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TRANSCRIPT
• Original Version in English •
Triennale on Education and Training in Africa
(Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, February 12-‐17, 2012)
Promoting critical knowledge, skills and qualifications for sustainable development in Africa: How to design and implement an effective response by education and
training systems
Sub-theme 2 Lifelong technical and vocational skills development for sustainable
socioeconomic growth in Africa
Skills Development for Secure Livelihoods
by
Susanna Adam on behalf of GIZ
Working Document PLEASE DO NOT DISSEMINATE
DOC 2.3.01
This document was prepared by ADEA for its Triennale Meeting (Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2012). The views and opinions expressed in this volume are those of the authors and should not be attributed to ADEA, to its members or affiliated organizations or to any individual acting on behalf of ADEA.
The document is a working document still in the stages of production. It has been prepared to serve as a basis for discussions at the ADEA Triennale Meeting and should not be disseminated for other purposes at this stage.
© Association for the Development of Education in Africa (ADEA) – 2012
Association for the Development of Education in Africa (ADEA) African Development Bank (AfDB)
Temporary Relocation Agency (ATR) 13 avenue du Ghana
BP 323 1002 Tunis Belvédère
Tunisia Tel: +216/ 71 10 39 86 Fax: +216/ 71 25 26 69
Contents
1 Executive Summary ............................................................................................................... 2
2 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 6
3 Uganda ................................................................................................................................. 8
3.1 Skills Development Interventions............................................................................................ 9
3.1.1 Local Skills Development (LSD) Training Based on a LearnNet Approach ....................... 9
3.1.2 Gulu Youth Development Association (GYDA) .............................................................. 11
3.1.3 Companionship of Works Association (COWA) ............................................................. 13
4 Kenya ................................................................................................................................. 16
4.1 Skills Development Interventions.......................................................................................... 17
4.1.1 African Centre for Women, Information and Communications Technology (ACWICT) 17
4.1.2 Strengthening Informal Sector Training and Enterprise (SITE) ..................................... 19
4.1.3 Business Services Market Development Program (BSMDP) – Dairy Sector
Development Component ............................................................................................................. 21
5 South Africa ........................................................................................................................ 23
5.1 Skills Development Interventions.......................................................................................... 24
5.1.1 Basic Entrepreneurial Skills Development (BESD) Program, South Africa .................... 24
6. Summary of Experiences and Lessons Learned ..................................................................... 27
6.1 Summary of the Case Studies ................................................................................................ 27
6.2 Lessons Learned .................................................................................................................... 32
7 Conclusions......................................................................................................................... 34
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 42
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Acronyms
ACWICT African Centre for Women, Information and Communications Technology
ADEA Association for the Development of Education in Africa
APT Appropriate Technology
AVSI Association of Volunteers in International Service
BESD Basic Entrepreneurial Skills Development
BSMDP Business Services Market Development Program
BTVET Business Technical Vocational Education and Training
COBA COWA Old Boys Association
COWA Companionship of Workers Association
DFID Department for International Development
DIT Directorate of Industrial Training
EDP Entrepreneurial Development Practitioner
EE Emerging Entrepreneur
ETP Education and Training Provider
EYB Expand Your Business
GIZ Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit
GoU Government of Uganda
GIZ-ESDP German International Cooperation – Employment and Skills Development Service
Program
GIZ-PEVOT GIZ – Promotion of Employment Oriented Vocational Training
GYDA Gulu Youth Development Association
ICT Information and Communications Technology
ISP Insieme Si Puo (ISP In Africa)
IYB Improve Your Business
IYF International Youth Foundation
KDB Kenya Dairy Board
LSD Local Skills Development
MESPT Micro Enterprises Support Programme Trust
MoES Ministry of Education and Sport
MW4P Make Markets Work for the Poor
NDP National Development Plan
NGO Non-Government Organization
NYB Know Your Business
PDR Planning Development Rehabilitation
PSF (U) Private Sector Foundation (Uganda)
SITE Strengthening Informal Training and Enterprise
SUP Skills Upgrading Project
SYB Start Your Business
TVET Technical Vocational Education and Training
UBOS Uganda Bureau of Statistics
UGAPRIVI Uganda Association of Private Training Institutions
UGX Uganda Shilling
UVQF Uganda Vocational Qualifications Framework
VTC Vocational Training Center
WFP World Food Program
YEP Youth Empowerment Program
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1 Executive Summary
1. The study on “skills development for secure livelihoods” is a German Internaional
Cooperation (GIZ) contribution to the second of the three major sub-themes of the Association for the
Development of Education in Africa (ADEA) Triennial: “Technical and vocational skills development
for socio-economic growth and lifelong learning”.
2. The report presents experiences and lessons learned from projects with the overarching
goal of improving the livelihoods of poor and disadvantaged people through skills development
measures in Uganda, Kenya and South Africa. The specific focus of the study is on identifying success
factors and replicable (good practice -) instruments across the different country contexts and on
conclusions at an operational level rather than on an elaboration of (additional) synopsis of theoretical
concepts. Therefore the outset of the study was a desktop research of existing studies and evaluations.
3. Skills Development Interventions. There is a large and diversified landscape of non-
formal skills development activities/ initiatives addressing marginalized and poor target groups,
mostly with no further access to formal education and training. However, there are only poor or no
inventories of non-formal training providers and no systemized information and data on training
efforts they make. While individual organizations, particularly when they are donor funded, conduct
impact assessments to evaluate the relevance, effectiveness and efficiency of their programs, there are
hardly any tracer studies available to determine the labor market outcome of employment oriented
initiatives. Similarly, there is only little information available about costs, management and
governance structures, particularly with regard to (non-formal) programs run by formal training
institutions. As a result it is difficult to identify them and assess the impact of their training
respectively. For these reasons there may be valid approaches to non-formal training which have not
been taken into account within the framework of this overview.
4. During the course of our investigation, we were able to find comprehensive evaluations
of seven projects1 which had achieved the expected impact on the situation of the addressed target
groups. They can be roughly classified as:
Institution based training courses of 3 months up to 1 year duration for improved
employability
Local skills development for sustainable livelihoods in rural areas
Training programs offering support to informal sector Micro and Small Enterprises (MSE) and
traditional apprenticeship
Value-chain oriented training programs
5. Relevance and Effectiveness. The objectives and concepts of the selected skills
development interventions are well in line with the needs of the target groups, the policies of the
respective country and the global development goals. Improving enterprise development,
employability and individual livelihoods through skills/human resource development are priority
themes of the countries‟ development strategies. However, the current vocational training systems
have, as yet, not fully embarked on training delivery for people in the informal MSE sector or home
based income generating activities. There is no systematic approach to skills development for people
already in or seeking to enter the informal sector or wanting to improve or supplement their agriculture
related activities.
6. The case studies throw light on the importance of skills development for both economic
and social progress of disadvantaged target groups. The key question for the evaluation was how and
to what extent the participants‟ prospects and options for employment have been raised in line with the
1 Uganda: Local Skills Development (LSD), Gulu Youth Development Association (GYDA), The Companionship of Works Association (COWA). Kenya: The Youth Empowerment Program (YEP), Strengthening Informal Training and Enterprise (SITE), Business Services Market Development Program (BSMDP). South Africa: Basic Entrepreneurial Skills Development (BESD) Program.
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labor market demands. A number of interlinking instruments affecting relevance and effectiveness
have been identified:
7. Market and Business Viability Assessments. Market needs assessments play an
important role in ensuring that there is measured supply of skills in local economies so as to match
with market demands and avoid duplication. The selected projects developed different approaches to
gather market information:
Identified training needs through the community
Networking with SME associations and individual SMEs, combined with keeping in
close contact to alumni
Drawing on labor market information data, if available and conducting labor market
outcome surveys 6 months after training completion
Conducting local market assessments and defining training needs jointly with the
involved enterprises
Working in close cooperation with the district labor offices and joint selection of
underemployed entrepreneurs in the major promising economic fields
Conducting comprehensive market analyses
8. Target Groups. People at low education levels have little chances of securing a job in
the formal sector; they are looking for options to generate income in order to sustain themselves and
their families. Such objectives require not only imparting specific technical skills but the integration of
many crosscutting issues such as, for example, life skills, entrepreneurship, communication skills,
literacy and numeracy, health/HIV and even drama and dancing.
9. Also the better educated target groups lack relevant skills to enter the labor market.
Additional non-formal training entailing technical, entrepreneurial and life skills training can give
them the opportunity to translate their general knowledge into occupational skills.
10. The specific target group criteria impact on the individuals‟ capacity to learn and
communicate as well as on their future plans and ambitions. In this context, the projects have
demonstrated that it is crucial for people to be able to take an active role in the economy and society.
The integration of life skills training in vocational training offers enables them to voice their interests
and to find appropriate ways to represent them in social processes.
11. Access and Equity. Non-formal training can raise the economic and livelihood
opportunity of people with no access to formal education and training. The projects looked had
opened up for people from poor socio-economic backgrounds who, irrespective of their education,
rarely enter formal training because of expensive fees and high opportunity costs caused by long
training durations, young people who dropped out of school before completing primary school,
particularly, females who often suffer from social access barriers, young mothers, persons with
disabilities, adults who want to upgrade or learn new skills, and people living in rural areas, often with
long distance to training institution.
12. Traditional Apprenticeship. Apprenticeship is an important means of skills acquisition,
particularly for young people with no access to formal training. The current education and training
systems largely neglect training for people who work in the informal sector though experience has
shown that workers and MSEs in the informal sector can raise their productivity and incomes through
targeted technical and business skills training directly at the enterprise, especially when combined with
access to market information and business services, and linked with market developments.
13. Skills Development Needs. To plan the design of effective interventions to support
employability, it has proved helpful to distinguish between the different types of skill demands. This is
especially important as not all interventions will be appropriate or cost effective for all entities of rural
labor and the informal sector. The projects demonstrated:
14. Income generating entities such as home based enterprises are supported best by assisting
rural communities to improve or diversify their activities
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15. Micro enterprises use traditional methods mixed with more modern, but obsolete,
technology. They have modest technical and management skills and lack access to capital. Most of
them have some potential for growth, and benefit from acquiring more modern technology/equipment
and additional technical and entrepreneurial skills to improve the standard, range and volume of their
products.
16. The more sophisticated types of occupation have higher demand for refined skills, with
respect to broader business management skills in the areas of financial management, human resource
management, business viability assessments, and ICT, among others. More advanced enterprises need
improved skills in quality control, handling modern technology, stores/inventory management and
knowledge about fiscal regulations. Pedagogical skills are helpful in respect of enterprises embarking
on delivery of apprenticeship training.
17. Skills delivery has to adapt to the specific and fast-changing labor requirements and
account for the different needs of urban and rural areas; it is therefore best designed with the direct
involvement of the target groups.
18. In the rural areas, there is a visible lack of opportunities for the development of skills
which are adapted to the specific working and living conditions in poor rural environments and which
are geared towards the empowerment of people who live there. Successful training interventions have
addressed the skill demands which derive from the specific socio-cultural and economic environment
with a focus on the need to participate in economic and social processes.
19. Broader skill demands in this respect depend on the improvement of agricultural supply
chains (value chains). Interventions focus on markets and reaching small enterprises to link them
forward towards sustainable market access. They have developed a systematic linkage of skills
development with other services needed to establish and grow businesses. The comprehensive and
systematic approach works at several points simultaneously: the overall enabling environment, the
smallholders, and the larger firms with which the smallholders are interacting.
20. Instructors/Facilitators. The quality of training depends greatly on the competence of
the instructors. However, it is difficult to find qualified instructors for many non-formal training
programs. Most of the projects we looked at took steps (e.g. capacity building; information exchange
with informal sector associations, local governments, community leaders, and other service providers
working with similar target groups) to develop or improve the competences of instructors/facilitators.
21. Job placement counseling and Follow-up. It is generally assumed that, depending on
what course graduates are likely to do, a number of complementary services and follow-ups will have
to be introduced such as counseling, job placement, and business start-up courses to further improve
their job opportunities. However, most providers have not the means to render such services unless
they get donor support. Only one of the projects had built a large network of SME employers where
they manage to place employees and arrange apprenticeship for completers who need to further
professionalize their skills. In addition business starters were promoted in terms of support for
enterprise establishment (start-up tools when they find a donor), follow-up interventions, and
mentorship. These instruments proved very successful looking at the record of employment of 80% of
the completers.
22. One of the organizations successfully links the training measures with employment and
start-up services by one-on-one career counseling, distributing CVs to potential employers, informing
completers about job options, arranging career fairs, and helping to prepare business plans, including
submitting the plans to microfinance institutions for possible funding support.
23. Coordination and Cooperation. Most of the case studies revealed that stakeholder
networks would be essential for information exchange, sharing of resources, avoiding duplication,
linking different services and adapting training to local development needs. SME associations in
particular would play a vital role in the governance structures of skills development measures,
planning, monitoring and evaluation, participation in training delivery, and lobbying.
