tropical moist and dry deciduous forests: · web viewconsequently, with the advance in...

DATA MAINTENANCE OF STATE AND DISTRICT WISE MEDICINAL

PLANTS OF MANIPUR (INDIA)&

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT

Justification:

Mandatory for Research & Development Activities

Project implemented by -

MANIPUR STATE MEDICINAL PLANTS BOARD (MSMPB) Directorate of AYUSH, Lamphel, Imphal West,

Manipur-795004, IndiaE-mail:- [email protected]

Website:- smpbmanipur.org

Software developed by -

MANIPUR STATE MEDICINAL PLANTS BOARD (MSMPB) Directorate of AYUSH, Lamphel, Imphal West,

Manipur-795004, IndiaE-mail:- [email protected]

Website:- smpbmanipur.org

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mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

OFFICE OF THEMANIPUR STATE MEDICINAL PLANTS BOARD

DIRECTORATE OF AYUSH, LAMPHEL, IMPHAL WEST,MANIPUR-795004 (INDIA)

No. 07/SMPB-DHS/2008: In pursuance of the Government of Manipur ,Secretariat: Health Department letter No. 25/1/2001-M dated 2/07/09 the Manipur State Medicinal Plants Board, has been registered with Registrar of Societies , under section7(1) of the Manipur Societies Registrar Act, 1989 (Manipur Act 1 of 1990) bearing registration No.384/M/SR/2009.

The following are the Members in the Governing Body and Executive Committee of the Registered Manipur State Medicinal Plants Board:-

GOVERNING BODY:-

1. Hon’ble Minister Health & F.W, Manipur --- Chairman2. Commissioner/Secretary, Health & F.W, Manipur ---Vice- Chairman3. Commissioner/Secretary, Finance, G.O.M. ---Member4. Commissioner/Secretary, Agriculture, G.O.M. --- Member5. Commissioner/Secretary, Horticulture, G.O.M. --- Member6. Commissioner/Secretary, Commerce & Ind. , G.O.M. --- Member7. Chief Conservation of Forest /Representative not less than

the rank of Deputy Conservator of Forest, G.O.M. --- Member8. Director AYUSH, G.O.M. --- Member Secretary9. Director Agriculture, G.O.M. --- Member10. Director Horticulture & Soil Conservation, G.O.M.11. Sr. Medical Officer (AYUSH), Medical Directorate, Manipur. --- Member12. Two representatives (One- NGO/one –retired AYUSH Officer) --- Member

EXUCUTIVE COMMITTEE:-

1. Commissioner/Secretary, Health & F.W, Manipur ---President2. Commissioner/Secretary, Finance, G.O.M. ---Vice- president3. Chief Conservation of Forest /Representative not less than

the rank of Deputy Conservator of Forest, G.O.M. --- Member4. Director AYUSH,G.O.M. --- Member5. Director Agriculture, G.O.M. --- Member6. Director Horticulture & Soil Conservation, G.O.M. --- Member7. Sr. Medical Officer (AYUSH), Medical Directorate, Manipur. --- Member8. Two representatives (One- NGO/one –retired AYUSH Officer) --- Member

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Introduction:

In spite of consistence advancement of western remedies, there is still dearth of doctors and practitioners, that lies a vast necessary of rendering help in ailing humanity. Today we need a large scope to look back to our traditional knowledge on healing properties of plants for survival of the people who are financially poor. Not only focus on surviving the poorer section of people, now it is becoming a targeting issue as it has less side effects and less cost effective and can cure many incurable diseases. The Indian traditional medicine i.e., “AYUSH” is the treasure of medicinal and aromatic plants. Ninety percent of its formulations are based on plants sources and it is on increasing in the world market.

Consequently, with the advance in techniques of phytochemistry and pharmacology, a number of active phytochemistry principles of medicinal plants were isolated, purified and introduced as valuable drugs in the modern science e.g., Chondrodendrum tomentosum was initially used by these aboriginal people as hunting poison, but now it is used for muscle relaxant during surgery (Maheswari, 1995), Similarly, Rauwolfia serpentina was intially used for snake bite, but now it is being used as antipsychotic and hypotensive (Shah, 1995).

Manipur State Context:

Manipur is situated in the North-eastern part of India between 23.83o N latitude and 93.03o – 96.98o E longitude on the laps of the Himalayan Range and has a geographical area of 22,327 sq. km. The Soil and agroclimate of Manipur is blessed with the virtues of God. The agroclimate is very suitable for cultivation varieties of medicinal and aromatic plants. It is estimated that Manipur state alone supports more than 500 species of medicinal plants. Many of are still using by many local practitioners to cure different ailments and is the source of local economy. Many wild edible plants having medicinal values are also available in the markets of Manipur. These are also a part of our palatable food items since early times. The physic of Manipuries are framed with its natural impulses may be it is co-related with the sports and other activities. The people of Manipur has rich kwoledge on traditional health-care systems since long back, but these systems are necessary to upgrade .

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Herbs and Humanity:

Traditional medicine as it exists among the ethnic groups of people inhabiting in different parts of Manipur, is the result of a long historical and cultural development. The historical background of these ethnic groups will at least partly help to know the similarities and variations that exist within the traditional medicinal practice in this region. Manipur is with a socio-cultural mosaic of the people of diverse ethnic identity, both indigenous as well as migrated to this region. This long amalgamation of the people of different social and cultural backgrounds has resulted in continuation as well as reciprocal cultural exchanges among different ethnic groups and also received impacts from the rest of the country.

The use of various herbs in curing different ailments is a living tradition in the North-eastern part of India with a history that disappears in the midst of the past. It is a non-scholarly system in which any kind of institutional didactic from instruction has been transmitted individually teacher to pupil, partly orally and partly by means of handwritten manuscripts. In this traditional system of medicine, the prescription often contain many ingredients, and the principles of preparing and administering the medicines are common to the tradition. Besides, the magical practices and incantations are also an integral part or traditional medicine. Interestingly, these traditional herbalists do not perform any kind of surgery on dissection of the human body, and their views of anatomy and the functioning of the body are thus quite different from those of the European system of medicine. Traditional medicine in the ancient art of healing in this region over centuries, has received influences so much from other systems of medical traditions used by other ethnic groups so that it does not appear as one unified tradition. In addition, with the advent of modernity, the aspirations of educated tribal people have increased considerably, and as a result some of them are thinking of themselves as a neglected tribes of the region. More interestingly, the forest with which they have had a long relationship and which provides them food, shelter and medicines etc. as well as a validating base to their abiding amnesic faiths and beliefs is gradually dwindling. It is a matter of grave concern that the traditional knowledge which has acquired experiences in the treatment of diseases after a long existence may be valuable to science. Furthermore, it is still in use as a dependable health care system among the ethnic groups in the face of advent of western medicine and thus worthy of study. Besides, the frequencies of some useful plants are dwindling day by day due to over-exploitation. Hence, this precious plants should be conserved along with establishing research institutes in this region for standardizing indigenous knowledge regarding herbal medicines through modern scientific systems which may yield very important drugs for prosperity.

The Herbal medicines occupied a distinct place in our life from the earliest period. Initially, these had formed the bulk of empiric knowledge to different parts of the world. Later, a considerable part of this empiric knowledge on healing properties of plants was formulated, documented and eventually passed into organized systems of traditional medicine.The search about the sources of new medicines and other life – supports plants has compelled man to look back at natural habitats. A special devotion is needed to approach on man – plant relationships living closer to nature.

Besides, many renowned vegetable drugs of the modern time can be recognized in the folklore of primitive people. For example, the country folk of Shropshire used Digitalis purpurea ‘fox glove’ tea of dropsy much before William Withering introduced in medical practice. A plant used to make a particular bush tea in Madagasker which supposed to be useful in diabetes turned out to be Cathranthus roseus further investigations carried out

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on this plant suggested the possibility of its value in the treatment of leukaemia. Moreover, this indigenous knowledge of various ethnic groups of medicinal plants was also useful in

discovering chemically useful compounds when applied in modern scientific methods eg. Chondrodendrum tomentosum was initially used by these aboriginal people as hunting poison, but now it is used for muscle relaxant during surgery (Maheshwari, 1995). Similarly, Rauvolfia serpentine was initially used for snake bite, but now it is being used as antipsychotic and hypotensive (Shah, 1995).

