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Assessing Tanzanian performance in addressing the four major aspects of development: Identifying the relevant indicators for each aspectTRANSCRIPT
MOSHI UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF CO-OPERATIVE AND BUSINESS STUDIES
(MUCCoBS)
FACULTY OF COOPERATIVE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
PROGRAMME : MASTER OF ARTS IN COOPERATIVE AND
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
COURSE : CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES TO
DEVELOPMENT
COURSE ANTE : CDM 657
YEAR OF STUDY : 2012/2013
CANDIDATE : ERICK HUMPHREY KIMAMBO
REGISTRATION NUMBER : MA-CCD/HD/106/12
TASK : WRITING TERM PAPER
COURSE INSTRUCTORS : KIBWANA (MR.) AND KIMARIO (DR.)
SUBMISSION DATE : 7TH FEBRUARY2013
Contents
Contents....................................................................................................................................................... ii
1.0 BACKGROUND INFORMATION............................................................................................- 1 -
2.0 THEORETICAL UNDERPINNING...........................................................................................- 3 -
2.1 Economic development...........................................................................................................- 3 -
2.2 Human development................................................................................................................- 3 -
2.3 Political Development.............................................................................................................- 3 -
2.4 Social Development.................................................................................................................- 4 -
2.5 Development indicators...........................................................................................................- 5 -
3.0 THEORIES..................................................................................................................................- 5 -
3.1 Marxist theories.......................................................................................................................- 5 -
3.2 Orthodox theories....................................................................................................................- 6 -
3.3 Dependence theories................................................................................................................- 6 -
4.0 METHODOLOGY OF DATA COLLECTION..........................................................................- 7 -
5.0 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION.................................................................................................- 7 -
5.1 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT....................................................................................................- 7 -
5.2 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT..............................................................................................- 8 -
5.3 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT..............................................................................................- 8 -
5.4 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT....................................................................................................- 9 -
5.4.1 Public Expenditures.........................................................................................................- 9 -
5.4.2 Donor Resources..............................................................................................................- 9 -
5.4.3 The Formal Education Sector..........................................................................................- 9 -
5.4.4 Vocational Education and Training.................................................................................- 9 -
6.0 CONCLUSION AND WAY FORWARD.................................................................................- 10 -
REFERENCE........................................................................................................................................ - 11 -
Assessing Tanzania’s performance in addressing the four major aspects of development:
Identifying the relevant indicators for each aspect
By Erick Humphrey kimambo
Moshi University College of Cooperative and Business Studies (A Constitute college of
Sokoine University of Agriculture), Department of Cooperative Development and
Management P. O. BOX 474 Moshi Kilimanjaro-Tanzania.
1.0 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
An important feature of development is when goods and services enter into markets. For
example, we know that people have always eaten, but as they have meals away from home and
pay for restaurant services, a restaurant sector grows up. This sector, in turn, is measured as part
of the gross domestic product (GDP, the total of all goods and services produced within a
country). The process of development includes this kind of specialization, also known as the
“division of labor.” As people take on specialized economic functions, the scale of production
increases and the output of each person rise. This type of organizational change is as important a
part of development and technological progress as mechanical invention or scientific discovery.
Another key feature of development is poverty. Entire economies can be poor, or they can grow
but still leave large sections of their people in poverty. In the second half of the 20th century,
economists became acutely aware of the difficulties of a large number of countries in the
developing world, most of them former colonies of the industrialized nations. Development
economics became more or less synonymous with the study of how these countries could
progress out of poverty. Likewise, economic historians, who had long examined how the
industrialized countries achieved their material advances, appreciated that these countries too
were once “underdeveloped.” As a result, much of economic history became the study of
economic development.
The countries of the Third World, containing some two-thirds of the world's population, are
located in Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Politically, they are generally non-aligned. Some are
moving out of their previous situation and may soon join the ranks of industrialized countries.
Others, with economies considered intrinsically incapable of development, are at times lumped
together as forming a “fourth world.”
Political instability caused by precarious economic situations is widespread in the Third World.