24. Broader coordination and cooperation is still weak. Despite some efforts in this direction
there are no structures or forums in place for mutual information exchange and joint decision making
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of larger groups of stakeholder representatives. There is, however, some successful cooperation
between individual stakeholders such as MSE associations, private sector organizations, local
government institutions and councils in identifying training needs and monitoring the interventions,
which impacts positively on market orientation and placement of completers.
25. Management. Not much information was found about the management structures of the
organizations and thus no conclusions about their effectiveness could be drawn.
26. Costs and Financing. Similarly there is only scarce information about financing and
conclusions can only be preliminary. Further analysis of costs and financing is needed to provide
additional empirical results. However, the evaluation shows that the delivery of relevant and good
quality training for poor and disadvantaged population groups is not sustainable without external
funding. There is, as yet, no systemic public funding system. Consequently, most of the still ongoing
projects were primarily or fully funded by donors.
27. A number of measures have been introduced by providers to cover some of the costs or
render training delivery more cost effective, mostly a mix of several of the following sources: low
training fees or annual member subscriptions, advisory services to the community, selling the products
of the training workshops and scarce government funding. Simultaneously, some organizations tried to
reduce cost through hiring local facilitators, mostly former participants making use of scrap material
and local inputs for their practical training.
28. Generally, the target groups can only pay a token fee that demonstrates their
commitment; it was however observed that fees can be raised once the training lead to tangible
progress in their employability and individual livelihoods.
29. Integration of the Formal and Non-formal Training System. The case studies have
shown that there are a number of very valid and different approaches to raising the skills level of
people who want to enter or are already in informal employment. They offer a broad range of
technical, managerial and business skills including crosscutting aspects of general education (literacy,
numeracy and life skills). As yet, such projects are not fully acknowledged as an important
component of an integrated and diversified TVET system.
30. At TVET system development level there is ample need for:
Recognizing/integrating non-public training providers
Strengthening traditional apprenticeships and enterprise based training
Building cooperation with MSE associations and other informal sector services which are
complementary to training
Providing support for effective non-formal skills delivery (establishing continuous
information sharing and data exchange on market, informal sector and rural labor
developments, skill demands, program planning, resources, etc.)
Promoting sustainable financing for skills development
Monitoring and evaluating the impact of skills development.
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2 Introduction
31. The study on “skills development for secure livelihoods” is a GIZ contribution to the
second of the three major sub-themes of the ADEA Triennial: “Technical and vocational skills
development for socio-economic growth and lifelong learning”. The study is based on the experiences
gained over the last decades on the subject of skills development in different African countries. It is
designed in accordance with the ADEA request to focus on implementation suggestions and the
dissemination of best practices. The central question addressed is: “How can the economic and social
integration of women, men and young people of both sexes from the poorest population groups and/or
people with disabilities be promoted by implementing skills development measures?” By dealing with
this question GIZ is in line with one of the key messages that has emerged from the 2008 ADEA
Biennial referring to a skilled workforce as an important driver of economic growth, wealth creation
and poverty eradication.
32. The following paper presents experiences and lessons learned from projects with the
overarching goal of improving the livelihoods of poor and disadvantaged people through skills
development measures in Uganda, Kenya and South Africa. The specific focus of the study is on
identifying success factors and replicable (good practice -) instruments across the different country
contexts and on formulating conclusions at an operational level rather than on an elaboration of an
(additional) synopsis of theoretical concepts. Therefore the outset of the study was a desktop research
of existing studies and evaluations.
33. According to the GIZ Concept Note the purpose of the specific analysis was to tackle the
the following issues:
Experiences with integrated solutions that combine skills development measures with
other types of assistance, e.g. access to micro loans and business development services,
value chain approaches and functional adult literacy, among others
The integration of and the permeability between formal and non-formal training systems
Good practices in fostering and broadening skills development in both urban and rural
areas, e.g. methods of program planning and curriculum development, stakeholder
cooperation and coordination, governance, PPP, among others
Successful and sustainable income/employment-oriented education and training measures
that support and take into consideration de-escalation, prevention of conflicts and post-
conflict situations
Effective mechanisms for management, organization, coordination and control of quality
assurance of (non-formal) skills development measures for marginalized target groups
Good practices to increase social equity, particularly regarding gender and people with
disabilities
Good practices in supporting traditional apprenticeship; e.g. structure, type and level of
skills provision, didactic principles, among others
Determinants of cost-effectiveness of skills development measures
34. Project Selection. At the beginning of this study, we identified resource persons in the
respective countries to suggest successful projects for further analysis. Parallel, existing
documentations and reports, including vast amounts of material available in the internet, on training
approaches addressing poor and vulnerable people were scrutinized. In the course of that, we found
large numbers of very interesting and promising project approaches and concepts, but very few
evaluations detailing the implementation process and the outcome of the interventions along clearly
formulated indicators. As the task was to find good practices we had to restrict our case studies to
those where at least some of the respective information was available.
35. As the study was planned as a desk study, no additional surveys were conducted. The
initial intention to work with national partners who would hold consultations with relevant
stakeholders in order to back up or get additional information was only possible in Uganda. The
selection of projects and even the respective information gathered, therefore, may be incomplete.
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36. Conceptual Framework. Opportunities for lifelong learning can provide a fair and equal
chance for people to benefit from education and training as much as possible according to their own
abilities. There should be relevant and needs-based offers for people from every background, be it men
or women, with special needs, from a conflict background or someone living in a remote area. This
implies that access to education and training should be open to everyone. Non-discrimination and
equality of opportunity should be important values incorporated into the overall education and training
system.
37. Inequities in access to education and training as well as in learning outcomes may be a
major barrier to human development and therefore to economic growth and poverty reduction. As a
result, positive measures in favor of the inclusion of marginalized and disadvantaged groups have to
be developed so that everyone faces the same opportunities and has the right to learn and develop
her/his potential.
38. Strengthening and activating the informal sector through skills development so that it
could act as a vehicle of employment provision and improved income can foster sustainable economic
and social development and thus play an important role in poverty reduction. At individual level,
access to vocational education and training of specified standards and quality and with strong market
linkages could raise people‟s earning potential and improve their livelihood.
39. The key issues of interest is to assess existing non-formal training programs according to
their performance and relevance and to ascertain whether non-formal skills development fosters
productivity, improvement of management and work organization and improvement in the use of
technologies, particularly in the informal enterprise sector.
40. Relevance of vocational training addresses both social and economic development
demands and this is a key basis for evaluation as to whether the participants‟ prospects and options for
employment have been raised or not in line with the labor market demands. The indicators for
relevance considered in this study included the following:
Have work processes improved?
Have enterprises developed?
Have livelihoods improved?
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3 Uganda
41. Uganda is basically an agrarian economy, 70% of the Ugandan workforce is employed in
agriculture. The sector is dominated by subsistence agriculture which accounts for about 55-60%. The
second most important subsector of the Ugandan labor market is the informal sector which accounts
for 18% of employment or 58% of the non-agricultural employment. Low labor productivity and a
shortage of appropriately skilled and qualified human resources are key factors to the low international
competitiveness of the country.
42. The educational level of the population is low: about 17% have no formal schooling, 52%
have primary education (7 years and less), 25% have secondary, and 6% tertiary education. Women
have a lower educational level than men, but the gab has been reduced during the last decade.
43. Access to formal Business, Technical and Vocational Education and Training (BTVET)
is relatively low: Public BTVET accommodates only about 1% of primary school graduates, 3% of O
level graduates and 7% of A level output. Even though private enrolments are assumed to be three
times as large as public, BTVET absorption is insignificant as compared to the large numbers of
general education leavers.
44. Low productivity and a shortage of appropriately skilled and qualified human resources
constraints the competitiveness of the Ugandan economy, even as compared to other countries of the
region. In this respect, the BTVET system is not sufficiently responsive to the needs of the labor
market. The quality of many of the existing training programs is not appropriate to meet standards
required in the formal and informal sectors of the economy. Furthermore, the system is not accessible
to important groups, including, primary school dropouts, job seekers, and employed people who wish
to upgrade their qualifications.
45. Against this background the Government of Uganda (GoU) has started to put substantial
emphasis on the further development of BTVET. Considerable progress in the reform of the BTVET
system has been achieved during the last decade, notably through the adoption of the BTVET Act in
2008 and the development of the Uganda Vocational Qualifications Framework (UVQF). To further
streamline the reform process, the Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES) has initiated the
formulation of a BTVET Strategic Plan, which will provide the framework for BTVET development
over the next ten years.
46. The BTVET qualification structure is currently in transition, the UVQF is generally seen
as the key instrument of the new BTVET system to improve quality and labor-market relevance, and
to foster permeability within the system. However, the implementation of the UVQF is still lagging
behind with regard to the development of flexible training and learning modules, assessment and
certification, assessment of prior learning, and recognition of formal and non-formal training. In the
long run, however, this system has the potential to integrate formal and non-formal training, because
trainees can acquire the same formal UVQF qualification.
47. In the conceptual framework of education for all and life-long learning, the BTEVT act
has changed the focus to raising effectiveness and accountability and making training more responsive
to the needs of the labor market – including the informal sector. This calls for more public private
partnership, revision of training programs and employment oriented short term training offers so as to
improve the relevance and quality of skills development and broaden the chance for marginalized
young people and adults with no access to formal education and training to re-enter a learning
environment and gain productive skills and find gainful employment/self-employment.
48. The non-formal training activities/initiatives are scattered all over the country. It seems
that there is a large number of training providers (public, private, NGOs) who work hard to address
specific, often marginalized target groups with no further access to formal education and training. In
addition there are a number of different ministries (labor and gender, industry, agriculture – to name
but a few) involved in the provision of non-formal training. Many of these programs are embedded in
poverty reduction programs and thus not immediately recognized as being connected with BTVET.
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49. However, there is neither an inventory of non-formal training providers nor information
and data on training efforts they make. As a result it is difficult to identify them and assess the impact
of their training respectively. For these reasons there may be valid approaches to non-formal training
which it has not been possible to take into account in the process of identifying successful projects.
50. 25% of the population still lives in poverty (7.5 million people) and most of these people
live in rural areas (UBOS 2010). Poverty is particularly prevalent in the northern and eastern regions
of Uganda. The dimensions of poverty are defined as:
Low incomes and expenditure
Insecurity at household, community and country level
Poor health and low life expectancy, as low as 42years or less
Low education level and quality
Isolation and powerlessness.
51. The development approach endorsed by the Ugandan National Development Plan (NDP
2010/11 to 2014/15) intertwines economic growth and poverty eradication. It aims at creating
employment, raising the average per capita income levels, improving labor force distribution, raising
human development and gender equality indicators, and improving the country‟s competitiveness to
levels associated with middle income countries by skilling and tooling the available human resource.
3.1 Skills Development Interventions2
3.1.1 Local Skills Development (LSD) Training Based on a LearnNet Approach
52. The LSD program is based on GIZ‟s LearnNet approach3, an informal approach to mass
effective, low-cost, direct impact skills training. The concept states that the key element that impacts
on changing people‟s lives and improving their living conditions through skills development in a
sustainable way is that people learn to take control of their lives, i.e. becoming conscious of their own
situation and position in their community, setting their own agendas, building self-confidence, gaining
skills, solving problems and developing self-reliance. Furthermore, a skills training program, solely
providing technical skills training, will not enable people to continue their learning process towards
self-employment and economic development.
53. The Ugandan LSD project was launched in the framework of the Ugandan Community
Polytechnic (CP) Program in cooperation with the GIZ supported program Promotion of Employment
Oriented Vocational Training (PEVOT). It was implemented as a pilot project for three years (March
2004 – March 2007) as one way of substantially increasing accessibility to training in rural areas.4 The
LearnNet Approach aimed at low cost skills development that has a direct impact on the participants
with regard to problem-solving skills, mobilizing own resources, gaining skills according to needs
(continued learning), and accessing external resources and information.
2 Sources to the three described Ugandan projects are own interviews and project materials. A more detailed report on the
Ugandan cases done in the context of this study by Sarah Nalumansi is also available.
3 Learning Networks approach, or LearnNet, has been (and still is) developed in this form by a number of skills training programs in various African countries. It is based on the philosophy that “the concept of skills development goes beyond conventional understanding of vocational training and includes every kind of learning that extends the ability of people to take control of their lives and increases their chances of sustainable livelihood”. (MoES/PEVOT 2007 : 3)
4 The CP program was conceived in the late 1990s, intending to cater for „the forgotten majority‟, which could enable them to achieve self-employment in the informal sector through skills development. The objective was to launch CPs nation-wide and to provide low cost, accessible skills training opportunities, especially for primary school leavers. The initial plan to build a CP in every sub-county was not feasible, and only 16 CPs (out of the initial 1000) were established. Therefore, MoES in close cooperation with its German development partners promoted a training concept designed to achieve the outreach objective of the CP program in rural areas while reducing its cost.