Traditional systems of medicines in Manipur:

The dependence of man on plants for his various needs is well known to be emphasized, be in the field of agriculture, horticulture, timber, fuel and fibres in general and medicinal plants, timber, fuel in particular. It is comparative to mention here that in spite of the discovery of many synthetic drugs, the reliance on the medicinal plants has not been diminished. Modern drugs are based on plants viz. quinine from Cinchona, diosgenin and discorine from Dioscorea, morphine from Papaver somniferum and reserpine from Rauvolfia, etc. There has been a decline in use of plants in medicine till about 1940. But situation has changed since then and it is estimated that more than 90% of the medicinal prescriptions in India contain plant products (Hussain et. al., 1992). Even in the most advanced countries like U.S.A., more than 50% of all prescriptions contain drugs of plant origin (Ayensu, 1983). According to one estimates, the world was using up to 180 tonnes of diosgenin, a chemical compound obtained from Dioscorea spp. per year by the mid 1970s and by 1995 as much as 500 tonnes, if the contraceptive needs of all women at risk are to met (Myers, 1980). The W.H.O. has started documentation and listing of popular tribal remedies. Primitive knowledge about the medicinal value of plants is so vast amongst the indigenous societies. The information ca 3000 plants species that have been used for population control has been computerised based on ethnobotanical studies (Rahmoni, 1970). Besides, not only the ayurvedic and other traditional Indian systems solely depend upon wild plants, but also the allopathy which has also started searching for the active principles of medicinal plants and are getting positive results. Several such products from medicinal plants have been used by them successfully even to cure complicated diseases like asthma, cancer, diabetes, ulcer, etc. Besides, it would not be out of place to mention here this region has always served as a store house of medicinal and aromatic plants. The numerous tribal populations inhabiting in different parts of North Eastern region solely depend upon these plants for the cure of diseases from time immemorial. In spite of the influx and encroachment of modern civilization and missionary activities to provide modern medical facilities to these people, the rural folks to a great extend and a determined minority among the literates still holds their faith in the indigenous type of medication.

The North-Eastern India abounds in large number of plants with medicinal and other ethno-botanical virtues. Mention may be made that some of the important medicinal plants such as Abroma augusta, Aconitum bisma, A. ferox, A. violaceum, Acorus calamus, Alpinia galangal, Alstonia scholaris, Amomum subulatum, Andrographis paniculata, Aquilaria malaccensis, Berberis aristata, Bergenia ciliata,

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B. purpurascens, Cinnamomum spp., Citrullus spp., Coelogyne spp., Coptis teeta, Cordyceps sinensis, Datylorhiza hatagirea, Dioscorea spp., Elaeocarpus sphaericus, Ephedra geradiana var. sikkimensis, Fagophyrum esculentum, Garcinia cowa, Gynocardia odorata, Holboelia latifolia, Panax bipinntifidus var,angustifolius, Picrorhiza scrophulariflora, Podophyllum hexandrum, P. sikkimense, Pterocarpus santalinus, Rauvolfia serpentina, Rheumd nobile, Rhododendron anthopogon, R. arboreum, Rumex nepalensis, Santalum album, Saussurea spp., Solanum spp., Stephania glabra, Sterculia spp., Swertia chirayita, S. multicaulis, Taxus wallichiana, Terminalia arjuna, T. chebula, Thysanolaena maxima, Trichosanthes dioica, Tupistra nutans, Valeriana jatamansii, V.Wallichii, Viscum articuletum, Withania somnifera, Zanthoxylum spp. and zingiber spp., etc. are used to cure different ailments by the tribals. The potential lying hidden in our forests for medicinal and aromatic plants is tremendous, only we have to search and find it out. However, in recent, the combined forces of population growth, unplanned utilization of plant resources, and degradation of natural ecosystems threaten to destroy the delicate equilibrium that exists between man and the biosphere. The expansion of biotic activities into primeval forest areas and over – exploitation of ever shrinking natural resources and fragile ecosystem has further accelerated the environmental degradation / alteration. Therefore, the taping of this indigenous knowledge has to be done on top priority as the destruction of natural forests, where they grow are going on at an increasing rate, as a result several such precious plant species are dwindling. Besides, folklore claims and their expertise on medicinal plants should be collected, which would provide more useful infrastructure on these plants. It is a rather difficult task to get the information of such plants from the tribals, as they never likes interference from outsiders in their daily life. Secondly in most of the cases, they use the combination of different plants in various proportions to cure the diseases. Most of the Kabiraj (Herbalists) think that if they disclose their permutations and combinations, the effect of the medicines will be liquidated.

Important District wise Medicinal Plants of Manipur:

Ukhrul District (Kamjong, Sansak,Phungyar, Gamnoum, Pushing ,Maokot, Nampisa,Hundung, Siroi, Chamu)

Panax pseudoginseng (Pseudoginseng)

Taxus wallichiana (Uchanmanbi)

Emblica officinalis (Heigru/Amla)

Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Ushingsa)

Piper grifithii (Ching-marich)

Smilax lanceifolia (Smilax)

Swertia chirata (Chiraita/Sabal maringkha)

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Rubia cordifolia (Moyum)

Terminalia bellerica(Manahei achouba)

Terminalia chebula(Manahei)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Sarpagandha/ chandra)

Gmelina arborea (Wang)

Aquilaria agallocha (Agar)

Fragaria vesca (Heirongkak)

Paris polyphylla(Singpan)

Swertia angustifolia(Sabal marinkha)

Myrica esculenta(Ching nong-ganghei)

Rhododendron arboretum (Engalei)

Zingiber zerumbet (Singkha)

Thalictrumfoliolosum(Umang peruk)

Curcuma aromatic( Yaimu)

Imphal, Bishnupur and Thoubal. (Leimarot, Kameng, Khambrang,Langol,Nongmaiching, Marjing,Waithou,Kakching,Santrok,Haraoching,Charoi khulen,Dolang)

Emblica officinalis (Heigru)

Terminalia chebula

Aegle marmelos (Hei-khagok)

Santalum album (Cha-chandan)

Oroxylum indicum (Samba)


Azadirachta indica (Neem)

Piper longum/griffithii (Uchithi)

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Smilax lanceifolia (Smilax / Kwa-manbi)

Phlogacanthus spp. (Nongmankha)

Adhatoda vasica (Nongmangkha-angouba)

Kaempferia rotunda (Leibak-lei)

Tinospora cordifolia (Ningthoukhongli)

Mucuna prurita (Samu-hawai)

Gynura cushimboa (Tera paibi)

Kaempferia galanga (Yaithamnamanbi)

Pogostemon patchouli (Patchouli)

Alpinia galanga (Kanghoo)

Andrographis paniculata (Bhubati)

Acorus calamus (O-hidak)

Curcuma longa (Yaingang)

Curcuma amada (Heinouyai)

Eryngium foetidum (Awa-phadigom)

Eupatorium birmanicum (Langthrei)

Solanum indicum (Leipung-khanga)

Centella asiatica (Peruk)

Hyptis suaveolens (Langhei)

Achyranthes aspera (Khuchum pere)

Casia fistula (Chouhui)

Senapati District (Koupru, Mao, Jhuko,Persaikhuti, Mayangkhang,Maku-iii, Hengbung,Makui,Saikul,Waichong,Shamuk,Willong,Changoubung)

Taxus baccata (Uchanmanbi)

Panax pseudoginseng (Ginseng)


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Piper grifithii (Uchithi)

Smilax lanceifolia (Kwamanbi)

Swertia chirata (Chirayta / Sabal maringkha)

Rubia manjith(Moyum)

Aconitum nagarum(Huyai)

Fragaria vesca (Heirongkak)

Stemona tuberosa (Moyumbi)

Stephania rotunda(Koubru yai)

Stephania hernandifolia (Koubruyai anangba)

Smilax ovalifolia (Kwamanbi)

Croton ssp.(Lamkege)

Curcuma amada (Heinouyai)

Kangpokpi Subdivision Citrus latipes (Heiribob)

Zanthoxylum acanthopodium (Mukthrubi)

Cinnamomum tamala (Tejpata)