Democracy in the Western meaning of the term is almost completely absent. Both the Western
and the former Soviet blocs have tried to entice the Third World to follow their own examples,
but the countries concerned generally prefer to create their own institutions based on indigenous
traditions, needs, and aspirations; most choose pragmatism over ideology. It is debated whether
China is part of the Third World, with which it once identified itself on racial, cultural, and
developmental grounds, proclaiming that the exploited countries should unite against imperialist
forces, both Western and Soviet. After the death of Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung) in 1976,
however, the Chinese attitude moderated.
The Third World displays little homogeneity; it is divided by race, religion, culture, and
geography, as well as frequently opposite interests. It generally sees world politics in terms of a
global struggle between rich and poor countries the industrialized North against the backward
South. Some nations, such as those of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC), have found ways to assert their economic importance as sources of raw materials
indispensable to advanced societies, and others may follow suit. Widely advocated within the
Third World is a so-called New Economic Order, which through a combination of aid and trade
agreements would transfer wealth from the developed to the developing nations
In Tanzania the countries development is said to rise in approximately 6% per year yet it is
evident that the lives of the Tanzanians have not changed. The social development of the
Tanzanians has steal been low since the people do not have voice. Economically the Tanzanian
economy is said to rise yet it has not rise in the lives of the people.
To assess the social, economic, human and political development in Tanzania; and to determine
the indicators of development
2.0 THEORETICAL UNDERPINNING
2.1 Economic development
Generally refers to the sustained, concerted actions of policymaker and communities that
promote the standard of living and economic health of a specific area. Economic development
can also be referred to as the quantitative and qualitative changes in the economy. Such actions
can involve multiple areas including development of human capital, critical infrastructure,
regional competitiveness, environmental sustainability, social inclusion, health, safety, literacy,
and other initiatives.
2.2 Human development
Is a concept within the scope of the study of the human condition, specifically international
development, relating to international and economic development? This concept of a broader
human development was first laid out by Amartya Sen, a 1998 Nobel laureate, and expanded
upon by Martha Nussbaum, Sabina Alkire, Ingrid Robeyns, and others. Human development
encompasses more than just the rise or fall of national incomes. Development is thus about
expanding the choices people have, to lead lives that they value, and improving the human
condition so that people have the chance to lead full lives. Thus, human development is about
much more than economic growth, which is only a means of enlarging people’s choices.
Fundamental to enlarging these choices is building human capabilitiesthe range of things that
people can do or be in life. Capabilities are "the substantive freedoms [a person] enjoys to lead
the kind of life [they have] reason to value." Human development disperses the concentration of
the distribution of goods and services that underprivileged people need and center its ideas on
human decisions.
2.3 Political Development
Can be traced to 1950's when a large number of American political scientists were attempting to
study the political dynamics of the newly emerging countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America.
Huge amounts of statistical and quantitative data on the social, political, economic and
demographic aspects of these nations were collected to analyze their attitudes, values and
behavior patterns. However, the term is still in the process of evolution and there is hardly any
unanimity among the scholars on the constituent of political development. Such inconsistency is
partly on account of inter-disciplinary focus and partly a manifestation of ethnocentric bases.
2.4 Social Development
Is a broad term that describes actions that are taken to build positive outcomes and prevent
negative social outcomes that can adversely affect a community. These outcomes include issues
ranging from crime, poverty, gang activity, school disengagement, teen pregnancy, addictions
and substance abuse, obesity, and poor health. The aim of social development is to improve the
availability of support systems in the community that prevent negative outcomes before they
occur or buffer (lessen) their impact. For example, rather than reacting to a crime after it has
already happened, measures are taken within the community that prevent crime from ever
occurring.