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54. The program was built on 4 pillars:
Source: MoES/PEVOT, LearnNET Uganda, Fact Sheet
55. The approach was particularly addressing communities which are highly dependent on
agriculture. The target groups for Local Skills Development were Primary 7 leavers and drop-outs
who otherwise had no chance to find access to training. The training was planned jointly with the
participants and was organized in line with the contextual needs and circumstances of the
communities. The program focused on the following key elements:
Cater for everyone who wants access to skills development, regardless of gender, social
category, prior educational achievement or location.
Training is happening in the village, as distance to training centers is one of the biggest
obstacles to participation of local village population. Hence, the trainer goes to where
learners live and work.
Adapt learning to the very livelihood conditions in which people find themselves.
Use appropriate learning formats, especially an informal approach to acquisition of skills,
knowledge and understanding.
Build on existing local knowledge, understanding, organization and social networks.
56. The training was therefore tailor-made according to the needs and resources of the
communities and was provided by skilled farmers and skilled craftspeople and technicians from
among and outside the community.
57. The key elements of the program were to adapt short demand driven training contents and
appropriate modes of delivery. The program worked with 38 learning groups and provided training in
agriculture, processing, hairdressing, building, craft and skill-based literacy. It also entailed training
with respect to HIV/AIDS as a cross-cutting issue. Due to the preliminary needs assessment and the
strict orientation towards income generation, many participants managed to continue to perform the
activities learned and gain an income. In the evaluation of the project outcomes, a number of points
were stated to have contributed to the success of the program;
The organizational arrangements were based at the community polytechnics
Training facilitators were drawn from local professionals
A cost-sharing model was adopted to cover the costs of the training (training materials
and resource persons). This made a significant positive impact on ownership and
proactive participation in the program.
58. Functional adult literacy has enabled beneficiaries to keep records to account for their
business activities and follow up on other developments. Sensitization programs such as gender and
violence against women enhanced social equity in the group and in the community. Formation of
groups of people living with HIV/AIDS has enabled the members to be linked to service providers for
accessing medication. Many people have come out to declare their status which has made it easy for
them to access external interventions.
59. While the program achieved significant results, it was not taken up by government to
institutionalize it. The objective to eventually be assessed and integrated into UVQF was not achieved
because the assessment regulations had not yet been developed.
60. However, the approach has been replicated by other development agencies i.e.
SWISSCONTACT in Uganda has replicated the concept and called it Local Skills for the Youth
(LSDY); activities are implemented in Eastern Uganda including car washing, hair dressing,
carpentry, bicycle repair, bricklaying and the agricultural work. The World Food Program (WFP)
plans to implement the program in WEFP supported schools.
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61. Sustainability. When support from GIZ-PEVOT ended in 2007 the LSD program in
Kanzira was established as a Community-based Organization called Local Skills Development
Network (LSD Network) taking on the 14 groups formed in the previous LSD program. To date the
Network has made the following achievements:
Improved numerically, from 288 to 542 members (25 groups), since the end of funding
by the GIZ-PEVOT.
Evolved into a structured organization guided by policies. During and up to the end of the
GIZ-PEVOT funding, the program had no policies but since the formation of the Network
a Human Resource Plan and a Financial Policy Plan have been put in place. The Network
has also a 5 year Strategic Plan.
Provided opportunities to an extra 226 persons to associate and acquire skills.
62. The network introduced a savings scheme (an Internal Savings and Credit component) to
which members contribute UGX 2,000/= per month as a saving. Members qualify to borrow from this
scheme for one month at 10% interest and receive dividends which are given out once a year. This
replaces a revolving fund which was in operation previously, but did not work successfully.
63. The network is registered with the local government. The activities are organized from a
rented office in Kigalama trading center. The office offers services to the network members as well as
offering consultancy services to the communities. It is managed by a program coordinator and
voluntary staff. A management board comprising of 9 members is elected by the general assembly.
The network depends on voluntary facilitators most of whom are drawn from the beneficiaries of the
initial LSD programs.
64. Financing. The network depends mainly on member‟s annual subscription (UGX 5,000)
which meets only the basic financial needs of rent and a few expenses. Salaries and other costs,
however, are difficult for the network to meet. This difficulty is hard to overcome and placing the
network in a position of having to convince the community that the services they obtain from the LSD
Network office should be paid for.
3.1.2 Gulu Youth Development Association (GYDA)
65. During the more than two decades of violent conflict in Uganda, over 1.7 million people
were displaced to refugee camps. In some of the northern districts (Amuru, Gulu, Kitgum, and Pader)
over 90 per cent of the population was displaced at the height of the conflict. The displacement camps
did not offer an environment for any kind of education and training. Thus the young refugees lacked
employable knowledge and skills when returning home.
66. With this challenge at hand, a group of affected youth formed the Gulu Youth
Development Association (GYDA) in 1992 and registered it as an NGO in 1995. The objective has
been to create means by which conflict affected youths can challenge their unemployment problems
through a concerted effort and active participation in feasible economic, health, apprenticeship and
training programs.
67. This would entail to:
Equip the youth with basic vocational skills to enable them to be self-reliant.
Equip the youth with life skills for positive living and victory over health and social
challenges
Tap the existing talent among the youth and potential in the region to develop projects
with social and economic values to the youth and the organization
Enhance the quality of life of people with disabilities through provision of mobility aids.
Build mutually beneficial networks and linkages with the government and other
stakeholders
Promote
o Youth empowerment for community development
o Talent development for social and economic empowerment
o Self-reliance and self-sustainability
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o Quality service for quality life
o Hard work and commitment
o Transparency and accountability
68. The organization established a training center starting with 15 trainees in 2000. The
current enrolment has risen to 380 trainees 170 of which are female. Another center was established in
Legile Pader District in 2008 with 120 trainees, 56 of which are female. The enrolment rates are
however far below the application rates. Both centers cater for the needs of people with disabilities.
Young mothers are supported through a day care center for their non-school age children. All
participants lack formal education and are unable to cover the tuition costs in the formal education
system.
69. The instructors are drawn mainly from the top performers of the GYDA graduates (who
are recognized as the best service providers in the community) but also from institutions of higher
learning in the neighborhood.
70. Courses offered at the center include tailoring, beauty salon, motor vehicle mechanics,
bricklaying, concrete practice, and carpentry and joinery as well as mobility appliances production.
For the latter, technicians were sent for training to Kampala and to the Tanzania training center for
Orthopedic Technologist (TATCOT). Training is not solely provided in technical skills; functional
literacy and numeracy skills are added. The minimum duration of the above courses is one year.
According to the philosophy of the organization, people with no basic education need to be groomed
from scratch so they can gain enough skills and self-confidence for future employment.
71. The association also maintains community outreach units aiming to empower community
groups in income generating activities through agricultural training, and extracurricular activities such
as theatre and dancing. An additional section works towards the sensitization of HIV/AIDS and how to
minimize its spread within rural communities.
72. All above activities are managed by the Director and head instructors.
73. GYDA is associated with the Uganda Private Vocational Institutions (UGAPRIVI)5
which avail them with instruction guidelines. Guidelines for assessment of the trainees are provided by
the Directorate of Industrial Training (DIT) which, under the auspices of the Ministry of Education
and Sports (MOES), is responsible for the implementation of the UVQF. However, testing and
certification are still done internally and have no official government recognition. Nonetheless, the
current network support combined with the GYDA guidelines make up a well-organized quality
assurance package for the institution.
74. Financing of the program has been mainly from donors including the European Union,
the Association of Volunteers in International Service (AVSI) in partnership with USAID, ISP in
Africa, Private Sector Foundation Uganda (PSFU), and the Government of Uganda through the Local
Government, among others.
75. Additional financing is realized through income from production in the training
workshops such as wheel chairs, tri-cycles6, metallic doors and gates, wheel carts. Mobile welding
services are also hired out to the outside to fabricate windows, doors and others. Material costs are
kept as low through making use of scrap materials wherever possible.
76. The community has been encouraged to make contributions to ensure ownership of the
program but this has been slow since the earning capacity is very low. However, the management has
5 UGAPRIVI is a recognized organization in the Ugandan BTVET environment. Founded and nurtured mainly with funds and
expert from German bilateral cooperation, the association today represents around 540 of the estimated 1,000 private training providers in Uganda. Apart from its head offices in Kampala, the association maintains a network of eight regional offices. Members include private BTVET providers including commercially operating entities and non-profit organizations. UGAPRIVI offers the following services, most of which are financed with donor support: advocacy, capacity building (e.g. in pedagogy and management), the facilitation of skills development networks (between BTVET institutions and employers), support to the UVQF implementation, and consultancies.
6 To date the center has produced and distributed 500 wheelchairs and 400 tricycles and acts as a servicing and maintenance center for the two items. Furthermore, the center is serving as a demonstration center for training local technicians.
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endeavored to network with others engaging in similar activities so that they may share resources and
information.
77. The financial sustainability of the center is still a challenge because of the dependence on
funding agencies. A new center with additional workshops is currently under construction and it is
hoped for that after completion, trainees and staff in the various departments will earn more from the
products and services offered. To further raise incomes, GYDA is making continuous efforts to
improve on the quality and design of their products.
78. Instructors monitor the performance of the trainees within and outside the center while
the District Education Officers, District Commissioners, and Local Council members monitor the
activities of the Centre. The local communities fill in forms and give feed back to the center to verify
the impact of its performance of the trainees and any gaps and advice on the improvement are
registered.
79. Achievements of GYDA include:
Skilled youth who return to the communities and become gainfully employed.
Many youth desist from crime once gainfully employed,
Status of individuals and families changed i.e. better food, lifestyle,
Graduates are empowered and thus exercise freedom of speech, participate in and
contribute to their communities,
80. Trainees who joined the Centre as disadvantaged and vulnerable people return to their
communities with a changed status. They are well equipped to engage in gainful employment and with
a higher capacity to spend. Their families also enjoy that lift in standards from the contribution of the
skilled relatives. This in turn leads to improved participation in social activities and community
decisions and fosters social equity, particularly regarding gender and people with disabilities.
81. Graduates have confirmed that they are confident of standing high in the communities
and receive attention as they make a contribution. Trainees graduate with employable skills which
have been tested (e.g. building and concrete practice trainees found jobs in the community while
metal fabrication trainees produce marketable products). Some would also take on an apprenticeship in
a small business to further perfect their craft.
3.1.3 Companionship of Works Association (COWA)
82. The Companionship of Works Association (COWA), a Non-Government Organization
(NGO) formed in 1988 registered with the NGO Board in 1994. The organization runs two
vocational training centers (VTCs) separately for girls and boys. This separation is no longer as strict
as it was initially due to more gender awareness. The VTCs run both formal and non-formal training
programs. The main focus of COWA is to offer training to vulnerable groups and to assist them in
attaining employment. The organization is guided by the following objectives:
To empower the less privileged youth with technical vocational education and training
To equip trainees with life skills that enable them to make responsible and informed
decisions.
To provide them with entrepreneurship skills that will enable them to start and manage
their own small-scale enterprises
To provide trainees with computer skills (IT) to meet the current labor market demands
83. Beneficiaries of the non-formal training are selected through the community, involving
churches, mosques, NGOs, local council governments, and the Buganda kingdom. These organizations
also act as points of reference in case a problem arises with the trainees they have recommended. The
applicants are drawn from disadvantaged and marginalized groups mainly from Kampala and
neighboring districts. This includes;
Orphans and unemployed youth
Youth with limited skills within the informal sector in the communities
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Child mothers and widows
Youth affected infected with HIV/AIDS
School drop outs from very difficult social – economic backgrounds
Disabled youth.
84. Basic entry requirements include interest in training, willingness to work, adaptability to
the training environment of the course of one‟s choice, and a letter from the local council. The
requirement for attainment of a certain level of education is only requested from applicants to the
Communication Technology (ICT) course. Applicants have to be between 18 and 30 years old.
85. COWA has adapted a program planning and implementation approach as follows:
Conducting situational analyses in micro and small enterprises
Designing and planning respective market responsive vocational education package
(modules)
Sending instructors to refresher courses if need be
Organizing community participation e.g. local leaders, resource persons, etc.
Conducting non-formal training in the identified training areas
Identifying small enterprises where the participants of short courses could be placed for
apprenticeship/on job training
Involving local artisans and industries in apprenticeship training (placing learners in
already existing industries)
Conducting follow-up sessions
Conducting tracer studies
Modifying course contents if need be
86. The respective education and training offers are in line with the philosophy and
methodological approach of the organization:
Training in classical trade areas and ICT
Training in entrepreneurial skills
Counseling & guidance
HIV/AIDS related awareness
Gender awareness
Legal/human rights awareness
Environmental awareness
Music, dance and drama
Games and sports
Post vocational / alumni support.