Ferula foetida (Hing)



Tamarindus indica (Mange)

Aloe vera (Aloe)


Rauvolfia serpentina (Sarpagandha)

Acorus calamus (O-hidak)

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Oroxylum indicum (Shamba)




Terminalia bellerica

Chandel District (Khunbi,Bongyam, Japhou, Komlathabi, Larong ,)


Adhatoda vasica (Nongmangkha)

Asparagus racemosus (Ngungarei)




Garcinia xanthochymus (Heibung)

Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi)


Parkia roxburghii (Yongchak)

Santalum album (Chandan)

Smilax china (China chob)

Terminalia chebula

Mucuna prurita (Samu-hawai)

Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus (Nongmankha)

Andrographis paniculata ( Bhubati)

Tinospora cordifolia (Ningthou-khongli)

Smilax ovalifolia (Kwamanbi)

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Jiribam Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Ushingsa)

Piper longum (Uchi-thi)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Sarpagandha)


Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi)

Centella asiatica (Peruk)

Solanum indicum (Leipungkhanga)

Syzygium aromaticum (Long-pan)

Saraca asoca (Ashoka)


Aloe barbadensis (Ghritakumari)


Gloriosa superba (Glory lily)

Withania somnifera (Aswagandha)

Churachandpur District (Sangaikot, Yangkot, Tipaimuk,Tuilaphai,Singhat,Talian,Vejo)

Curcuma longa (Yaingang)





Smilax lanceifolia (Smilax)

Homalomena aromatica (Hongoo-kaklamanbi)

Sida cordifolia (Uhan)

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Bacopa monnirei (Leibak-kundo-macha)

Rubia cordifolia (Moyum)

Terminalia bellerica

Terminalia chebula



Artemisia nilagirica (Laibakngou)

Stemona tuberosa (Moyubi)

Tamenglong (None, Barak),


Terminalia chebula


Smilax laencifolia (Smilax)

Aloe vera (Aloe)



Andrographis paniculata (Bhubati)

Sida cordifolia (Uhan)

Bacopa moneiri (Leibak-kundo macha)

Piper longum (Uchithi)

Saraca asoca (Ashoka)

Adhatoda vasica (Nongmangkha)

Syzygium aromaticum (Long-pan)


Cinnamomum tamala (Tejbat mana)

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Thalictrum Foliolosum(Umang peruk)

Withania somnifera (Aswagandha)

Asparagus racemosus (Nungarei manbi)

Tinospora cordifolia (Ningthoukhongli)

Alpinia galanga (Kanghu)

Croton caudatus (Lamkege)

Price List marketed by M/S SIDAHIDAK HERBAL Phumlou,Imphal west,Manipur.

1 Aconitum spp. Root 1500.00/kg

2 Acorus calamus (O-hidak) Rhizome Rs 60-90/kg

3 Andrographis paniculata (Bhubati) Leaff/Shoot Rs 200/kg

Seed Rs160-19o/kg

4 Azadirachta indica (Neem) Leaf Rs 100/kg

Bark Rs 20-25/kg ,,

5 Emblica ooficinalis (heikru) fruit Rs 10-15/kg ,,

7 Cassia fistula (Chouhui) Pulp Rs 10-12/kg

8 Eclipta alba (Uchi-sumban) Whole plant Rs 30/kg

9 Gloriosa superba (Glory lily) Root 100/kg ,,

Seed Rs 300-350/kg

10 Homalomena aromatica (Sugandh-mantri) Chrome/rhizome Rs 200/kg

11 Aloe vera (Meipokpi) leaf Rs 10/kg

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12 Curcuma longa (Yaingang) Rhizome Rs 120-130/kg

rhizome Rs 55-70/kg

13 Mucuna pruriens (Samu-hawai) Seed Rs120-140/kg

14 Paris polyphylla(Singpan) root Rs.3000/kg

seed Rs 120-130/kg

Leaf Rs 50-80/kg

15 Phyllanthus nirurii Seed Rs 45-55/kg

Fruit Rs180-200/kg

16 Piper ssp. Root Rs 150-170/kg

17 Curcuma amada (Heinouyai) Rhizome Rs 120-130/kg

18 Rubia cordifolia (Moyum) Leaff/Shoot Rs160-170/kg

19 Sapindus trifoliatus (Kekru) Seed Rs 100/kg

20 Curcuma aromatic (yaimu) Leaf Rs 120/kg

N.B. The above prizes of herbs are responsible of under the guideline of M/S Sidahidah Herba l Phumlou Siphai, Imphal West –Pin-795146.Manipur ,India.

List of the some threaten medicinal plants of Manipur

Sl. No. Scientific Name Altitude

1. Aconitum elwesii Stapf. - 4000 – 5000 ft. 2. Andrographis paniculata Nees - 2000 – 3000 ft. 3. Aspsragus racemosus Willd. - 2000 – 3000 ft.

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4. Berberis aristata DC. - 4000 – 5000 ft. 5. Bergenia ciliata (Haw.)Sternb. - 3000 – 4000 ft. 6. Costus speciosus (Koen.) Sm. - 2000 – 3000 ft. 7. Dendrobium nobile Lindl - 2000 – 4000 ft. 8. Garcinia acuminata Pl. &Triana - 2000 – 3000 ft. 9. Gloriosa superba L. - 3000 – 4000 ft. 10. Homalomena aromatica Scott - 2000 – 3000 ft. 11. Kaempferia galanga L. - 2000 – 3000 ft. 12. Myrica esculenta Ham.ex Don - 3000 – 4000 ft. 13. Oroxyllum indicum (L.) Vent - 2000 – 3000 ft. 14. Panax assamicus Seem, Benerjee - 3000 – 4000 ft. 15. Paris polyphylla Sm. - 3000 – 4000 ft. 16. Rauvolfia serpentine( L.) Benth.ex Kurz.- 2000 – 3000 ft. 17. Rubia cordifolia L. - 3000 – 4000 ft. 18. Smilax lancifolia Roxb. - 2000 – 4000 ft. 19. Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. - 2000 – 4000 ft. 20. Stephania glabra (Roxb.)Miers. - 2000 – 4000 ft. 21. Swertia chirayita Karsten. - 3000 – 4000 ft. 22. Taxus wallichiana Zucc. - 4000 – 5000 ft. 23. Terminalia chebula Retz. - 2000 – 3000 ft. 24. Thalictrum foliolosum L. - 4000 – 5000 ft. 25. Tinospora cordifolia (L.) Merr. - 2000 – 3000 ft. 26. Vanda tessellate Hook. - 3000 –4000 ft. 27. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal - 2000 – 3000 ft.

Chemical composition of some important medicinal plants

Table-1

Sl.No. Botanical Names Bio-active molecules

1. Acorus calamus Acolamone, isocolamone, Acorin, Calamic acid

2. Arisaema tortuosum Asparagine, glycine, glutamic acid, alanine.

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3. Artemisia nilagirica Volatile oil which has an odour resembling cajuput oil and camphor, santonin and an allied body artemisin.

4. Centella asiatica Triterpene saponins, mainly asiatocoside, sapogenin Asiatic acid, madecassoside and maldecassic acid.

5. Cephalotaxus harringtonia Harringtonine.

6. Clerodendrum colebrookianum

Colebrin

7. Costus specious Saponin like gracillin, methyl protodioscin, dioscin.

8. Croton caudatus Crotocaudin, teuvidin, taraxerone, taraxerol, rotoflorine, sparsiflorone, crotsparimine.

Table-2

Sl.No. Botanical Names Bio-active molecules

9 Curcuma caesia 1.8- cineole, camphor, bonieol, [alpha)- terpineol and [beta) – pinene.

10. Elephantopus scaber Isodeoxyelephantopin

11. Goniothalamus sesquipedalis

Goniopedaline, - sitosterol, - D-glucoside.

12. Hedychium spicatum Hedychenone

13. Kaemferia galangal Benzyl benzoate, n-pentadecane and camphene.

14. Paris polyphylla Oligosaccharides, periphyllin (polyphyllin) A, B,D; gracillin, glycosides and saponins (C 27- steroid emostatic saponins).