The objectives of social development can be summarized as ensuring poverty eradication, full
employment, and social integration. With these three main pillars, social development evolves to
include the following 10 commitments of the Social Summit:
1. Creating an economic, political, social, cultural and legal environment to enable social
development
2. Eradicating poverty in the world
3. Promoting full employment
4. Promoting social integration based on protection of human rights, non-discrimination,
and participation of all people
5. Equity between women and men
6. Universal education, health; respecting and promoting our common and particular
cultures; preserving the essential bases of people-centered sustainable development; and
contributing to the full development of human resources to social development. The
purpose of these activities is to eradicate poverty, promote full and productive
employment and foster social integration
7. Accelerating the economic, social and human resource development of Africa and the
least developed countries
8. Ensure structural adjustment programme to include social development goals, in
particular eradicating poverty, promoting full employment, and enhancing social
integration
9. Increase resources allocated to social development
10. Improved framework for international, regional and sub-regional cooperation for social
development
(United Nations 1995, pp. 8- 21)
2.5 Development indicatorsAre parameters (measures) that can be used to assess whether there is development in a given
area at a particular time and whether this development is increasing, stagnant or decreasing over
time. Such indicators include macro-economic variables like Gross Domestic Product (GDP);
Gross National Product (GNP); inflation rate; levels of investment and national debt. They also
include birth and death rates (measured by infant and maternal mortality rates); morbidity
(measured by specific causes of deaths); education levels attained (measured by literacy and
numeracy rates and life skills in a population); housing (measured by the material used for
roofing); availability of and accessibility to social services and amenities like hospitals, health
facilities, safe and clean drinking water, school etc (measured by the distance from human
settlements to the place where these are found); availability of and accessibility to infrastructure
– both hard (traditional) like roads, railways, ports, airports, harbors and telecommunication and
soft (modern) like Internet; and life expectancy (measured by number of years that one expects
to live from time of birth). Applicability and interpretation of the indicators will differ from place
to place and time to time. (Ngowi, 2007)
3.0 THEORIES
3.1 Marxist theories
The German political economist and philosopher Karl Marx wrote little that touched directly on
development, but he was certainly an influence on thinking about it—although only through
some of what he wrote. Marx held that capitalism would help development by breaking down the
obstructive pre-capitalist “modes of production,” which he believed prevailed in the colonies.
This was part of his stage theory, in which economies inevitably progressed from capitalism to
socialism to communism. More influential in development thinking were his views on class
relations and exploitation, particularly the extraction of surplus value, or profits, from the labor
of workers and the importance of this surplus value to the accumulation of capital.
3.2 Orthodox theories
Quite opposed to these ideas were the standard, or orthodox, views of most Western economists.
They believed free, unregulated markets played a mainly positive role in development and
argued that developing countries’ policies of interfering with free markets were largely self-
defeating. In particular, they argued that attempts to hold agricultural prices down and force
savings out of farmers (surplus extraction) were destructive of agricultural growth. Orthodox
economists pointed to economic history to show that agricultural growth was important for
industrialization.
Furthermore they argued that governments in the developing countries were often incapable of
the tasks they took on. In their view foreign investment helped growth and the transfer of
technology, and foreign aid supplied the additional savings and foreign exchange that poor
countries could not generate themselves.
3.3 Dependence theories
There were also less Marxist but still radical views known as “dependency” theories, which were
particularly prominent in Latin America. Dependency theorists stressed how markets favored
industrialized countries, which received raw materials cheaply from the developing world. In
addition, industrialized countries owned the technology that developing countries needed and
had the economic power to admit exports from developing countries only when it suited them.
Such views gave a strong bias in the developing world to a belief in the virtues of autonomous
(self-sufficient) development. According to the dependency theorists, developing countries could
only grow behind protective trade barriers that kept out exports from the industrialized world.
Dependency theorists also believed that investment by Western multinational corporations would
mainly harm developing countries and so regarded such investment with suspicion. Since free
markets alone could not generate adequate growth and structural change, governments had to
have a major hand in planning and promoting the economy, including public sector enterprises to
undertake the investments that the market would not provide, for some dependency thinkers even
foreign aid was suspect, seen by some as a “neocolonial” instrument to preserve the dominance
of the industrial countries and make the world safe for capitalism.