87. Training lasts between 3 month (90% practical) and one year (75% practical) depending
on the program. The theory part of the non-formal program comprise mostly of measurement, safety
and interpretation of drawings. Given the academic and social background of the youth, the training
also involves the use of standardized but simplified market oriented modules like Start your Business
(SYB), Know Your Business (NYB), Improve your Business (IYB) and Expand your Business (EYB).
Multi skill training is considered to increase employment opportunities for learners of the non-formal
training courses.
88. The three month courses have been introduced recently due to a large government
initiative of sponsoring short courses for people in need of employable skills. COWA has been
skeptical about this time frame; it was considered as to short when taking into account the socio-
economic background of their trainees and the objective of conveying sufficient kills for gaining an
income. This, however, could be counteracted through placement in traditional apprenticeship.
89. Management structure. COWA is governed by a Board of Directors comprising of four
members, the chair person, the treasurer, the secretary and the executive director. The two vocational
training centers are each headed by a principal. The principals work with a core management team of
eight members with well-established professional expertise in management, project planning and
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implementation, reporting and documentation, monitoring and evaluation, counseling and social work,
accounting/book keeping, facilitating workshops, and computing skills.
90. The COWA Institutions are members of UGAPRIVI (cf. footnote 2) and registered with
the Ministry of Education and Sports, under the Department of Business Technical Vocational
Education and Training (BTVET). The training centers operate within the Ministry of Education‟s
framework, guided by the Education Act and BTVET Act. All non-formal training courses are gauged
by test items based on the Uganda Vocational Qualification Framework (UVQF)7 under the
Directorate of Industrial Training (DIT).
91. The formal and non-formal offers run concurrently and the programs have enriched one
another, for example, some of the non-formal students have applied to join the formal program while
the experiences with the non-formal training inform about the envisaged transformation of the current
formal long-term training system to competency based modularized vocational training provision.
92. The training activities are monitored by the heads of departments while the outcome
monitoring is done through the community. The institutions get regular feedback from employers and
through follow-up services and tracer studies. Additionally, one of the centers initiated an association
for alumni, the COWA Old Boys Association (COBA) to keep track of market changes and
developments.
93. Financing. The training costs are shared among the institutions, the community, the
direct beneficiaries, and the government. However, non-formal vocational training has not been fully
embraced by the government in terms of continuous subventions; the community lacks financial
means to give full support and the targeted trainees are too poor to pay the general fees. Some help
was provided by donors e.g. tool kits for completers and computers. The training institutions mange to
earn some money through their production units but this can only scarcely cover some running costs.
Such insecure financial situation has left a heavy burden on the training institutions and in some
instances compromised the quality of training and regularity of certain activities.
94. Achievements. COWA mostly targets people at the fringe of society like the vulnerable
youth many of whom are in conflict with the law and with themselves. The psychosocial program of
COWA is a key cornerstone to the organization‟s activities. The youths are being provided with
training, and are given an opportunity to rediscover themselves, their value and worth as human
persons regardless of their gender or physical limitations. They are given the chance to discover their
potential in life and build self-esteem. The interventions have given them opportunities in finding
employment and ability to opt for further training to build their career.
95. All in all, COWA has counselled and helped over 10,000 vulnerable youths through its
psychosocial program; out of those, over 500 have been trained in vocational skills with over 80% of
them now in gainful employment. 350 completers have been equipped with start-up tools, which is
combined with follow-up advice and on job support. The institutions maintain a good working
relationship with over 50 prospective employers through industrial attachment and placement of
apprentices. A further important means of placing trainees as well as of getting continuous market
information is the close contact to former trainees through the alumni association.
96. Through the strictly organized implementing process COWA has achieved the full
participation of the community in the recruitment exercise, which has created responsibility and
ownership. Furthermore, local leaders and small scale industries are continuously involved in
monitoring and evaluating the training outcome. Thus the community is a core part of the program
implementation. In ensuring access, retention, and quality enhancements, the community continues to
monitor and mobilize the youth to get enrolled into training and further training (skills upgrading). In
ensuring that the activities and objectives of the programs are sustained, the community has a role in
influencing MOES and local governments with regard to integration and financial support, particularly
of the non-formal training offers.
7 Formerly COWA followed the parallel trade testing system, which is an open-access system of skills recognition, also
managed and implemented by the Directorate of Industrial Training (DIT). This system is currently in transition. According to the BTVET Act it is supposed to be replaced by the UVQF,
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4 Kenya
97. Agricultural self-employment still accounts for roughly half of the working-age
population, mainly with an output at subsistence level. According to the 2009 population census,
Kenya has a population of 38.6 million people of which 12.1 million are counted as employed and 1.4
million are openly unemployed. Thus, the open unemployment rate is 10.5%. About 8.3 million
people work in the informal sector; of those, it is estimated that 2 million are in the Jua Kali industry.
Despite its high contribution to employment, the informal sector only contributes about 18% to GDP
(2009).
98. A large number of Kenyans still live in poverty (46% in 2005/6) which is compounded by
regional disparities, high inequality in income distribution, and inequity in gender.8
99. Kenya‟s population is increasingly young, 38% of the total population is between 15 and
35 years old. Youth unemployment has been rising9 and the accompanying individual harms of no
proper housing and poor health as well as serious social problems of increased crime and dependency
present a major challenge.
100. About 800,000 young people are entering the job market every year, often with high
expectations because their education is much higher as compared to previous years. For example, net
primary education enrollment was only 83 percent in 2005, but has since increased to about 93 percent
in 2008 (with an equal enrollment ratio between boys and girls). Also the primary school completion
rate has increased substantially (not even a quarter completed in 2003), but education standards are
still not equal across the country. The transition from primary to secondary and later to tertiary and
university education has also improved in recent years (from 29% in 2005 to 43% in 2008) due to
increased public and private investment in the education sector (cf. UNDP 2010:2, 26-28).
101. With regard to vocational training, a National Technical, Industrial, Vocational Education
and Training (TIVET) Strategy was adopted under the auspices of the Ministry of Higher Education,
Science and Technology (MoHEST) in 2008. Based on a situation analysis, it formulates a number of
operational strategies to address the following main identified challenges:
Inadequate access and equity
Low capacity for delivery
Low quality and relevance of skills
Fragmented delivery and inefficient use of resources
Lack of unifying policies and legal frameworks
Ineffective application of ICT
Weak collaboration and linkages
Lack of effective research and development
Inadequate funding
HIV/AIDs and other social issues
102. The Strategy commits itself to a reform towards outcome-based TIVET and subsequent
competency-based education and training (CBET) delivery. However, the implementation is weak and
employers are not yet sufficiently involved. Furthermore, the strategy hardly addresses the informal
sector and disadvantaged target groups, and no informal sector representatives, e.g. Jua Kali
associations, are invited to participate in any of the different governing and executing bodies of the
TIVET system.
103. The system remains to be time based, using defined curricula and fixed standards with a
bias to academic progression rather than productive employment. Thus the system continues to be
fragmented with only little integration of the different modes of skill acquisition (cf. Franz, Jutta.
2011:8f).
8 Cf. : http://go.worldbank.org/YZJLVL3LX0
9 The youth account for about 60 % of the active labor force but the majority, estimated at 75% or three million people, are unemployed.
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4.1 Skills Development Interventions
4.1.1 African Centre for Women, Information and Communications Technology (ACWICT)10
104. Information and communications technology (ICT) is the fastest growing sub-sector in Kenya with the youth forming the critical mass in ICT related businesses. … The possibilities that ICT offers for youth employment is evidenced by the numerous ICT-based small enterprises where young people provide services such as cybercafés, telecom facilities, telecentres, and computer training.(UNDP 2010:2)
105. Against this background, the African Centre for Women, Information and
Communications Technology (ACWICT) – a non-profit organization – is promoting young women‟s
access to and knowledge in Information and Communications Technology (ICT). The organization has
implemented four ICT programs: (i) Reaching the Unreached – Youth Employability Program, which
started January 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation. The program was delivered through
community-based Technology Learning Centers and involved training of 600 young women in rural
and urban communities. (ii) The Youth Empowerment Program (YEP) in partnership with Microsoft
and the International Youth Foundation (IYF). YEP has been implemented in four African countries:
Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal, and Tanzania. Its main focus is on demand-driven training in life skills and
entrepreneurship, with a goal to improve the employability of disadvantaged African young people
between 18 and 35 years. In Kenya the program was launched as a two year project in 2007. (iii) The
Samsung Real Dreams Program, a pilot program that started in 2009 with 160 young women in the
informal settlements of Nairobi financed by Samsung Electronics Co. Ltd. (iv) A program targeting
720 young women affected by post-election violence in Eldoret, also in cooperation with Microsoft
started 2009.
106. The Youth Empowerment Program used an outcomes measurement system in which
participants were surveyed at three stages: before starting the training (baseline), at program
completion, and approximately six months after completion of the program. The final detailed
evaluation was conducted in April 2010. The following information is based on the respective report.
107. The program targeted poor and marginalized young women from informal settlement
areas around Nairobi. Otherwise there were no specific entry requirements but basic literacy skills and
basic understanding of English. The intervention aimed at improving the employability of women by
providing them training in ICT, life skills, and entrepreneurship, as well as placement and enterprise
development services with the specific objectives to:
Train 1,200 young women from the informal settlements of Kibera, Kawangware,
Mathare, Mukuru, Korogocho and Kangemi in ICT, life skills, and entrepreneurship
Place 70% of the participants in jobs, internships, self-employment, and/or voluntary
community service
Create a web-based database of job seekers marketed to potential employers.
108. Training. Participants were each provided with 40 hours of life skills training, 60 hours
of ICT training, and 50 hours of entrepreneurship training. They were given the option to choose
between the ICT and entrepreneurship training or take both courses. The life skills course was
mandatory as it was seen as prerequisite to successfully complete the other two courses. All courses
were provided monthly with a maximum of 50 students per month. The total intake was a number of
1,105 women.
109. The ICT courses provided basic computer training using the Microsoft Unlimited
Potential Curriculum:
Computer fundaments
Word processing
10 Most information in this chapter originates from: AKWICT 2010. April
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Spread sheets
Presentation
Database
Internet and World Wide Web
110. The entrepreneurship course provided participants with knowledge on how to develop a
business idea into a plan of action. Participants were trained in writing a business plan, business
management, and calculation. Further topics covered in the business training included:
Role of entrepreneurs
Qualities of successful entrepreneurs
Communication skills
Record keeping for small businesses
Causes of business failure
Characteristics of business opportunities
111. The life skills training was geared to enable the women to increase their participation in
their communities and in the world of work. This tackled soft skills such as:
Creative and critical thinking
Decision making and problem solving
Self-confidence
Communication and interpersonal skills
Teamwork and responsibility
Civic values and work ethics
Job searching strategies and interviews
Training for all three courses
112. Upon completion of the ICT program, students were awarded a certificate.
113. Placement. ACWICT built a network of potential employers and government institutions
to where they distributed CVs of completers. In addition, quarterly career fairs were organized to
connect participants with potential employers. These activities were combined with:
One-on-one career counseling
Information about job opportunities via e-mail and SMS
Recommendations to employers
Preparation of business plans, including submitting the plans to microfinance institutions
for possible funding support
114. Incubation of new businesses. Additional to the job placement initiatives, the YEP
program incubated twelve new and promising businesses by providing support services such as
printing of publicity materials, internet access, office space and telephone services.
115. The baseline data revealed that the average age of participants was 24 years, only few
were married and nearly all of the young women came from suburban informal settlement areas. Only
5% of them had not completed primary school, 75% had finished secondary school while the
remaining 20% had received tertiary education. Only 7% were employed by the time they entered the
program. Less than half were willing to talk about their families‟ financial situation; of those who did,
most family incomes were much below the minimal wages.
116. Achievements. As of December 2009 – the time of program evaluation – the program
had trained 1,105 participants. The slightly lower number than the envisaged 1,220 participants is
explained with disturbances during the post-election violence. The evaluation revealed a placement
rate of 52% (envisaged were 70%). From those, 41% found a job, 31% were involved in voluntary
community services, 15% were self-employed and 5% were involved in an internship. That is to say
that only a quarter of the completers gained an income. Those who found gainful employment
achieved an average income of 3 times above the minimum wage.
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117. Another 26% of the sample group had continued with their studies or participated in
another training program.
118. Only about a quarter of the completers used the placement services and rated them
positively. Most of the others felt not sufficiently informed about the placement services and,
consequently, did not use them.
119. Nearly 40 % of the participants stated employers were asking for more experience than
they had. This was vindicated in focus group discussions with employers who demanded more
advanced skills. In this respect completers believed that the skills needed revolve more around
technical skills than soft skills. On the other hand most all of those currently employed stated that the
life skills courses impacted positively on their employment situation. Altogether 70% of the
participants stated that the life skills training helped them the most in their self-improvement. In the
overall rating, the vast majority (96%) of the participants appreciated the quality of the training
program.