15. Phyllanthus niruri Phyllantheol, phyllanthenol, phyllanthenone.

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16. Potentilla anserine Scopoletin, phyllanthenol, phyllanthenone.

17. Rauvolfia sperpentine Sarpagine, reserpine, vomilenine etc.

18. Taxus baccata Taxol, baccatine.

19. Thalictrum foliolosum Thalicarpine, Berberine

Objectives :

The aim and object of the present study is to record the effective and practicable plants species found in Northeastern states of India. The practice is mainly concerned to upgrade and rebirth traditional knowledge focus on medicinal plants, to emphasis on preventive and promotive aspects of health with low cost and no side effect.

Stephen Power (1875) used the term ‘aboriginal botany’ for studying this knowledge, which is being practiced by aboriginals. Harshburger (1895) was the first to apply the term ‘ethno-botany’ for describing ‘the study of plants used by primitive and aboriginal people’. Since then this term was widely accepted by so many workers for indicating relationship between man and plants.

Mitra & Jain (1991) has provided an exhaustive review on the history and evolution of work on indigenous drugs in India along with many important contributions.

Heiser Jr. (1995) defined it as ‘the study of plants in relation to people and include both wild and domesticated plants’. Jain (1991 & 1995) classified man-plant relationship into two groups viz. abstracts and concrete. Abstract group includes faith in the good or bad powers of plants, taboos, avoidances; worship was mainly based on the material used as house building, agricultural operations, food, medicines, domestic uses, improvement and conservation of plants. In the recent years, ethno-botanical work is being carried out under various terms including ethno-veterinary aspects.

Three well organized traditional systems of medicine viz. Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha are being practiced since time immemorial. Besides, there are over one thousand community based traditional health workers in rural areas. Though, these systems are not recognized by the Medical Council of India, even then they deliver the health care problems in human as well as domestic animals in rural areas of the state. These community based traditional systems of medicines are not only self-

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reliance, based on local knowledge and local resources, but also diverse and specific to each system as per the need of the ethnic communities, based on their local resources and health needs etc.

During the eithteenth century, there had been a conscientious interest in the Indian System of Medicine and as a result of large number of papers dealing with medicinal plants have been published. Since earlier, important contributions are of Sir William Jones’ botanical observations on selected plants (1799); John Fleming’s Catalogue of Medicinal Plants (1810); Ainslee’s Material Medica of Hindustan (1813, 1826); Roxburgh’s Flora India (1820-1832) and Royle’s an Essay on the Antiquity of Hindu Medicine (1837), Oshaughnessy’s ‘The Bengal Dispensatory (1841) is the first book dealing exclusively with the properties and uses of medicinal plants. Warning’s ‘Pharmacopoeia of India’ (1868) signaled a new apoch in establishing the value of medicinal plants. Moodeen’s supplement to the Pharmacopoeia of India and Fluckiger and Hanburg’s Pharmacographia (1870) added new information. The other valuable works relating to the medicinal products indigenuous to India are Materia Medica of Hindus (Dutta, 1877); vegetable material Medica of Western India (Dymock, 1883); Pharmacographia India (Dymock, Warden & Hooper, 1889-1893) and Dictionery of Economic Products of India by George Watt (1889-1896).

A considerable number of publications on Indian Medicinal Plants appeared during the twentieth Century. Mention may be made of India Materia Medica (Nadkarni, 1908); Indian Medicinal Plants (Kirtikar & Basu, 1916). Indiginous drugs of India (Chopra, 1933); Bhartiya Banaushadhi (Biswas & Ghosh, 1950 – 1952).

Mukerjee, 1950; Codex (Mukerjee, 1953); Pharmacognosy of Leafy Pharmaceutical drugs (Dutta & Mukerjee, 1952); Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants and its supplements (Chopra et. al.,1956, 1969) and Indiginous drugs of India (Chopra et. al., 1958) etc. However, during last few decade the publication on Indian Medicinal plants incorporate data on various aspects and these include Wealth of India (Anonymous, 1948-1978); Medicinal Plants of India (Jain, 1985); Medicinal Plants of India (Saytavati et.al.,1976, 1987); Herbal Drugs in Indian Pharmaceutical Industry (Kapoor & Mitra, 1979); Economic Plants of India (Nayar et.al.,1989, 1994); Handbook of Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants (Kapoor, 1990); Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants (Rastogi & Mehrotra, 1970, 1993, 1995, 1998, 1999); Dictionary of Indian Medicinal Plants (Hussain et.al., 1992) Major Medicinal Plants of India (Thakur et.al., 1992); and Ayurvedic Drugs and their plant sources (Sivarajan & Balchandran, 1994). It is imperative to mention here that Nayer et.al., (1989) have stated that 1600 species of plants occurring in India, are having medicinal virtues, however, Jain (1991) is of the opinion that about 3000 species have found either detailed or casual mention in the books dealing with medicinal plants. Kirtikar & Basu (1916) have listed 1775 species while Chopra et.al.,(1956, 1969) have listed about 3500 species having medicinal values. Recently, Jain & De Fillips (1991) have dealt with 1444 species of medicinal plants while Asolkar et.al., (1992) have listed 1780 species having medicinal importance. However, according to All India Ethno-biological survey carried out by the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India highlighted that about 8000 species of medicinal plants are being used by different tiribal communities in their traditional system of treatment.

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In view of this, there is tremendous scope to tap this ethnic knowledge from the tribal populations of this region for better human survival as well as for posterity.

Informants & procuring methods: Most of the medicinal plants are obtained from forest or natural habitats and

few are grown especially for their medicinal value. The knowledge of medicinal herbs and treatment is often rather specialized, limited to a few members of communities of the region. Many local peoples of the state were also involved in identifying local names and medicinal values of different plant.

Folk medicine is an art practiced mainly by the old people of the communities. However, in the course of the present study, it has come across several young men prescribing herbal recipes and it has framed a complete system of alternative medicine.

Presentation & data arrangement:

The region is characterized by high rainfall and humidity. The annual rainfall is usually about 2000 mm, although, there are rain shade belts. Similarly, the relative humidity is usually 80% during the morning hours. The altitude is varied from near sea-level; the climate ranges from that of tropical plains to temperate and sub-alpine hills. The soil ranges from new alluvial, old alluvial to lat-rite and in general rich in organic matters, iron contents and very low or some deficient in Boron, Calcium and Zinc. The pH of soil usually ranges from 4.5–5.5. Due to these various factors, the region represents one of the richest botanical regions in Indian sub-continent (Chatterjee, 1962; C. B. Clarke, 1898; Hooker, 1906; Hooker & Thomson, 1855; Rao, 1968, 1974; Joseph, 1982) and has been considered a paradise for botanists. Though several plant explorers both Indian as well as foreign have frequently botanised this region from time to time (Burkill, 1916, 1965; Hooker, 1850, 1854; Cowan, 1927, 1929; Gamble, 1857, 1878; Prain, 1903; Rao, 1974; Balakrisnan,1981,1983; Deb, 1981, 1983; Haridasan & Rao, 1985, 1987; Kataki, 1986; Baishya & Rao, 1982; Jamir & Rao, 1988, Chauhan, 1994, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999 & 2000; Hajra et al., 1996; Borthakin, 1476, Singh & Singh, 2002), even then the botany of some parts of this region is still not fully known.

Prior to the explorations by the Botanical Survey of India, the only noteworthy effort were those by Burkill, 1925; Bor, 1942; C. B. Clarke, 1889; Fischer, 1938 and Kingdon-Ward, 1940, 1948. Hooker who made huge collection of plants from Khasi & Jaintia hills during 1851, remarked that the vegetation of Khasi hill in Meghalaya which richest in India and probably in the whole of Asia. This statement seems to hold good for the entire North-Eastern India, which abounds in forests, meadows, marshes and swamps, each with its own characteristic plants and ecology. Being one of the difficult and inaccessible terrains, a considerable portion of forest area still remains terra incognita botanically.

