.Graphs and maps reproduce best when theyhave been computer-generated. Pleasesubmit in the original E.P.S. or TIFF (300d.p.i.) files. Please label each illustrationwith your name and include with it: (1) asuggested caption and (2) the applicablecredit(s) (i.e., who took the photo or drewthe picture), including the photographer's orartist's address. Written permission topublish illustration material must beobtained before publishing; we would begrateful if authors could obtain, and forwardto us, permissions for any of the illustrationsthey have supplied.

THE EDITORIAL PROCESSPapers intended for the Features section willbe sent out for review prior to publication.Authors of articles submitted to any sectionmay be asked to revise portions of theirmanuscript; articles may be altered forclarity, scientific accuracy, or forconsistency with Cordillera''?, style andstandards (for technical or vernacularspecies' names, article length, citation, style,etc.). Revised manuscripts will be sent to theauthors) for approval prior to publication.Although an attempt is made to publishacceptable material as soon as possible, noguarantees can be given regarding if andwhen submitted manuscripts will bepublished. The publisher accepts noresponsibility for unsolicited articles orillustration material. Authors retaincopyright of their written material except forone-time use in a specific issue ofCordillera. A simple copyright agreementform will be forwarded to the author withthe final copy>

48 Winter 1997 CORPILLERA

The Federation of British Columbia Naturalists

The Federation of British Columbia Naturalists is a provincial non-profit organization,

started in 1959, representing naturalists in federated clubs as well as individual members.

The motto of the Federation is, "To know nature and to keep it worth knowing," and

its goals are:

• to promote the enjoyment and understanding of nature

• to encourage the establishment of protected natural areas

• to defend the integrity of existing sanctuaries

• to promote, fund, and engage in the research needed to protect

natural ecosystem integrity

• to encourage and engage in the protection and restoration of

threatened and endangered species.

FEDERATED CLUBS

Lower MainlandAlouette Field NaturalistsBowen Nature ClubBurke Mountain NaturalistsCentral Valley NaturalistsChilliwack Field NaturalistsDelta Naturalists' SocietyLangley Field Naturalists SocietyFender Harbour & District Wildlife SocietyRoyal City Field NaturalistsSquamish Estuary Conservation SocietySunshine Coast Natural History SocietyVancouver Natural History SocietyWhite Rock and Surrey Naturalists Society

Vancouver IslandArrowsmith NaturalistsComox Valley Naturalists SocietyCowichan Valley Naturalists' SocietyMitlenatch Field Naturalists SocietyNanaimo Field NaturalistsFender Island Field NaturalistsSalt Spring Trail and Nature ClubVictoria Natural History Society

Thompson-OkanaganCentral Okanagan Naturalists ClubFriends of Mount Revelstoke & Glacier

Field NaturalistsKarnloops Naturalist ClubNorth Okanagan Naturalists' ClubNorth Shuswap Naturalist ClubOliver-Osoyoos NaturalistsShuswap Naturalists ClubSimilkameen Naturalist ClubSouth Okanagan Naturalist ClubVermilion Forks Field Naturalists

Northern BCBella Coola Trail and Nature ClubBulkley Valley NaturalistsMackenzie Nature ObservatoryPrince George Naturalists ClubQuesnel NaturalistsSkeena Valley NaturalistsTimberline Trail and Nature ClubWilliams Lake Field Naturalists

KootenayArrow Lakes Naturalists ClubBoundary Naturalists AssociationNelson NaturalistsRocky Mountain NaturalistsWest Kootenay Naturalists' Association

AFFILIATE ORGANIZATIONSAlbernj Valley Naturalists SocietyBurns Bog Conservation SocietyColumbia Valley Field NaturalistsFraser Valley Heritage Tree SocietyIndian Arm Natural History GroupKitimat Valley NaturalistsMayne Island Naturalists ClubMount Tolmie Conservancy AssociationOsoyoos Desert SocietyRiverview Horticultural Centre SocietySargeant Bay SocietySomenos Marsh Wildlife Societythe friends of the rain shadowTumbler Ridge Ornithology Group

This Organization is stipporterf 6y.-

olumbia

FBCNEXECUTIVE

President:Anne Murray

Vice-Presidents:Sean Mitchell

Howard CramerRecording Secretary:

Dr. Joan Ford

Treasurer:Serguei KotlikovPast President:

Audrey Heg

Honorary President:Ian McTaggart-Cowan

Committee ChairsConservation:

Bev Ramey

Education:Vacant

Office Manager:Leslie-Ann Drummond

DirectorsA representative from eachFederated Club, plus three

Directors-at-farge representingthe individual members.

Regional Coordinators:Lower Mainland

VacantVancouver Island

VacantThompson-Okanagan

Madelon SchoutenKootenaysGreg Ross

NorthSandra Kinsey

Membership in FBCNDirect: $15.00

Organization: $15.00Life: $400.00

Members of federated clubsare automaticallymembers of FBCN

Donations towards the workof the Federation are

tax-deductible.

The Federation of BritishColumbia Naturalists

425-1367 West BroadwayVancouver, BC. V6H 4A9

CoBJMLLERA

Return postage guaranteed.

CORJDILLERAPublished bi-annually by

Federation of B.C. NaturalistsBox 473

Vernon, BC V1T 6M4ISSN 1196-474X

MAIL^POSTECanada Post Corporation / Societe canadienne des posiesPostage paid Port paysBlk Nbre

0448607299Vancouver