120. ACWICT used the evaluation results to fine tune the activities in the still ongoing
interventions. The Samsung Real Dreams Program was expanded both in terms of curriculum content
and time allocation. The evaluation in June 2010 already shows much better results: 77% of the
completers were working and out of those 94% had used the program’s job placement services.
68% of all completers rated the placement services as very good (c.f. ACWICT 2010:7f).
121. Costs and Financing. All programs are donor funded. To implement the YEP program,
ACWICT received a grant of $74,080. Participants pay token commitment fees, which may be
abandoned in case the participant is not able to raise the money. Total (direct and indirect) costs of the
Samsung Real Dreams Program amount to approximately US$ 475 per women for a program of 2.5 to
3 months training plus three month internship, during which the program pays for insurance,
administrative support and possibly other needed expenses.
4.1.2 Strengthening Informal Sector Training and Enterprise (SITE)11
122. Strengthening Informal Training and Enterprise (SITE) is a national Non-Profit
Organization with the mandate to support informal sector development through skills training directly
at the enterprise. In the late 90s (from February 1996 to August 1998), the organization implemented a
Skills Upgrading Project (SUP) in cooperation with Appropriate Technology (APT UK). The project
had three major objectives:
Upgrade the technical and managerial skills of master craftspeople so as to enable them to
diversify their production,
Strengthen the capacity of master craftspeople and to provide quality training to their
apprentices
Strengthen the capacity of selected vocational training institutes to support master
craftspeople on an ongoing basis.
123. The project started with market and skill needs assessments. Based on those initial
surveys metalworking, woodworking and textiles were recognized as the most striving economic sub-
sectors and respective skill gaps were identified.
124. 20 trainers from public Vocational Training Centers (VTCs) as well as some individual
consultants were recruited and trained to sufficiently address the skills-upgrading needs of informal
sector entrepreneurs. However, the project did not take off as planned; the targeted master craftspeople
displayed only little interest in training, most of them had long standing experience and felt well
skilled.
125. Subsequently the project changed from the top-down approach to a participatory process
of needs rationalization and dialogue with prospective project clients. This resulted in the following
agreements:
11 All information in that chapter is taken from: Haan, Hans Christiaan 2004.
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Skills training for masters should translate into direct business improvement (either
through a new or improved product or improved business operations)
Training content, delivery mode and time schedule should be flexible
Training provision should be a continuous learning process, in particular for project staff
The overall management of apprenticeship training should be improved, not only the
delivery of it
126. The „training needs rationalization meetings‟ and recruitment of the master craftspeople
were actively supported by jua kali (micro and small enterprise) associations. By means of those
procedures it was possible to increase the number of participants tremendously.
127. The project originally considered providing more theoretical training to the apprentices in
order to supplement the practical training in the enterprise. It was found, however, to be much more
cost-effective to build up a base of master craftsmen and women by broadening their skills and applied
knowledge so they could deliver training to their apprentices more effectively. This change of program
was also necessary because the involvement of VTCs was reduced as this required an institutional
reorientation that was beyond the project's mandate and capability.
128. Another new feature of the project was to stimulate the masters to use their apprentices as
sales representatives to source business for their enterprise. This exposed the apprentices to the wider
aspects of running a business, which was much appreciated.
129. The initially introduced credit component was given less prominence in view of the
limited capacity of the project to follow-up and recover the loans. Out of 31 applications received, 12
of SITE‟s clients qualified for financial assistance to purchase improved equipment.
130. During the project period of two and a half years a total of 43 courses were designed and
respective training material developed, including worksheets, books and videos. Courses were
conducted in technical skills and business skills or a combination of both. Furthermore some few
courses in pedagogy were hold. In all, 419 masters and 284 apprentices were trained by the project
while an additional 1,400 received improved training from the participating master craftspeople.
131. Results and impact. The following results were reported:
Master craftspeople improved their training of apprentices in content and quality
(stronger focus on production rather than on menial and unplanned duties)
The number of apprentices increased on average by 15-20%
The jua kali workers could raise their income by 14-20%
Participating small enterprises employed 22% more workers than before
88% of the masters applied their new skills
73% started to make new/ improved products
58% penetrated new markets
The turnover of participating small enterprises increased by 57% and profits by 25%
The workshops improved their layout and organization of production
88% of the apprentices indicated to make use of the skills transferred
73% of the masters claimed to make new and improved products
The apprentices
o increased confidence in starting an own business
o increased awareness of financial aspects of running a business
o gained clarity on real problems with equipment and at the worksite.
132. Financing. The training costs fell drastically (down to 20 %) during the project
implementation period (1996-98). The main cost reduction (95%) was achieved in the recruitment of
masters, while the cost of training delivery and follow-up activities were cut by 60-70%. As a result of
the cost reduction, total costs per training course declined by 79%.
133. A partial recovery of the training costs was achieved through charging fees. At the end of
the project the level of cost-recovery was around 30% (over the total period of the project only 10%) -
excluding the development cost of the training. The fees charged were gradually increased during the
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project period, so that participant contributions rose from 7% of indirect costs at the start of the project
to 77% towards the end.
134. The project noted that cost-sharing through training fees is influenced by a number of
factors, such as the awareness of potential benefits of the training and the interest in specific or more
„elitist‟ skills (e.g. skills for high quality fabrics or skills for the production of more complex and
expensive products such as hammer mills). The project also observed that there are ripple effects
across the sector as jua kali entrepreneurs share new skills and approaches with others or are copied by
others.
4.1.3 Business Services Market Development Program (BSMDP) – Dairy Sector Development Component12
135. The dairy sector in Kenya is a very important source of income to large numbers of small
and medium farmers, tens of thousands of traders and is one of the most rapidly growing food
consumption items in the country. In 2008, an estimated 750,000 small producers sold approximately
30 billion Kshs. of milk. Between 2003 and 2010, the dairy sector in Kenya has seen tremendous
growth, with a 50% increase in total quantity of marketed milk. This has been driven in a large part by
the surging economy and increased purchasing power of the Kenyan consumer, but has also been the
result of ongoing transformation of the sector that has allowed the supply side of the industry to better
serve the needs of the consumers. (Baiya et al 2010:1)
136. The Business Services Market Development Program (BSMDP) introduced a new
approach to sectoral development with the focus on promoting sustainable business services and
strengthening the competitiveness of the economically active poor with the objective to improve the
impact on the economically active poor, it seeks to make the markets work for the poor (MW4P).The
concepts were developed by DFID and in cooperation with a number international agencies and
national NGOs the program addressed business constraints – including the lack of skills – that were
hindering small enterprises to enter the more dynamic market channels. In the course of its 5 year
implementation period (2003-2008) the dairy component developed links to policy and regulatory
bodies to improve the functioning of the markets.
137. The program offers training as part of a value chain approach focused on markets and
reaching small enterprises to link them forward towards sustainable market access. The dairy sector
was chosen because, according to initial market analyses, it was a growing value chain with a lot of
smallholder producers and traders at the bottom end. Against this background, BSMDP conducted a
set of parallel activities at each level of the value chain and in different market channels within the
subsector. Combined with the legalization activities towards system development the program worked
at several points simultaneously: the overall enabling environment, the smallholders, and the larger
firms with which the smallholders were interacting.
138. The initial sub-sector analysis revealed that the small holder producers and traders could
be cut off from the end market if regulations on marketing raw milk were functional. Therefore,
BSMDP sought to improve the quality of milk being traded and the competency of traders in the raw
milk channel.
139. With respect to legitimizing the informal sector milk trading, BSMDP concentrated on
improving the safe handling of raw milk by informal traders. Subsequently the program was able to
engage with the Kenya Dairy Board (KDB) to demonstrate that the training could address the health
risks and ensure that raw milk could be handled safely. After the agreement with KDB on recognizing
trained traders, the Ministry of Health and local authorities could also be persuaded to accept the
policy shift. The first implementation step was to train and certify local trainers/facilitators. BSMDP
then supported KDB to introduce a system for licensing trained informal traders in five districts and
brand the KDB quality assurance program before rolling out the system nationwide.
12 Most information in this section derives from the program completion review – Grant 2008
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140. The legalization was complemented by quality improvement activities directly
concentrated on the small holders only, one of which was training in various areas that contributed to
enrich the quality and quantity of milk production. The other services comprised of enhancements of
milk bulking through support to the establishment of chilling hubs and collection/distribution points,
the development of artificial insemination, and improved access to credits, among others.
141. Achievements. By the time of evaluation in 2008, BSMDP had trained 90 trainers, of
whom 46 were continuing their services on a commercial basis. 5,000 traders had been trained towards
certification. Of these, about 2000 traders had been certified, with the rest in progress. Smallholder
producers have been effectively linked to the increasing market for milk products. The focus on
building sustainable service markets involving hundreds of service providers for agrovet services,
inputs, artificial insemination, training, information, and transport. These services have enhanced the
productivity and income of more than 12,000 smallholder farmers, whose numbers continue to grow.
142. “While the absolute number of smallholders and MSMEs directly reached under the
program present just a small fraction of the total industry, the BSMDP developed and demonstrated
effective service models, which were replicated by other funders and investors. By providing a
mechanism for legalizing the activities of up to 40,000 milk traders, the BSMDP has secured a
necessary market channel for hundreds of thousands of small farmers.” (Grant 2008 : VIII)
143. Unfortunately there is no evaluation about the training schemes and the outcome of
training for smallholder farmers available. Though it was confirmed that the involved small producers
have raised the overall quantity of milk production, the individual factors contributing to this
development have not been analyzed. The evaluations concentrated more on the traders as their
legalization became the core element of the program. Traders confirmed that the intervention has led
to more profitable business, higher investments in upgrading their equipment, enhanced skills leading
to better quality of their services, and substantial increases in traded milk.
144. A follow-up project, funded by DFID and implemented by SITE, seeks to consolidate the
improved situation of the traders through support in the establishment of a milk traders association.
The project offers training, in organization building, and in the delivery of improved business services.
A first evaluation of member traders after two years of activities found that: “Many of the enterprises
are upgrading their operations, moving from bicycles to motor cycles, Tuk-tuks and pick-ups. Many
mobile vendors are now opening milk bars (since they are legal). There is increased processing of
liquid milk to mala and yoghurt, innovative business/food solutions especially for youth and urban
labor force. Finally, many of the traders are now investing in new equipment – milk steel cans, storage
tanks, etc.” (Baiya et all 2010:4)
145. In addition, there are a number of side benefits that led to more efficiency in the value
chain: traders have greater confidence in their enterprises, so there has been a change of self-image.
There is growing consumer confidence and respect by others, now that food safety being assured.
There are increased and affordable services such as training, certification, and processing.
Formalization has led to greater demands for better marketing conditions and there is investment in
new milk marketing points (MMPs) which were initially funded by DFID but now through the Danida
supported Micro Enterprises Support Program Trust (MESPT), as well as investments by traders and
producers in milk chilling hubs (ibid:4).
146. Value chain/MW4P projects are usually donor funded, but there are more recent
developments to localize the structures and approaches. For example, in the second phase of its
Business Sector Program Support (BSPS) Danida is moving away from an external project
arrangement to an implementation model with the Kenyan Micro and Small Enterprise Support
Program Trust (MESPT). The BSPS approach explicitly aims at developing and increasing Kenyan
capacities to conceptualize and implement MW4P interventions in various markets. (Franz, Jutta 2011:
35)
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5 South Africa
147. During the apartheid era in South Africa the access to vocational education and training
and to the labor market was used as an instrument of oppression of the non-white population (90% of
the whole population). Despite of extensive structural reforms since 1994, the education and training
system still suffers major drawbacks as a result of those discriminatory education and labor policies.
Respective skills gaps are particularly present in occupational and employment related knowledge and
skills.
148. Most of the people from disadvantaged population groups have low education levels and
almost no opportunity to find employment in the formal labor market. On the other hand, the
employers cannot fill vacant positions due to the lack of adequately skilled applicants, which slows
down economic growth all over the country.
149. Of the total economically active population 50% (about 8 Mio) are employed in the
formal labor market, roughly 25% (4 to 5 Mio) in the informal labor market and another 25%
(4 Mio) is unemployed but actively seeking employment. Taking into account the vast number of
unreported cases, unemployment rates are estimated to range between 35 and 45%.
150. Following the elections in April 2009, the government of President Jacob Zuma
established six new ministries, including the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET).
As from November 2009 all functions concerning the occupational learning system, including the
National Skills Fund, were transferred from the Department of Labor (DoL) to DHET. The transitional
phase has been difficult and lengthy.