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During the last thirty years, botanists have trekked through all the hilly states of this region in different seasons and have made collections from different ecological niches. The vegetation of this region is fairly well known through the contributions of Kanjilal et al., 1934-40; Biswas, 1940, 1943, 1967; Choudhury, 1960, 1969, 1970; Deb, 1961, 1981, 1983; Dutta, 1964; Mahapatra et al., 1965; Mathew, 1966, 1969; Mukerjee, 1965,1972; Rao & Panigrahi, 1961; Rajkhowa,1961; Sain,1958,1959; Sen, 1963; Sharma & Ghose, 1970; Shebbeare, 1941, 1961; Mehra et al., 1983; Chauhan, 2000; Singh & Singh, 2002; etc. There is usually a distinct corelation between altitude and vegetation. From this point of view, the vegetation may be broadly classified into three major type viz. (a) Tropical, (b) Temperate, (c) Alpine, with their intermediate types. Sahni (1969) while highlighting the floral wealth of Eastern Himalayas discussed the following forest types viz. (1) Tropical evergreen, (2) Sub-tropical, (3) Temperate, (4) Sub-alpine and (5) Alpine to arctic following Champion & Seth (1968). However, the observations based on all previous works on the classification of the forest types of the North-Eastern India including Sikkim and the present observations, the forest types can be classified into the following types:

Forest type of North-East region:

1) Tropical moist and dry deciduous forests,2) Tropical grasslands,3) Tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests,4) Sub-tropical mixed forests,5) Sub-tropical pine forests,6) Sub-tropical to temperate grasslands,7) Temperate forests,8) Sub-alpine forests and9) Alpine vegetation

Tropical moist and dry deciduous forests:

The tropical moist and dry deciduous forests are distributed up to an altitude of 900 m, where the annual rainfall is 150-200 cm and having a definite dry period from December to March. It is imperative to mention here that typical natural deciduous forests do not occur anywhere in these states but are only subclimax or manmade forests. These type of forests are confined in parts of Assam border; northern slopes of Nagaland, Mizoram bordering Myanmar etc.; Jiri, Moreh, Wangoi and Tamenglong forest areas in Manipur and foot hill regions in the heavy rainfall and high summer temperature . These forests are characterized by seasonal leaf shedding and profuse flowering of the trees.

The sal (Shorea robusta), the most predominant tree crop, forms extensive reserves over hundreds of acres in all these forests. These manmade deciduous forests are much extensive in their distribution in these states and include many

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economically important tree species like Acacia catechu, Albizia lebbeck, A. lucida, A. procera, Artocarpus chama, Ailanthus integrifolia ssp. calycina, Alstonia scholaris, Anthocephalus chinense, Bischofia javanica, Bombax ceiba, Duabanga grandiflora, Ehretia wallichiana, Euodia glabrifolia, Garuga pinnata, Gmelina arborea, Haldina cordifolia, Kydia calycina, Lagerstroemia parviflora, L. reginae, Lannea coromandelica, Litsea monopetala, Spondias pinnata, Salmalia malabarica, Stereospermum colais, Sterculia villosa, Tectona grandis, Terminalia chebula, T. myriocarpa Tetramales nudiflora, etc. The second storey is composed of Agandis perviridis, Aglaia spectabilis, Bauhinia purpurea, B. variegata, Callicarpa arborea, Canarium srtictum, Careya arborea, Chukrassia tabularis, Cryptocarya amygdalina, Dalbergia sissoo, D. stipulacea, Dillenia pentagyna, Dysoxylum alliaria, D. binectari-ferum, Grewia disperma, Macaranga denticulata, Persea villosa, Stereospremum personatum and Turpinia pumifera etc.

The shrubbery layer is often gregarious and forms an impenetrable thicket during rainy season. The main components of this layer are Allophyllus cobbe, Costus speciosus, Clerodendrum kaempferi, Desmodium pulchellum, Flemingia macrophylla, Indigofera cassiodes, Leea alata, L. compactiflora, L. indica, Micromelum integerrimum, Murraya paniculata, etc. Lianas are fewer but species of scandent shrubs like Aspidopteris, Bridelia, Combretum, Entada, Hiptage, Mussaenda, Phanera, Spatholobus, Tinospora etc., along with the species belonging to the families of Vitaceae and Menispermaceae are frequent. The undergrowth of these forests varies from place to place according to changes in rainfall and soil composition. In most places, species of Desmodium, Licuala, Phlogacanthus, Impatiens, Oxalis etc. form dominant undergrowth. In open areas, species of Eupatorium, Lantana and Mikania grow profusely without any competition. Bamboo thickets are also found everywhere in these forests as successional vegetation in cleared areas, abandoned after jhum cultivation.

Interestingly, the species composition differs in different ecological niches, based on the geology, soil and topography as well as climatic conditions, etc. In the reserved forests of Tripura adjoining Cherilam and Radhakishorepur, in addition to Careya arborea, Lagerstroemia parviflora and Terminalia spp., Garuga pinnata, Albizia procera, Lannea coromandelica and Schima wallichii etc. form conspicuous flora. These species are generally not met in corresponding forests in other parts of North-Eastern India.

Tropical grassland:-

The grasslands met within this region are also not a climax type but are due to the combined effects of frequent heavy floods, forest fire, indiscriminate felling of trees and overgrazing, etc. The grassland of Motharguri, Orang and in the foot hills of Mikir hills are same as along hill slopes of Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim areas in some selected pockets, may be termed as secondary, arrested at a sub-climax stage due to intensive operation of biotic factors, whereas the extensive grasslands of Kaziranga, Cooch Behar and Jalpaiguri districts are an edaphic climax combined and influenced by flood waters of mountain rivers e.g. Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Tista and their tributaries etc. The wildlife sanctuaries, viz. Kaziranga in Assam, Namdapha Tiger Project area of Arunachal Pradesh are swamps with Saccaharum spontaneum and Sclerostachya fusca as the most prominent species. Other prominent, tall grasses of ca 5 m height are Arundinella decampedalis, Arundo donax, Imperata cylindrica, Phragmites australis, Saccharum griffithii, S. naranga, Themeda villosa, Thysanolaena maxima and Vetiveria zizanioides etc., which extend over several

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kilometers and provide a suitable habitat for Rhinoceros unicornis, one of the most rare species of animals. There are few isolated trees of Albizia spp., Dillenia indica, Lagerstroemia fhol-reginae and Duabanga grandiflora etc. The shrubber and herbaceous species met in the reserve are Acacia, Alternanthera, Crotalaria, Cyanotis, Desmodium, Eclipta, Flugga and Ziziphus etc. Besides, there are several small puddles or ponds, which are quite common, supporting either a gregarious growth of the water hyacinth Echhornia crassipes or other aquatic herbs like Jussieua, Monochoria, Nymphaea, Ottelia and some other prominent sedges e.g. Cyperus, Juncus, Kyllinga etc. The aroids Lasia spinosa forms rich association with Colocasia esculenta and Typhonium flagelliforme. The grassland at the foothills of Mikir hills is sparse, and harbours stunted trees and shrubs of Artocarpus, Ficus, Styrax, Antidesma and Wattia, apart from the ferns, grasses and bamboos, etc.

The marshes and swamps of this region have also developed as a result the destruction of the original semi-evergreen or the moist deciduous forests. These areas also covered by extensive grasslands consisting of species of Apluda, Cymbopogon, Imperata, Saccharum, Sclerostachya, Themeda and Vetivaria etc, mixed with a few tall herbaceous species of Ageratum, Clerodendrum, Eupatorium, Leea, Melastoma, Mikania etc. They are also common along the roadsides, railway tracks through forests and other open lands. There are several swampy or marshy areas with tropical vegetation in the warm humid region of Assam valley. The flora in these swamps or stagnant water beels comprises mainly the members of Araceae, Cyperaceae, Eriocaulacerae, Lemnaceae and Najadaceae etc. In certain regions, the tree growth with the species of Acacia, Careya, Crateva, Dillenia, Homonia, Lagerstroemia, Salix, Syzygium, Terminalia and others is quite dense.