4.0 EMPIRICAL REVIEWThe author makes a critical examination of the contribution of political leadership in the
economic development and change of Tanzania since her 1961 political independence from
Britain. He divides the country’s economic development and change into three more or less
discrete time epochs. The first epoch is the period from independence to 1967; the second is
from the 1967 Arusha Declaration to the mid-1980s and the third is from the mid-1980s reforms
to the present time (2007). The outstanding general economic developments and change in each
epoch are identified. A critical analysis on the extent to which the developments and change in
each epoch can be attributed to the political leadership of the time or even of the past is made. It
is found in the work that, the economic developments and change in Tanzania can be highly
attributed to political leadership. Interestingly and contrary to the orthodox understanding and
narrow scope of some analyses, both the political leadership of the day and that of the past are
found to be responsible for economic developments and change in a particular epoch.
Interestingly also, it is found that political leadership outside Tanzania, especially among its
neighbors, trade partners and the donor community, has far-reaching impacts in the country’s
economic development and change. It is concluded in the paper that political leadership is an
important factor in a country’s development and change. It is recommended that policy and
decision makers should facilitate a process where adequate political leadership for good
development and change is established, improved and maintained. Recommendations for further
studies include the need to review this work over time and conduct similar ones in other
countries for the purpose of, inter-alia, comparisons and learning lessons.
5.0 METHODOLOGY OF DATA COLLECTION
The information collected was qualitative data. The term paper was conducted by reviewing
different documents and reports on social, economic, political and human development. This
went hand in hand with review of the different plans on the development of the country. The
method used is documentary review. The method used was chosen because the time was limited
to go and choose a case study areas and conduct a formal search of information; thus using
documentary review.
6.0 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Through the collapse of social and politicalsystems in many poor countries can beattributed to
ethnic tensions, politicalrivalries and egregious colonial legacies,the fundamental cause in most
instances hasbeen the failure to provide the majority ofcitizens with even a modicum of hope
thattheir lives will improve, that intense andpervasive poverty can be lifted, thatopportunities to
learn bankable skills canand will be made available for childreneager for a better tomorrow, and
thatgovernment is a just and honest steward.Building human capacity, therefore, shouldbe seen
as the foundation of nation’s future.
5.1 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Despite a rapidly growing population, Tanzania is exactly 2.5 times larger in size than Japan but,
with a population of around 33 million in 2000, has only 26% of Japan’s population. Tanzania
has more than three times as much cropland per capita as Japan, a higher percentage of the
country is arable and there are few earthquakes and no winters. Tanzania’s birth rate is projected
to decline from 3.1% from 1975-1997 to 2.3% from 1997-2015 so by that date the population
will have reached about 47 million compared to 126 million in Japan today.(UNDP, 2000)
5.2 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
The economic developments and change in Tanzania can be highly attributed to political
leadership. Interestingly and contrary to the orthodox understanding and narrow scope of some
analyses, both the political leadership of the day and that of the past are found to be responsible
for economic developments and change in a particular epoch. Interestingly also, it is found that
political leadership outside.
Countries can progress and reduce the gap between them and more developed countries through
more rapid economic growth and HRD. As noted in the Tanzania Social Sector Review, a six
year old Tanzanian child today could, upon retirement at age 56, live in an upper middle income
country with a per capita GDP of US$5,891 if growth could be sustained at 7% per annum.
Tanzania, especially among its neighbors, trade partners and the donor community, has far-
reaching impacts in the country’s economic development and change. After independence,
Tanzania concentrated on building an independent nation. The economy continued to be mainly
within the hands of the British colonial masters and Asians. Industries, plantations, mines and
relatively large commercial activities continued to be under the British and Asians. The economy
continued to be basically a market oriented one with private sector capitalism dominating.
According to Kaiser (1996), after Tanganyika’s independence, efforts were made to implement a
programme which depended on foreign investment to support massive, capital-intensive
industrialization and agricultural development projects.