151. Skills development in the informal sector. High rates of unemployment force many
people to seek employment in the informal sector. There are approximately 750 000 informal
businesses. These businesses employ an estimated 1.6 million people, which means that up to 5
million South Africans live partly or fully from the income generated from micro enterprises. The
majority of them is lacking capital and skills and therefore tends to embark on simple self-employment
ventures: predominantly hawkers (selling mostly perishable products), spaza shops (convenience
retailer operating from a room in a house) and shebeens (selling beer and other sorts of liquor), but
also manufacturing, construction, and a variety of simple services. Consequently there is a lot of
duplication which is overcrowding the market and thus threatening to aggravate their problems of low
market demand.
152. The immediate objective is to intervene broadly and coherently in the informal sector
(second economy) in order to assist and encourage as many people as possible to realize their
economic potential. Interventions should be geared to improving the quality of life of the poor, basic
services and infrastructure and lay the foundations for rising standards of living through access to new
forms of income generation. In this context, the need for skills training for the informal sector has
been given high priority.
153. South Africa has made some efforts to bridge the skills gap and has included the second
economy in the National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS) since 2005.
154. The 1998 Skills Development Act established a skills levy as a financing mechanism.
While 80 percent of the skills levy goes to the first (formal) economy via the SETAs, 20 percent is
earmarked for skills development for the un- and under-employed including emerging entrepreneurs in
the informal sector via the National Skills Fund (NSF). Thus the NSF is a critical vehicle to provide
urgently needed skills training for the informal sector. Particularly the Social Development Funding
Window (SDFW) is meant to support self-employment initiatives in the small and micro scale sectors
and to provide practical assistance (i.e. training) to unemployed and under-employed people.
155. Yet, the operational efficiency of the National Skills Fund needs to be improved to train
more unemployed people, in line with the National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS) targets and
to provide increased access to learners in response to labor market demands
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5.1 Skills Development Interventions13
5.1.1 Basic Entrepreneurial Skills Development (BESD) Program, South Africa14
156. The South African Basic Entrepreneurial Skills Development (BESD) Program was
launched to contribute towards increasing the prospects of disadvantaged people for self-employment
in the informal labor market (second economy) through skills development. The BESD approach
entails 18.5 months one-on-one entrepreneurial training/coaching at business premises once a week,
technical training depending on demand, Business Clubs for providing useful business information
and group mentoring for receptive entrepreneurs.
157. Both the coaching and the technical training stand in contrast to the conventional practice
of classroom/workshop based training where subject matters are biased to theoretical learning. With
this method and the given target groups of low educational backgrounds the knowledge conveyed is
often too abstract to be applied in a real working environment. The feature that differentiates the
BESD methodology from skills development interventions of that kind is the inclusion of a one-on-
one coaching approach at the site of the Emerging Entrepreneur‟s (EE) operation. The teaching is
demand led and responds directly to the production and service cycle of the emerging entrepreneur.
Thus, BESD is an innovative skills development approach for people in the informal sector, it is
geared to establish and sustain micro and small enterprises.
158. Key features of the approach include:
Demand-led training (coaching) and support
On-site training (coaching) and situational learning
Coaching and mentorship learning programs
Local/regional training delivery
Networks and co-operation with other organizations
Utilizing local resources.
159. At the core of the BESD concept are the Entrepreneurial Development Practitioners
(EDPs) who, after receiving training, work at the interface between the EEs, i.e. the learners and the
Education and Training Providers (ETP) who employ the EDPs and have the overall responsibility for
the training services to be delivered. The EDPs follow a specific, demand-led methodology in their on-
site provision of training and support to the EEs.
160. The EDP-training includes work-based experience; it focuses on generic basic entrepre-
neurial skills such as basic entrepreneurship, bookkeeping, marketing and customer care, financial
management and the compilation of a business plan. This content is complemented by a coaching
module designed to train the EDPs to apply a one-on-one coaching methodology when imparting skills
to the EEs. At the core of the capacity building process is the need for the EDPs to become responsive
to the needs of EEs. That is to say, they have to tailor their coaching modules to the education level
and needs of the emerging entrepreneurs.15
161. The involved EEs are invited to join a business club where experts are invited to discuss
specific overall topics such as banking and the function of chambers among others. In order to
facilitate further growth and additional exposure for particularly adaptive businesses a group
mentorship was introduced. For mentoring, the EEs are clustered according to sectors and matched
with a mentor with sector related experience.
13 We have chosen to only describe one project, because there is an ongoing GIZ study about the approaches and impacts of non-formal training in South Africa, which will contribute additional information by December
14 The project was developed by the Employment and Skills Development Service Program/GIZ and the Employment Services branch of the Department of Labor as part of a range of integrated income generation and skills development interventions.
15 A full evaluation of the training received by EDPs is provided in: Evaluation of the Basic Entrepreneurial Skills Development (BESD) approach in Bloemfontein and Botshabelo, Centre for Development Support, University of the Free State, Commissioned by Department of Labour and German Technical Co-Operation, 2007
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162. Financing. The BESD training programs were integrated into local employment
development programs. In close cooperation with the Department of Labor and the provincial labor
offices, the project developed guidelines for the implementation of the Social Development Funding
Window (SDFW) of the National Skills Fund (NSF).16
The respective manual includes all processes
and procedures from provincial skills planning and implementation to claiming funds. Furthermore, it
describes all processes involved in BESD management, administration and monitoring. Along these
guidelines and after the BESD methodology was tested and further developed, the DoL approved NSF
funding of several project sites. However, due to the function shift from DOL to DHET, the
implementation of the BESD project has slowed down and the money flow from NSF has stopped for
the time being.
163. Monitoring. Regular evaluation reports have been used to modify contents and
methodology jointly with training providers and trainers (Entrepreneurship Development Practitioners
– EDPs). The process has enhanced performance and created ownership.
164. Financing. The costs of the EE coaching (2010):
In the case where a BESD site comprises an average of 100 emerging entrepreneurs (e.g.
Nelspruit 90, Modimolle 110) and training is provides as envisaged (73 training days over
the period of 18.5 months the costs per coaching session is 346 Rand, the total amounts to
2, 525, 800 Rand which is approximately 252,500 Euro (excluding EDP training).
The costs for the EDP training in the case of on average 12 EDP learners and 133 training
days amount to 316, 008 Rand (198 Rand per person per day) for the period of just over 6
months. The figure could be slightly different as some training days for basic calculations
and Impact Monitoring System (IMS) training need to be added to the training schedule.
The EDPs do receive a daily allowance of about R33 to pay for travel and lunch costs.
165. DoL has criticized the costs of EE-training as being too high while it is within the limits
of the national expenditure allowances for training of similar target groups – though at its upper end.
The discussions with stakeholders revealed that it is strongly believed that the cost benefit ratio is
highly balanced because beneficiaries make use of their training and are able to sustain their business
which was in contrast to experiences with short course programs. Of course, the greater success of the
BESD approach as compared to other training interventions is only a very commonly assumed
hypothesis. Deeper analysis and research would be needed to verify/falsify such an assumption.
166. Achievements. At the time of evaluation (June 2010) 8 sites were operational in 7
provinces; 111 EDPs and +/-200 EEs had completed training while 600 EEs were still participating in
training.
167. Detailed evaluation reports17
reveal that 90% of the EEs broadened their customer base,
80% increased their turnover and profit and 33% expanded their business floor space. Many EEs
confirmed that they were able to offer additional employment both permanent and non-permanent. On
the basis of 400 interviews (200 who had finished training and 200 who were shortly to finish) on
average one new workplace was created per enterprise. As compared to the economic situation in the
townships this is a substantial achievement. Taking into account that most EEs were underemployed
and insecure about their businesses at the time of selection, even their newly gained ability to sustain
their enterprise could be seen as some form of employment creation.
16 The National Skills Fund was administered by DoL until it was shifted to the responsibility of DHET. It is made up of 20% of
the total skills levy paid by employers and is used to address significant national skills priorities. Funds are allocated through a range of funding windows. The allocation of funds is determined by the National Skills Authority. The principal funding windows deal with strategic projects, social development initiatives, innovation and research, and a bursary program to support students to study in areas of scarce skills. The Social Development Funding Window (SDFW) is meant to support self-employment initiatives in the small and micro scale sectors and to provide practical assistance (i.e. training) to unemployed and under-employed people.
17 Evaluation of the Basic Entrepreneurial Skills Development (BESD) approach in Bloemfontein and Botshabelo, 2007 and 2008, Centre for Development Support, University of the Free State, Commissioned by Department of Labour and German Technical Co-Operation, May 2009,
Evaluation of the Basic Entrepreneurial Skills Development (BESD) approach in Modimolle/Bela-Bela and Nelspruit (Mbombela), Centre for Development Support, University of the Free State, Commissioned by Department of Labour and German Technical Co-Operation, March 2010
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168. Furthermore, the introduction of the business clubs and group mentorship encourages
peer learning. The methodology, which was geared to „awaken new possibilities‟ for the participating
EE‟s, has stimulated new ideas and business innovation. It also has fostered networking between
business owners.
169. Unfortunately there was no respective evaluation of short term courses for emerging
entrepreneurs available and therefore no data for comparing the outcome of the different types of
interventions. However, research evidence from informal sector studies in other countries suggests far
less tangible results.
170. Project support was not only confined to informal businesses, it also embarked on
training delivery to unemployed would-be entrepreneurs (WBE) though to only a very small extent.
Due to the lack of already existing enterprises training was done in the conventional classroom
manner. The course was providing a platform for confidence and competence building and
empowering participants to identify economic opportunities and start their own micro enterprise. The
evaluation of the training course concluded that its ability to produce new entrepreneurs was limited
because such program as compared to the demand driven EE training was more supply driven. It was
also reported that the motivation of participants was less because the course did not provide access to
financing and other post-training support.
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6. Summary of Experiences and Lessons Learned
6.1 Summary of the Case Studies
Project Main Targets Main Features Quality Assurance Funding Reported Achievements and Impact
Local
Skills
Develop-
ment
Network
(LSD),
Uganda
• Provide technical skills
training and skills-based
literacy education for people
with low education, the
unemployed and
underemployed in rural
areas
• Provide training and
learning experiences that
extend the ability of people
to take control of their lives
and increase their chances
of sustainable livelihood
• Stimulate entrepreneurial
behavior (if the group‟s
objective entails economic
activities for income
generation)
• Provide sensitization
programs on gender and
violence against women to
promote social equity in the
groups and respective
families
• Follow an output-oriented
approach, from identifying a
problem or shared interest to
generating a group learning
solution to it
• The time to implement LSD
at local level takes up to 2
years: Introduction;
capacity-building, incl.
Learning Group (LG)
formation & feasibility;
training cycles, incl.
literacy; formation of local
LG Networks
• Training happens directly in
the village
• Facilitators guide the
process in the LGs
• Both men and women have
equal say in their respective
groups
• Learning contents were
adapted to the livelihood
conditions
• Interventions were built on
existing knowledge and
social networks
• A strategic plan, guiding
rules and policies of the
network were jointly
developed
• The network has been
registered with the local
government
administration who
offers technical support
and training
• The local council
administration,
community
development officers,
and program
coordinators monitor
the program
• Regular reports are
submitted to the Sub-
County Office, the
District Development
Officer, and the Local
Government Council
• The initial plan to
register for UVQF was
given up due to do to
the lack of adequate
testing mechanisms and
because it was not seen
as a priority
requirement
• Low costs through
o Training sessions
conducted in the
field and at
participants‟ busi-
ness properties
o Locally recruited
trainers and other
service providers
are, mostly
former LSD
program
participants
• Annual membership
subscription and a
group members‟
saving scheme
• Service fees
• The initial program revolved into a Community-
based Organization of 542 members with an
organizational structure, growing from 14 to 25
groups after donor funding ended.
• The program has fosters self-reliance, mutual
decision making and problem solving
• Participants were able to access external resources
and information
• About a third of all participants were able to start
some kind of income generation, e.g.
o An unemployed youth now makes a living
from a bakery
o A widow makes a living from pumpkin and
passion fruit sales
• Improved financial gains from application of
acquired agricultural skills
• Women and marginalized youth hold
participatory leadership positions in their groups
• Members of the HIV/AIDS group access
medication, testing and counseling through
linkages to service providers
• The improved financial situation led to improved
living standards and higher social status in the
community
• The concept is replicated by WFP and
SWISSCONTACT.