Tropical evergreen and semi evergreen forests :

Such forests are confined up to an elevation of ca 1200 m above sea level, with an average rainfall of 300-500 cm per annum coupled with relative humidity. Due to the effect of physiographic, edaphic and other exogenous factors, these forests seldom form continuous belts in any of these states, but harbour rich species diversity. Such forests are now restricted to inaccessible hills as well as near catchment areas, ansuitable for cultivation or to areas protected as reserved forests. Accordingly, these forests are confined to the plains of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam valley, northern and south-western foot hills, the western and north-western parts of Nagaland and Manipur forest areas adjacent to Myanmar, southern and northern slopes of Meghalaya and Dharamnagar, Kailashahr, Belonia and Sadar sub-division of Tripura. It may be emphasized here that tropical wet evergreen forests are not extensive in any part of North Bengal area. These forests display a clear zonation of components where dense areas display the climatic climax. These forests harbour a bewildering wealth of species not all of them common to all the areas. Even the dominant species also differ areawise. Two major areas i.e. Brahmaputra valley and Surma valley have been clearly demarcated based on the species composition coupled by the annual rainfall etc. Several species have confined themselves in these two distinct regions probably due to different microclimatic conditions. The top canopy of vegetation is composed of the trees like Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, Aglaia hiernii, Ailanthus integrifolia ssp. calycina, Anthocephalus chinensis, Artocarpus chama, A. heterophyllus, Canarium strictum, Castanopsis echinocarpa, C. kurzii, C. tribuloides, Celtis tetrandra, Cinamomum glaucescens, Dipterocarpus retusus,D. turbinatus, Daubanga grandiflora, Elaeocarpus aristatus, E. sphaericus, Endospermum diadenum, Manitoa polyandra, Mesua ferrea, Polyalthia cerasoides, Premna benghalensis, Shorea assamica, Spondias pinnata and Xeroxpermum glabratum, etc. The middle storey, which is almost obscure is comprised of Alstonia

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scholaris, Aporusa dioica, Antidesma acuminatum, Atlingia excelsa, Bischofia javanica, Bridelia monoica, Bruinsmia polysperma, Castonopsis indica, Cryptocarya andersonii, Dalbergia assamica, Dillenia indica, D. pentagyna, Dysoxylum binectariferum, D. gobara, Ficus racemosa, Garcinia cowa, G. paniculata, Gmelina arborea, Gynocardia odorata, Heritiera macrophylla, Magnolia campbellii, Magnolia griffithii, Mangifera sylvatica, Michelia champaca, Phoebe attnuate, P. goalparensis, Premna bracteata, Pterospermum acerifolium, Sapium baccatum, Schima wallichii, Syzygium cumini, S. operculatum, Sterculia hamiltonii, Terminalia chebula, T. myriocarpa, Tetramelus nudiflora and Vitica lancaefolia, etc. The lowermost storey of trees in these forests is represented by such species as Actephila excelsa, Alangium chinense, Alchornea tillifolia, Antidesma bunius, Boehmeria hamiltoniana, Brassiopsis glomerulata, Callicarpa arborea, Cinnamomum glucescens, Goniothalamus simonsii, Litsea cubeba, Mcaranga denticulata, Macropanax undulates, Magnolia hodgsonii, Phoebe lanceolata, Premna barbata, Styrax serrulatum, Trevesia palmate, etc.

Of the various large shrubs or small trees which inhabit these forests, the prominent ones are Abroma augusta, Acacia sinuata, Ampelocissus litifolia, Aralia armata, Ardisia floribunda, A. paniculata, A. thomsonii, Boehmeria macrophylla, Callicarpa nudiflora, Camellia caudata, Canthium angustifolium, Coffea khasiana, Lasianthus hookeri, Leea edgeworthii, Maesa indica, Microtropis discolor, Mimosa himalayana, Murraya paniculata, Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus, Randia griffithii, Solanum kurzii, etc. Canes like Calamus erectus and C. leptospadix occur in swampy areas and form impenetrable thickets. Palm species like Livistonia jenkinsiana, Wallichia densiflora and Phoenix sylvestris grow commonly scattered on the drier hill slopes whereas, Pandanus furcatus, P. sikkimensis, species of Cyathea and large leaved fan like Angiopteris erecta are also seen growing along the streams and moist places. Species of Musa (wild banana) are one of the most important features of these forests. The conspicuous lianas intertwining the trees in these forests are Acacia pennata, Ampelocissus latifolia, Beaumontia grandiflora, Cayratia pedata, Cissus assamica, Dioscorea spp., Combretum roxburghii, Entada pursaetha, Gnetum gnemon, G. ula, Hodgsonia macrocarpa, Lasiobema scandens, Mastersia assamica, Paederia scandens, Phanera khasiana, Tetrastigma spp., and Thunbergia glandiflora, etc.

The soil in these forests is dark and moist due to shade of lofty trees with thick canopy and has a thick layer of undisturbed humus, and has many fleshy fungi as well as saprophytic flowering plants. The common herbs in these forests are Allophylus cobbe, Alpinia nigra, Andrographis paniculata, Amomum aromaticum, Blumea fistulosa, Costus speciosus, Crassocephalum crepidioides, Curcuma spp., Glycosmis arborea, Hedychium spp., Hedyotis auricularia, Ophiorrhiza nutans, Panax pseudoginseng and species belonging to the families Acanthaceae, Asteraceae, Balsaminaceae, Begoniaceae, Fabaceae, Lauraceae, Oxalidaceae and Poaceae etc. Besides, Apostasia wallichii, Galeola falconeri, Habenaria spp., Hataeria rubens, Paphiopedilum spp., Phaius flavus, P. mishmensis, P. tankervilliae, Tropidia angulosa and Zeuxine spp. etc. grow scattered in the ground layer.

Epiphytes and other climbers are : Aeschynanthes acuminatus, A. bracteautus, A. superba, Agapetes variegata, Piper spp., Pothos cathcartii, P. scandens, Procris crenata, Rhaphidophora decursiva, R. hookeri, R. lancifolia etc., and the stem parasites viz. Cuscuta reflexa, Dendrophthoe falcata, Helixanthera ligustrina, Loranthus scurula, Taxillus spp., etc. Besides, the tree trunks in these forests are moss-laden and harbour multitudes of epiphytic orchids, ferns, fern-allies, bryophytes and lichens.

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Tropical semi-evergreen forests are found in many parts of North-Eastern region including North-Bengal, typically up to elevations of ca 1200 m. the rainfall is from 150-300 cm per annum with a dry period of 2-3months from February to April. These forests display less species diversity than those in the wet evergreen forest zone. However, besides the upper storey, the zonation of the trees can easily be demarcated in these forests. Callicarpa arborea, Careya arborea, Dillenia pentagyna, Rhus acuminata, etc. which are deciduous in nature and shed their leaves during dry season. The trees are tall and scattered with buttressed trunks. The undergrowth composed of shrubs and herbs is not very dense as compared. With evergreen forests. However, in certain humus rich forest floors the undergrowth is dense luxuriant. The lianas are scare in these forests, Entada rheedei and Mucuna macrocarpa are seen occasionally. The tree trunks are covered by epiphytic flora of poor diversity due to seasonally dry period. Besides, hemiparasites viz. Helixanthera parasitica, Loranthus scurrula, and Taxillus spp. are common.

Sub-tropical mixed forests :

Sub-tropical broad leaved forests are confined in the altitudes from 1000-1600 m. Rainfall also varies from 150- 400 cm or more in certain areas. Koupru hills, Nongmaijing, Thangjing hills and areas bordering to Myanmar, Manipur and Mizoram, and Patkoi ranges in Nagaland etc., the floral constituents are quite varied from place to place based on the local climate and edaphic factors. These climatic climax forests are seen scattered and never form a conspicuous stretch of vegetation. The trees are generally dwarf and bushy in appearance as compared with the tropical evergreen type. The reduction in tree strata is in direct proportion with the increase in altitude. Plank buttressed trees are rare in these forests. Shrubs and herbaceous layers are well marked forming impenetratable thickets in certain places. The tree height in general is up to 20 m, with evergreen to semi-evergreen appearance depending on the multitude of rainfall in that area. The trees of upper storey are: Alnus nepalensis, Albizia chinensis, Alcimandra cathcartii, Artocarpus dadah, Betula alnoides, Castanopsis indica, C. tribiloides, Cinnamomum glanduliferum, Cryptocarya amygdalina, Elaeocarpus spp., Engelhardtia spicata, Evodia trichotoma, Erythrina fusca, Dysoxylum binectariferum, Manglietia insignis, Exbucklandia populnea and Terminalia myriocarpa, etc. Occasionally, Schima wallichii can also be seen in certain forests, however, this species prefer association with pines. Besides, certain taxa viz. Acer thomsonii, Aglalia pervirides, Betula alnoides, Macarenga pustulata, Quercus gambleana, Toona ciliata var. listeri, T. ciliata and Poupartia axillaris etc. are confined in the Assam border area in this region.