5.3 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT
The role of the political leadership factor in economic development and change in countries
should receive the attention it deserves in the policy and decision making process. Understanding
that political decision within a country are likely to impact other countries’ economic
development and change both in the long and short run is essential. The need to cooperate and
coordinate relevant political decisions among countries cannot be overemphasized. (Ngowi,
2007)
Tanzania has experienced three major epochs in its economic development and change process
from the 1961 independence to 2007. Political leadership has been the key factor in creation of
the epochs. It has been the main defining factor of the nature and paths of economic development
and change in each of the epochs. Contrary to the generally held and simplified views, it is more
than the political leadership and decisions in Tanzania that have impacted and influenced
economic development and change in the country. In this work, some political leadership and
decisions outside and inside Tanzania have been identified as among the key factors that impact
on the economic development and change in the country. It is recognized however that there are
other factors than political leadership that have impacted, are impacting and will be impacting on
the economic development and change in Tanzania, as is the case for many other countries.
5.4 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Tanzania is seeking to implement its National Poverty Eradication Strategy. Shifts in public
spending reflect these efforts and key donors have made the fight against poverty and for human
development the keystone of their development efforts. (UNDP, 2000)
5.4.1 Public Expenditures
Social sector achievements of the 1960s and 1970s were seriously eroded because recurrent costs
proved to be unsustainable. This remains a major risk today, due to the lack of integration of the
development and recurrent budgets. Sector budgets are too often drawn up without reference to
resource limitations, ministries do not know if committed funds will actually be disbursed,
diversions of allocated resources are frequent and the majority of audits conducted on sector
ministries and district governments receive adverse and qualified rulings by auditors.
5.4.2 Donor Resources
Donors have developed long-term partnerships with government and are working to sustain the
new financial management tools and promote their internalization. While there are long standing
differences between government and donors regarding aid administration and co-ordination, new
venues for dialogue and debt relief have improved the relationship.
5.4.3 The Formal Education Sector
The sector has produced numerous policy statements, master plans, strategies, action plans and
studies. Basic statistics on enrolments, teachers, physical infrastructure and costs are available
and an ambitious school mapping programme funded by UNICEF is providing the kind of micro-
data that is needed for effective planning and resource allocation at the local level.
5.4.4 Vocational Education and Training
Vocational education has enormouspotential in Tanzania and the need isoverwhelming. The
Vocational Educationand Training Authority (VETA), thenational body responsible for the
sector, haslost much of the past three years due toserious governance problems and illadvised
funding priorities. VETA has been unable so far to become the demand-driven service provider
that is expected of it. The training levy paid by private employers is the main source of VETA’s
budget but, as has been recognized, the returns have been low. Unless the organizational
performance of VETA can be altered and its budget priorities transformed, the government
should consider exploring alternatives to maintaining VETA’s monopoly on access to the
training levy funds and perhaps examine the feasibility of allowing other training providers to
compete directly with VETA for these funds.
7.0 CONCLUSION AND WAY FORWARD
Conclusion
The social, economic, human, and political development in Tanzania can be said to have
improved in the context of national level and not in the individual level. Not all people in
Tanzania can afford three or more meals, some leave in grass thatched houses while the
affordability of education, health services and security is so said to be an enigma. The economic
position of the individuals is a situation since; they cannot cover at least all of their demands due
to unemployment, inflation and even lower wages and salaries, hence poverty.
Way forward
People’s living standard to improve there is a need for the government to increase the number of
facilities that will ensure the social, economic, human and political development such as
colleges, hospitals, and transportation facilities to create easy movement thus people could be
ready to invest even in the remote of areas.
The country should focus more on industrialization for its forward and backward linkages rather
than agriculture which results to slow development. This will assist the countries like Tanzania
to develop and become self reliant; the contracts for these ventures should be taken into
consideration that the government and the country to have more shares so as to carry the
demands of the country on development before the investors.
REFERENCE
Kaiser, P. J. (1996). Structural Adjustment and the Fragile Nation: The Demise of Social Unity
in Tanzania. The Journal of Modern African Studies; Vol. 34, No. 2
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009; © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Ngowi (2007), Political and Managerial Leadership for Change and Development in Africa
UNDP, (2000); Tanzania Human Development Report: The State of Progress in HumanResource
Development.
United Nations (1995, April) “Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development and Programme
of Action of the World Summit for Social Development”, Report of the World Summit for Social
Development, 6-12 March 1995, Copenhagen