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Project Main Targets Main Features Quality Assurance Funding Reported Achievements and Impact
Gulu
Youth
Develop-
ment
Associ-
ation
(GYDA),
Uganda
• Mitigate the lack of training
facilities in refugee camps
in Northern Uganda
through:
o Enabling conflict-affected
youth to challenge their
unemployment problems
so as to live a healthy life
and participate in social
and feasible economic
activities
o Developing and maintain-
ing a non-formal training
center to equip the generally
under-privileged disad-
vantaged youth with life
skills and basic employ-
ment oriented vocational
skills
o Maintaining community
outreach units to empower
rural communities to gain
more income through
agricultural activities
o Establishing networks to
share resources and infor-
mation with institutions
and organizations offering
similar services
• Minimum training period of
one year (currently 380
participants)
• Practical orientation
through training cum
production
• Products have to meet real
needs in the community,
e.g.
o Infrastructure
development
o Provision of mobility
aids
• Technical training is
supplemented by functional
literacy/ numeracy skills
• Extracurricular activities
such as theater and dance as
well as those to mitigate the
spread of HIV/AIDS are
integrated training issues
• A day-care center enables
young mothers to attend
training
• Operate under the
guidelines of
UGAPRIVI, DIT, and
set their own standards
• Still use own testing
and certification, hope
for the further
development of the
UVQF to eventually
offer officially recog-
nized certificates
• The involvement of the
community and local
leaders in monitoring
the activities creates a
sense of ownership by
the public and directs
improvement in
performance
• Dependent on donor
subsidies
• Income through
production and
community
advisory services
• Cost reduction
through extensive
use of scrap
materials for
training and
production
• Fostering
innovations in
product quality and
design to gain
additional profits
• Use former trainees
as instructors.
• The center produces highly skilled trainees who
are recognized as good service providers in the
community
• Graduates find employment and self-
employment; some are placed in apprenticeships
to further improve their technical skills
• The program has fostered individual development
and has led to changes in lifestyle:
o Many youth refrain from crime
o Female and disadvantaged people enjoy a
better social status, are able to air their views
and engage in productive work
o On returning to communities, trainees
confidently participate in discussions and
contribute to community decision making
o The outreach units enabled trainees to
gradually integrate productively and gain
some income
• All courses offered are in high demand especially
by communities relocating from the camps
• The program has been replicated in other districts
Compan-
ionship of
Works
Association
(COWA),
Uganda
• Empower less privileged
youth with employable
skills, both formal and non-
formal
• Improve livelihoods and
human values through
education and training
• Training periods of 3 month
up to one year
• Ninety percent of the
training is competence-
based
• Participants are selected
through a participatory
• Quality is guided by the
UGAPRIVI, DIT, the
BTVET Act, and own
policies
• The organization is
governed by a Board of
Directors, an organized
• Ideally the costs are
shared between the
institutions, the
community,
government, and
beneficiaries.
However,
• Out of 500 vulnerable youth who have been
trained, 80% found gainful (self-)employment
• Most of the remaining 20% opted for further
education or training
• A network of about 50 prospective employers
offer placements, share information, and
influence training contents
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Project Main Targets Main Features Quality Assurance Funding Reported Achievements and Impact
initiatives for disadvantaged
and marginalized children,
youth, and women
• Enable youth to establish
and manage their own
enterprise through instilling
entrepreneurship skills
• Social reintegration of
juvenile youth through life
skills and psychosocial
programs
• Address community
demands for skills
upgrading through non-
formal training
approach involving several
organizations and
community leaders
• Training contents and
curricula are flexible, based
on situational analyses in
SMEs, regularly gathered
alumni information, and
tracer studies
• Maintaining contacts to
SMEs for feedbacks and
placement of participants
(both as apprentices and
employees)
• Conducting follow-up
sessions, particularly for
self-employed former
participants
• Networking with other
service providers, especially
other faith-based
organizations
management structure
and management
policies
• It utilizes the core
management structure
of their formal training
offers to implement the
non-formal programs
• Intense monitoring by
the COWA administra-
tors (taking a lot of their
unpaid time)
• Community participa-
tion in screening and
monitoring applicants
ensure access and
retention
government
subventions are not
regular, the
community has no
means to give full
support and the
target groups are
too poor to cover
the training costs
• Donor funding of
specific initiatives,
e.g. toolkits for
graduates
• Running the non-
formal and the
formal programs
concurrently has
enriched both and
eliminated some
costs
• Some income is
achieved through
production and
maintenances
services
• The community has assumed ownership and
continues to mobilize and monitor the
participants
• The community also lobbies for government
funding
African
Centre for
Women,
Informa-
tion and
Commu-
nications
Technology
(ACWICT),
Kenya
• Improve the employability
of young (18-35) women in
the informal settlements in
Nairobi through training in
o ITC
o Entrepreneurship
o Life skills
• Train 1,200 women
• Place 70%
• Create a web-based
database of job seekers
• Introduced an outcomes
measurement system which
incl. surveys at 3 stages,
before, at completion of,
and 6 month after training
• Training comprised of 40
hours life skills
(compulsory), 60 hours
basic computer training
and/or 50 hours
entrepreneurship
• The outcomes
management system is
the main instrument for
judging the quality of
the program
• Successful trainees get
an internal certificate
• All programs are
dependent on donor
funding;
participants can
only be requested to
pay a minor
commitment fee
• 1,105 young women were trained
• 52% were placed (envisaged were 70%):
o 41% found a job
o 31% involved in voluntary community
services
o 15% were self-employed
o 5% were involved in an internship.
• 26% continued school or training
• All in all only a quarter of the completers gained
an income
• Only about a quarter of the completers used the
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Project Main Targets Main Features Quality Assurance Funding Reported Achievements and Impact
• Establish a network of
private enterprises and
government institutions for
supporting placements of
completers
• Organized quarterly career
fairs to connect completers
with employers
• Gave placement support
through:
o Job information
o Recommendation to
employers
o Preparation of business
plans
o Incubation of new
businesses
placement services, most of the others felt not
sufficiently informed
• 70% of the participants stated that the life skills
training helped them the most in their self-
improvement
• 96% of the participants appreciated the quality of
the training program
• 40 % of the participants as well as employers
demanded more advanced technical skills
• The evaluation results led to changes in the
ongoing Samsung Real Dreams Program in terms
of course content and time allocation; the
placement rate was thus raised to 77% (from 52%)
Streng-
thening
Informal
Sector
Training
and
Enter-
prise
(SITE),
Kenya
• Support informal sector
development through skills
training directly at the
enterprise
• Upgrade technical and
managerial skills of masters
• Provide quality training to
apprentices
• Strengthen VT institutions
to support informal sector
training on an ongoing basis
• Selection of training fields
and contents was based on
initial needs assessments
• ToT for instructors at
involved institutions and for
individual consultants
• ToT for masters to make
apprenticeship more
effective
• Concepts and contents of
training were decided in a
participatory process
• Sought active support of
SME organizations
• Stimulate masters to
provide more business
exposure to their
apprentices
• Joint monitoring and
evaluation with masters
and associations of
changes in enterprise
performance
• The total costs per
training were high
at the beginning of
the project, but
declined by 79%
due to the higher
involvement of
masters in training
delivery
• Due to larger
awareness of the
potential benefits
from training, the
participants‟
contribution rose
from 7% of indirect
costs at the
beginning to 77%
towards the end of
the projects.
• Generally improved work organization
• 73% of the masters improved their products or
made new ones
• Masters improved their training methods and
organization, and raised the number of
apprentices by 15-20%
• The turnover increased by 57% and profits by
25%
Business
Services
Market
• Improve pro-poor economic
growth opportunities in key
sub-sectors where the poor
• Market needs assessment
• Interventions addressed
each level of the value
• Through KDB
• National and regional
Dairy Regulators
• 24 grants between
DFID and
DANIDA worth
• Formalization of the industry stemming from
training on quality
o Certification of trainers
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Project Main Targets Main Features Quality Assurance Funding Reported Achievements and Impact
Develop-
ment
Program
(BSMDP)
–
Dairy
Sector
Develop-
ment
Compo-
nent,
Kenya
are economically active
• Promote sustainable
business services and
strengthen the
competitiveness of the
economically active poor
• Link small enterprises
forward towards sustainable
market access
chain in the dairy sub-sector
• Local facilitators were
upgraded to deliver training
• Small milk traders were
trained in handling the milk
products safely and suppor-
ted in legalizing their business
• The Kenyan Dairy Board
(KDB) and the Ministry of
Health were supported
creating an enabling
environment
• Small milk farmers were
trained to achieve better
product quality and higher
quantities
• Support was also given to
chilling hubs, artificial
insemination, among others
Consultative Forums
• Formation of regional
and district stakeholders
committees
2.75 million Euros
o Approval of training courses
o Increased consultation
o Branding of KDB Quality
• 5000 traders were trained
• 2000 traders were certified and recognized by the
Kenyan Dairy Board with the rest in progress
during the evaluation
• Traders confirmed to have upgraded their
equipment, improved their services, had more
turnover, and made more profit
• The service model was replicated by other
funders and investors
Basic
Entrepre
neurial
Skills
Develop-
ment
(BESD)
Program
, South
Africa
• Increase the prospect of
disadvantaged people for
self-employment in the
informal labor market
• Promote emerging
entrepreneurs to develop
and sustain micro and small
enterprises
• 18.5 month one-on-one
entrepreneurial training at
the business premises
• Technical training on
demand
• Establishment of Business
Clubs for information
exchange
• Group mentoring
• Establishment of networks
and cooperation with other
organizations
• Regular evaluation
reports
• Transparency and
governance through
stakeholder consultation
• Funding by GIZ
and NSF
• At the time of evaluation (June 2010) 8 sites were
operational in 7 provinces; 111 EDPs and +/-200
EEs had completed training while 600 EEs were
still participating in training
• 90% of the EEs broadened their customer base,
80% increased their turnover and profit and 33%
expanded their business floor space
• On average, one new workplace was created per
enterprise
• the business clubs and group mentorship
encourages peer learning, stimulated new ideas
and business innovation and has fostered
networking between business owners
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6.2 Lessons Learned
Training of disadvantaged target groups is most successful when it comprises technical,
entrepreneurial, and life skills. Dependent on the target groups‟ educational background,
functional literacy/numeracy should be added (LSD, GYDA outreach units, COWA,
AKWICT).
The introduction of functional, skills based literacy/numeracy proved to increase the
outcome of technical skills training (LSD, GYDA outreach units).
Life skills including generic skills such as formation of learner groups, team work,
problem solving, and resource mobilization and saving skills have proved to enhance
individual self-esteem prerequisite for socio-economic participation (LSD, GYDA
outreach units, COWA, ACWICT).
Sensitization programs about HIV/AIDS, abuse of women, and social equity are
important crosscutting issues; they foster awareness and enables affected participants to
seek support (LSD, GYDA, COWA).
The development of structured financial guidelines and a long term strategic plan has
proved to be a helpful instrument for project planning and implementation (LSD) as well
has the linkage of public and own guidelines improved quality insurance (GYDA,
COWA).
Well trained trainers/facilitators are crucial for the quality of training delivery (COWA,
BSMDP, BESD).
Joint business viability and skill needs assessment with informal sector enterprises and
their representatives are vital to enhance employment opportunities (COWA, SITE,
BESD).
Regular evaluations of labor market outcomes have proved necessary to monitor the
implementation process and to adjust training to changing market conditions (COWA,
ACWICT, BESD).
The involvement of local governments in planning and monitoring skills development
measures is an important means for aligning training offers to local and community
development needs and opens possibilities for support (GYDA, COWA).
Involving the community in the selection of trainees and into monitoring their progress
creates interest, responsibility, and ownership (COWA).
The involvement of target group in the planning of the training programs (participative
planning) enhances the motivation of participants (LSD, SITE).
Day care centers at training institution enable access to training for young mothers
(GYDA).
Informal sector craftspeople are willing to pay more fees once they see the positive
impact of training (SITE).
Complementary services provided in center based training that link completers to the
labor market, i.e. job placement, apprenticeship, life skills training, counseling and
follow-up have a positive influence on training outcomes (COWA, ACWCT).
3 months of training is too short to convey skills for gainful employment to young people
with little education and no work experience (COWA, GYDA).
Skills development in the context of a comprehensive value chain approach with a focus
on markets and reaching small enterprises to link them forward towards sustainable
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market access have the potential of reaching a large number of people and can lead to
immediate employment and income opportunities (BSMDP).
Financing training for disadvantaged and poor target groups cannot be borne by the
participants and the NGOs alone; it needs funding from additional resources (all).
Using local resources and scrap materials for production reduce training costs (GYDA).
Training delivery has to be flexible; taking into consideration the opportunity costs of
master craftspeople (SITE) and the household obligations of women (LSD).
The primary motivation for the master craftspeople is not providing training but
achieving increased income from the productive activities of their businesses, similarly
their motivation for receiving training is limited unless it is provided in the broader
context of business improvement (SITE, BESD).
Training interventions directly at the SMEs proved a useful entry point for upgrading the
level of technology of MSEs (SITE, BESD).
Formal vocational training institutions in their traditional form and structure appear to
have little potential for employment promotion in the informal sector. Cooperation
proved difficult, partly due to structural constraints to collaborate, and partly due to a lack
of commitment and ability to work with the project‟s target groups (SITE).
There is scope to promote independent trainers as providers of informal sector SME
training and other services to this sector (SITE, BSMDP, BESD).
The collaboration and good will of the informal SME associations are of prime
importance to mobilize and work with MSEs (COWA, SITE).