The second storey is composed of Acer oblongum, Alangium chinense, Albizia odoratissima, Bischofia javanica, Brucea mollis, Chisochetron cumingianus, Corylopis himalayana, Dysoxylum gobara, Itea chinensis, I. macrophylla, Ixora nigricans, Lithocarpus elegans, Litsea khasiana, Neolitsea umbrosa, Persea

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parviflora, Rhus semialata, Picrasma javanica, Styrax serrulatum, Syzygium praecoxum and Ternstroemia gymnanthera, Anneslea fragrans confines only in Manipur and Nagaland in India. These forests are especially rich in shrubby and herbaceous layer. The common shrubby species are Ardisia floribunda, A. paniculata, Baliospermum micranthum, Breynia retusa, Clerodendrum viscosum, Debregeasia longifolia, Eurya nitida, Goniothalamus sesquipedalis, Leucosceptrum canum, Maesa indica, Micromelum minutum, Mussaenda glabra, Neillia thyrsiflora, Randia griffithii, Rubus ellipticus, Toddalia asiatica and Zanthoxylum scandens and various species of Acanthaceae and Araliaceae etc. The forest floor is densely covered with fungi, mosses and various herbaceous angiosperms belonging to the families: Araceae, Balsaminaceae, Begoniaceae, Commelinaceae, Zingiberaceae, etc. Both in the evergreen to semi-evergreen forests, the tree trunks are covered with multitude of orchid flora of different humid ecological niches in these states.

Sub-tropical pine forests:

These forests occur at elevation from 900-1800 m, with moderate rainfall areas in the Khasi & Jaintia hills of Meghalaya, Ukhrul, eastern and south-eastern parts of Tuensang and Phek districts in Nagaland, Mao and Sugnu areas in Manipur, hilly tracts around Champhai, Northial and Phawngpui in Mizoram and can also be noticed near Darjeeling and Kalimpong areas of North Bengal. These pine forests are interspersed by a few tree species such as Acacia dealbata, Cinnamomum spp., Engelhardtia spicata, Erythrina aroescens, Lithocarpus dealbatus, Myrica esculenta, Persea duthiei, Quercus griffithii, Schima khasiana, S. wallichii, Symplocos spp., Ternstroemia gymnanthera etc. In the Eastern India, Pinus kesiya (Khasi pine) occurs in pure patches with the underground of broad leaved species viz. Eupatorium aderophorum, Daphne papyracea, Lyonia ovalifolia, Myrsine semiserrata, Rhus spp., Rubus ellipticus, Viburnum spp., etc. As it is one of the fast growing trees of this region, the state forest department has introduced in almost all the states of North-eastern India aforestation programme. Likewise Pinus roxburghii forms the conspicuous flora of hilly tract of Darjeeling and Kalimpong areas of North Bengal and Chitam forest area of Sikkim. Cryptomeria japonica is introduced and extensively cultivated in these areas. It thrives best in this climate and covers large areas and forms dense forests between 1200 to 2400 m. In such areas, the undergrowth is almost lacking except for a few forms on the fringes of such forests.

The floor with a thick carpet of pine needles is devoid of any plant growth except in small clearings where Agrimonia nepalensis, Anemone rivularis, Artemisia nilagirica, Elscholzia blanda, Potentilla fulgens, Ranunculus cantonensis etc. grow profusely during rainy season. Besides, plants like Crotalaria ferruginea, Desmodium heterocarpum, Smithia blanda, Trifolium repens etc. enrich the soil in these forests. Most of this herbaceous flora is either dried up or remain dormant during winter. The orchid species belonging to Bulbophyllum, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Eria, Lusia, Octochillus, Pholidota, Vanda and others are quite common in these forests. A saprophytic orchid Cymbidium macrorhizon can also be seen in certain climatic climax pine forests. Several terrestrial and epiphytic ferns also form gregarious patches; some of them are Discranopteris linearis, Lepisorus excavatus, L. kashyapii, L. loriformis, L. thunbergianus. Pteridium aquilinum, Pyrosia mannii and P. mollis. Grassland or savannahs that occur in riparian flats, slopes are not of a climax type. These grasslands have developed only as a result of removal of original forest cover.

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Sub-tropical to temperate grasslands:

The grasslands having a biotic climax due to removal of original forest cover. The rolling grasslands around Nongstoin, Riangdo, Ranikor, Mawsynram, Mawphlong, Mawsmai, Cherrapunji, Jowai, Sutnga, Haflong and major parts of Garo hills in Meghalaya, Ukhrul and Kurseong in Manipur and Darjeeling forest division of North Bengal etc. can be seen throughout this region. The dominant grasses in this grasslands are composed of Arundinella benghalenis, Axonopus compresus, Chrysopogon aciulatus, Imperata cylindrica, Neyraudia reynaudiana, Oplismensus burmannii, Panicum atrosanguineum, P. khasianum, Pennisetum glaucum, Saccharum spp. and Thysanolaena maxima in Meghalaya; Agrostic micrantha, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Coelorachis striata, Cymbopogon khasianus, Eragrostis nigra and Phacelurus zey in Manipur, Nagaland and Sikkim, etc.

So far the grasslands in North Bengal are concerned, the taxa viz., Arundinella decempedalis, Cymbopogon pospischilii, Eulalia fastigiata, Imperata cylindrica, Saccharum narenga, Themeda aurundinacea, T. villosa and Vetiveria zizanioides form predominant flora. These grasses are associated with sedges like Carex speciousa, C. phacota, C. fedia, Fimbristylis dichotoma, Cyperus rotundus, C. tenuiculmis, Pycreus flavidus, Scleria terrestris and species of the families Burmanniaceae, Eriocaulaceae, Juncaceae. Liliaceae, Zingiberaceae and others with a few species of Asteraceae, Balsaminaceae, Melastomataceae, Polygonaceae, etc. Apart from these, some insectivorous plants like Drocera burmanii, D. peltata, Nepenthes khasiana and Utricularia spp., also grow in these grasslands.

In certain places, pockets of mixed forests are found in some hill slopes which are unsuitable for jhuming and human exploitation because of their steep nature and inaccessibility. The rest of the country presents almost pure grassland vegetation attaining about 1 m height at different places.

Temperate forests:

The temperate forests in the Eastern Himalayas and North-Eastern Indian region is usually found in the altitudes ranging from 1400 to 2800 m in the cold climatic regions having severe winter and moderately high rainfall and is confined to small pockets along the southern slopes of the Khasi & Jaintia hills, especially the sacred groves, viz. Shillong peak, Law Lyngodoh at Maphlang and Lawkyntang at Mawsmai etc. in Meghalaya; Ukhrul, Chingsaw, Mao and Koubru, etc. in Manipur; Japvo, Saramati and Patkoi ranges in Nagaland; Champhai and Phawngpuitlang forest areas in Mizoram and southern foothills of Arunachal Pradesh and in differenct areas of Sikkim Himalaya. These evergreen forests of medium height trees form a closed canopy and the trees more than 25 m in height are rarely met within these forests. Large and old trunks are festooned with mosses, ferns and other epiphytic growth. At lower elevations in the North-Eastern India, the forests show an intermixing of elements from tropical and sub-tropical zones and the species composition changes gradually with increase in the altitude. It is pertinent to point out that sub-tropical vegetation and temperate vegetation sometimes appear side by side. Under identical environmental conditions where sub-tropical and temperate zones are not well defined (Mehra et al, l.c.), such situation is not found in any parts of North Bengal. Besides, the species composition of North Bengal is also quite

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different from that of Northeastern region. The dominant species in Meghalaya are Acer hookeri, A. laevigatum, Alnus nepalensis, Belischmiedia gemmiflora, Betula alnoides, Castonopsis armata, C. kurzii, Cinnamomum bejolghota, Echinocarpus dasycarpus, Elaceocarpus braceanus, Engelhardtia spicata, Eurya acuminata, E. nitida, Exbucklandia populnea, Ilex excelsa, Lithocarpus dealbatus, Magnolia campbelli, M. insignis, Michelia cathcartii, M. excelsa, Myrica esculenta, Persea duthiei, P. gamblei, Pinus kesiya, Prunus cerasoides, Quercus griffithii, Q. kamroopii, Rhododendron arboreum, R. formosum, Schima khasiana, S. wallichii, and Symplocos glomerata. The once rich vegetation at Cherrapunji now looks disappointingly bleak and devoid vegetation, due to the poor soil cover. All the soil cover has been leached out by the heavy rains. Small forest patches are only confined to the saucer-shaped depressions at Mamloo and Mawsmai, where there is a deposit of soil and humus; otherwise it looks like a vast area of grassland. In some places Acer campbellii, Alcimandra cathcartii and species of Albizia, Cinnamomum, Juglans, Magnolia, Persea, Pinus, Quercus, Rhododendron, Rubus, Symplocos, and a few others are present. The other trees are Ehretia acuminata, Erythroxylon kunthianum, Euonymus grandiflorus, Helicia nilagirica, Ilex khasiana, I. embelioides, I. odorata, I. triflora, Lindera assamica, Ligusturm robustum, Viburnum spp., Zanthoxylum spp. etc. There is a gradual change in the composition and diversity of the species with the increase in altitude. Species of Rhododendron predominate mixed with Eriobotrya, Prunus, Pyrus, Spirea and some other members of Rosaceae. The mountain bamboo brakes composed of Yushania maling are found throughout the moist temperate forests. In the shrubby layer Ardisia crispa, Clerodendrum wallichii, Desmodium spp., Luculia pinceana, Maesa indica and species of Vibernum are predominant. Many species of ferns and fern-allies like Dryopteris, Selaginella, Plagiogyria and some herbaceous members of Ranunculaceae, Rosaceae, Begoniaceae, Asteraceae and Poaceae form thick growth of ground flora.

In Sikkim forests, Acer campbellii, A. laevigatum, A. oblongum, Alcimandra cathcartii, Cinnamomum impressinervium, Lithocarpus fenestratus, Machilus edulis, Meliosma pinnata spp. barbulata, Persea fructifer. P. gammieana, Alnus nepalensis, Betula alnoides, Eriobotrya bengalensis, Eurya acuminata, Evodia fraxinifolia, Exbucklandia populnea, Itea macrophylla and Quercus lamellosa, Q. kamroopii etc. grow as dominant species. In certain forest areas Acer hookeri, A. sikkimense, Castanopsis tribuloides, C. purpurella, C. hystrix, Cinnamomum impressinervium, Glochidion acuminatum, Ilex insignis, Litsea sericea, Persea odoratissima, Styrax hookeri, Symplocos lucida, Vibernum spp. and Zanthoxylum spp. etc. are commonly observed. At higher elevations, the oak forests become predominant with the association of Acer pectinatum, Hydrangia vestita, Ilex fragilis, Lindera heterophylla, Litsea orephuila, Magnolia campbellii, Persea gammieana, Quercus lamellosa, Rhododendron arboretum, Skimmia laurecola and Vibernum erubescens. Interestingly, in the Kalimpong forest division Castanopsis spp. predominating along with Persea ganmmieana, P. fructifera, Litsea elongata and species of Quercus and Acer, while in Kurseong division Betula alnoides occurs along with Exbucklandia populnea, Michelia doltsopa, Persea odoratissima, Terminalia myriocarpa and Toona spp. which are the predominant elements.

The undergrowth is usually very dense and comprises many shrubs including Strobilanthes, Potentilla, Rubus and other members of Rosaceae, etc. The forest floor has often a gregarious growth of ferns like Asplenium ensiformae, Diplazium stoliczkae, Hymenophyllum simonsianum, Lepisorus kashyapii, Lycopodium jamonicum, Oleandra wallichii, Phymatodes melacodon and Pteris wallichii.

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Sub-alpine forests:

The sub-alpine forests occurs from altitude of 2800 to 4500 m in Saramati and Japvo hills in Nagaland; Chingsaw, Japvo, Koubru, Sirohee and Somra hill ranges of Manipur; Darjeeling and Kalimpong hill ranges in North Bengal, where the vegetation changes from the temperate to the sub-alpine type. It is characterized by a typical dense growth of small crooked, gnarled and stunted trees and shrubs. Tall trees of Abies densa forms the dominant component for most of this type of vegetation and is composed of shrubby species of Rhododendron, Berberis, Juniperus, Salix, Tsuga, Astragalus, Cassiope, Cotoneaster, Daphniphyllum, Lonicera, Polygonum, Pyrus, Rosa, Rubus, Taxus and a few others. Besides, other economic plants such as Gaultheria fragrantissima, Nardostachys grandiflora, Picrorhiza scrophulariflora, Photinia notoniana,

Vaceium venusum and Aconitum spp., also occur in this zone. The forest floor is covered by a few herbaceous species of Rosaceae, Primulaceae, Gentianaceae, Polygonaceae, Papaveraceae, Brassicaceae, Asteraceae and Saxifragaceae etc., as small or somes stunted clumps.At high elevation in the North and West parts of Sikkim, Abies densa, A. spectabilis, Cupressus torulosa, Juniperus recurva, Larix griffithiana, Picea spirulosa and Tsuga dumosa etc. are the dominanat elements. The bamboo, Arundinaria aristata forms dense undergrowth in silverfir forests. Some places, Salix wallichiana are also seen growing at some places. Grasslands are frequent at 3000 m and above. Aconitum spp. also grow abundantly on the forest floor.

Alpine vegetation:

The alpine vegetation occurs above 4000 m is covered by snow for a major period of the year. There is, however, no sharp demarcation in between sub-alpine and alpine vegetation. Shrubby and herbaceous species dominant in one, are also found growing is the other zone depending on micro-climate and edaphic characters. Almost bare rocks are the main feature of this zone, as the alpine flora springs up noticeably only for short period during May to August. The vegetation consists of stunted, gnarled and dwarf shrubs with deep roots, species of Berberis, Spirea, Lonicera, Hippophae and Saliz, etc. even the herbaceous species have deep roots and stunted foliage. The tree species in this zone are replaces by shrubby Rhododendron spp. and R. nivale reaches the maximum altitudes. In the open meadows, on gentle mountain slopes, at dry places Juniperus recurva is frequent with Aconitum, Anemone, Bromus, Gentiana, Festuca, Meconopsis, Primula, Sedum, Saussurea, Stipa and Saxifraga etc. along with the members of Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Caryophyllaceae and Polygonaceae. Above alpine zone, virtually there is no plant life and only baren places are seen. The species of Agropyron, Bromus, Danthonia, Festuca, Phleum and Poa constitute the sub-alpine and alpine pasture. Ephedra gerardiana covers vast areas on hill slopes in the North Sikkim. On the higher cliffs the vegetation consists of species of Braya, Cortia, Draba, Linicera hispida, Meconopsis horridula, saxifrage imbricata, S. remulosa and Saussurea spp. etc The long term process of global acceptance of traditional systems of medicine. An interesting half insect and half fungy plant cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc. of great medicinal value is also found in the Chubaka and Kala Pathar forest areas of North Sikkim.

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Conclusion :

It has been initiated with remarkable success in the last decade. The global acceptance and accelerated domestic growth will so long way in boosting MAPs sector in the state. This is high time to develop strategy collectively and identify areas of co-operation in MAPs sector. The adoption of market oriented strategy; formulation and implementation of comprehensive action plans incorporating multi-prolonged integrated strategy; covering issues, outlined in proceeding sections and subsequent industrialisation along with network of in situ and ex-situ conservation centres shall go long way in creating enormous viable employment opportunities in the state.

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Zingiber zerumbet Oroxylum indicum

Dhatura metel Portuluca oleracea

Achyranthes bidentata Bergenia ciliata

PHOTO SECTION DATA BASED

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Kaemferia galanga Stephania rotunda

Artemisia nilagirica Eryngium foetidum

Melothria purpusilla

Acorus calamus

Vitex trifolia

tropical moist and dry deciduous forests: · web viewconsequently, with the advance in...

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