It is possible and practical to upgrade informal sector enterprises through carefully
targeted development of both technical and entrepreneurial skills; project evaluations
revealed that there is a distinct application of the new skills which appears to result in
increased growth, innovation and productivity of the participating MSEs (SITE, BESD).
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7 Conclusions
171. Skills Development Interventions. There is a large and diversified landscape of non-
formal skills development activities/ initiatives addressing marginalized and poor target groups,
mostly with no further access to formal education and training. A myriad of public, private, non-
profit, and and civil society organizations (CSO) are working hard to offer empowerment,
employment and income generation oriented programs. In addition there are a number of different
ministries (education, labor, gender, industry, agriculture – to name but a few) involved in the
provision of non-formal training. Many of these programs are embedded in poverty reduction
programs and thus not immediately recognized as being connected with the formal training system
172. However, there are only poor or no inventories of non-formal training providers and no
systemized information and data on training efforts they make. While individual organizations,
particularly when they are donor funded conduct impact assessments to evaluate the relevance,
effectiveness and efficiency of their programs, there are hardly any tracer studies available to
determine the labor market outcome of employment oriented initiatives. Similarly, there is only little
information available about costs, management and governance structure, particularly with regard to
(non-formal) programs runs by formal training institutions. As a result it is difficult to identify them
and assess the impact of their training respectively. For these reasons there may be valid approaches to
non-formal training which it has not been possible to take into account within the framework of this
study.
173. During the course of our investigation, we were able to find comprehensive evaluations
of 7 projects in the targeted countries, which had achieved the expected impact on the situation of the
addressed target groups. They can be roughly classified as:
Institution based training courses of 3 months up to 1 year duration (COWA, GYDA,
ACWICT) for improved employability
Local skills development for sustainable livelihoods in rural areas (LSD)
Training programs offering support to informal sector MSEs and traditional
apprenticeship (SITE, BESD)
Value-chain oriented training programs (BSMDP)
174. Relevance and Effectiveness. The objectives and concepts of all above skills
development measures are well in line with the needs of the target groups, the policies of the
respective country and the global development goals. Improving enterprise development,
employability and individual livelihoods through skills/human resource development are priority
themes of the countries‟ development strategies. However, the current vocational training systems
have, as yet, not fully embarked on training delivery for people in the informal SME sector or home
based income generating activities. There is no systematic approach to skills development for people
already in or seeking to enter the informal sector or wanting to improve or supplement their agriculture
related activities. Many of the training offers are supply driven, not based on market assessments and
just duplicating formal sector training at very low levels. On the other hand there are some very
effective programs, particularly from NGOs, which cannot be replicated due to a lack of inventory and
information exchange.
175. The case studies in this report throw light on the importance of skills development for
both economic and social progress of disadvantaged target groups. The key question for the evaluation
was how and to what extent the participants‟ prospects and options for employment have been raised
in line with the labor market demands. A number of interlinking instruments affecting relevance and
effectiveness have been identified:
176. Market and Business Viability Assessments. Market needs assessments play an
important role in ensuring that there is measured supply of skills in local economies so as to match
with market demands and avoid duplication. The selected projects developed different approaches to
gather market information:
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177. In the Local Skills Development Network (LSD), training needs were identified through
the community.
178. COWA as a smaller organization with limited financial means was not in the position to
conduct extensive market analyses but they managed to counteract that problem through networking
with SME associations and a large number of individual SMEs. In this way they were able to jointly
assess business viability and skill needs. Additionally, they initiated an association for alumni, to keep
track of market changes and developments. The information gathered by those means was adapted to
the course contents so the employability of completers remained high.
179. The concentration on ITC (ACWICT) was built on available labor market information
and the analysis of labor market outcome 6 months after training, which was an important instrument
for monitoring changes in the training concept.
180. Also the SITE interventions were based on initial local market assessment to choose the
trades to be integrated in the measure. In the subsequent implementation training period training
contents were decided jointly with the involved enterprises.
181. BSMDP selected the dairy sector because, according to initial market analyses, it was a
growing value chain with a lot of smallholder producers and traders at the bottom end. The analysis
also revealed that the small holder producers and traders could be cut off from the end market if they
could not comply with the quality standards and regulations on marketing raw milk. The subsequent
project measures were designed to solve that problem.
182. BESD was working in close cooperation with the district labor offices and jointly
selected underemployed entrepreneurs in the major promising economic fields of the area.
183. Target Groups. Other than in formal education and training institutions, non-formal
training can be provided to people from different educational backgrounds, ranging from illiterate
persons up to those with much higher educational achievements. Similarly, it can be structured to suit
preferences based on differences in age, the individual socio-economic situation, and geographical
context such as rural, urban and post conflict areas. The specific target group criteria impact on the
individuals‟ capacity to learn and communicate as well as on their future plans and ambitions.
184. People at low education levels have little chances of securing a job in the formal sector;
they are looking for options to generate income in order to sustain themselves and their families.
Consequently, training has to be geared to subsequent work in the informal or even subsistence sector
– depending on the economic environment a person has to function in. Such objectives would require
not only imparting specific technical skills but the integration of many crosscutting issues such as, for
example, life skills, entrepreneurship, communication skills, literacy and numeracy, health/HIV and
even drama and dancing (LSD, GYDA, COWA).
185. Also the better educated secondary school graduates lack relevant skills to enter the labor
market. Additional non-formal training entailing technical, entrepreneurial and life skills training can
give them the opportunity to translate their general knowledge into occupational skills. (ACWICT)
186. The projects have demonstrated that it is crucial for people to be able to take an active
role in the economy and society. Therefore, life skills training seeks to enable them to voice their
interests and to find appropriate ways to represent them in social processes.
187. Access and Equity. Non-formal training can raise the economic and livelihood
opportunity of people with no access to formal education and training. It offers the chance to
participate in structured learning processes that lead to productive work and employment and lay a
basis for participation in social and political life: The project examples in this study catered for:
People from poor socio-economic backgrounds who rarely enter formal training because
of expensive fees and high opportunity costs caused by long training durations (all)
Young people who dropped out of school before completing primary school, particularly
LSD, GYDA, COWA. Also the other projects had no explicit educational entry
requirements, but depending on the level of skills conveyed, participants would have
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higher education levels e.g. ACWICT (70%), which is the only organization providing
respective data at all.
Females who often suffer from social access barriers (all, ACWICT in particular)
Young mothers (GYDA)
Persons with disabilities (GYDA)
Adults who want to upgrade or learn new skills (LSD, SITE, BSMDP, BESD)
Persons living in rural areas with long distance to training centers (LSD, GYDA
community outreach units)
188. The largest absorption capacity of young people is provided by traditional
apprenticeships. They absorb more out of school youth than formal post-primary vocational
education and training programs, for example, in Uganda 50,000 and 36,000 respectively.
Apprenticeship is an important means of skills acquisition, particularly for young people with no
access to formal training, which is hardly supported. Effective and well-demanded approaches such as
the SITE project which targeted the development of skills for apprentices and master craftspeople are
not further implemented. Also the BESD approach, which promoted informal SME growth leading to
more employment including larger capacity to take on apprentices, is in a limbo because of the
function shift of departmental responsibilities.
189. The current education and training systems largely neglect training for people who work
in the informal sector though both approaches have shown that workers and MSEs in the informal
sector can raise their productivity and incomes through targeted technical and business skills training
directly at the enterprise, especially when combined with access to market information and business
services, and linked with market developments.
190. Skills Development Needs. To plan the design of effective interventions to support
employability, it is helpful to distinguish between the different types of skill demands. This is
especially important as not all interventions will be appropriate or cost effective for all entities in the
informal sector.
191. Income generating entities such as home based enterprises have limited growth potential,
and would best be supported by assisting rural communities to improve or diversify their activities
(LSD, GYDA community outreach units).
192. Micro and small enterprises use traditional methods mixed with more modern, but
obsolete, technology. They have modest technical and management skills and lack access to capital.
Most of them have some potential for growth, and would benefit from acquiring more modern
technology/equipment and additional technical and entrepreneurial skills to improve the standard,
range and volume of their products (SITE, BESD).
193. The more sophisticated the type of occupation, the higher the demand for refined skills.
Additional skill demands, for example, are with respect to broader business management skills in the
areas of financial management, human resource management, business viability assessments, and ICT,
among others. More advanced enterprises would also need improved skills in quality control, handling
modern technology, stores/inventory management and knowledge about fiscal regulations.
Pedagogical skills would also be necessary in respect of enterprises embarking on delivery of
apprenticeship training (several aspects of the above were tackled by ACWICT, SITE, and BESD).
194. Skills delivery has to adapt to the specific and fast-changing labor requirements and
account for the different needs of urban and rural areas; it should therefore be designed with the direct
involvement of the target groups. It has to raise understanding about the roles and structure of civil
society organizations such as producer groups, associations etc. and to build awareness and foster
proactive participation in decision making processes (LSD, COWA, SITE, BESD).
195. The productive and social potential of many people, particularly unemployed youths,
remains untapped. In the rural areas, there is a visible lack of opportunities for the development of
skills which are adapted to the specific working and living conditions in poor rural environments and
which are geared towards the empowerment of people who live there. In this respect skill demands
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derive from the specific socio-cultural and economic environment and the need to participate in
economic and social processes. (LSD, GYDA community outreach units).
196. Broader skill demands in this respect depend on the improvement of agricultural supply
chains (value chains) which can only be developed in the framework of a supportive policy and
institutional environment, the availability of credit and technical support, and access to markets and
functioning infrastructure (BSMDP).
197. Instructors/Facilitators. The quality of training depends greatly on the competence of
the instructors. However, it is difficult to find qualified instructors for many non-formal training
programs. Trainers at formal training centers are not prepared for that; there is no instructor training
instilling essential understanding and the conceptual background of the processes involved in
providing skills necessary for raising productivity in informal sector businesses. Such training would
have to address sector specific challenges and prospects in terms of applying and upgrading workplace
technology and business management as well as using target group related teaching methodologies.
Furthermore, occupation oriented training requires instructors, who are able to build networks with
local communities, assess skills demands and match them with the specific needs and aptitudes of a
given target group, and develop or modify curricula respectively. Against this background, most of the
projects we looked at took steps (e.g. capacity building; information exchange with informal sector
associations, local governments, community leaders, and other service providers working with
disadvantaged target groups) to develop or improve the competences of instructors/facilitators.
198. Some projects recruited former participants and upgraded them (LSD and GYDA).
COWA employed formally trained trainers and upgraded them for the tasks at hand, while the SITE
project embarked on upgrading master craftspeople to train their apprentices more effectively.
BSMDP conducted comprehensive ToT courses to develop facilitators for upgrading small raw milk
traders and the BESD project built a pool of local facilitators for the one-one-one training directly at
the enterprise. Both of the latter projects envisaged that those trainers eventually could offer their
services at a commercial basis.
199. Job Placement Counseling and Follow-up. It is generally assumed that, depending on
what course graduates are likely to do, a number of complementary services and follow-ups will have
to be introduced such as counseling, job placement, and business start-up courses to further improve
their job opportunities. However, most providers have not the means to render such services unless
they get donor support. Only COWA had built a large network of SME employers where they manage
to place employees and arrange apprenticeship for completers who need to further professionalize
their skills. In addition they promote business starters in terms of support for enterprise establishment
(start-up tools when they find a donor), follow-up interventions, and mentorship. These instruments
proved very successful looking at the record of employment of 80% of their completers. While other
projects reported that they had stopped to provide start-up tools because they were widely misused,
this measure appears to be very valid in combination with mentorship.
200. Also ACWICT is trying to link their training measures with employment and start-up
services by one-on-one career counseling, distributing CVs to potential employers, informing
completers about job options, arranging career fairs, and helping to prepare business plans, including
submitting the plans to microfinance institutions for possible funding support. While the interventions
were not fully understood by many participants at the beginning, the organization has taken measures
to make them more transparent and also took advice from employers to improve the technical training.
The measures show much better results to date.
201. Coordination and Cooperation. In order to improve the target groups‟ opportunities for
employment and sustainable income generation and for effective entrepreneurship promotion and
small enterprise development there is need for networking with stakeholders and other service
providers i.e. business development and micro credit services, private sector organizations and SME
associations, chambers, local government institutions and other training providers among others. Most
of the case studies revealed that such networks would be essential for information exchange, sharing
of resources, avoiding duplication, linking different services and adapting training to local
development needs. Attendant joint analyses are crucial to keep information flow, review progress,
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and understand relationships and interaction at all levels of project work. SME associations‟ in
particular would play a vital role in the governance structure of skills development measures,
planning, monitoring/evaluation, participation in training delivery and lobbying.
202. Broader coordination and cooperation is still weak. Despite some efforts in this direction
there are no structures or forums in place for mutual information exchange and joint decision making
of larger groups of stakeholder representatives. There is, however, some successful cooperation
between individual stakeholders. The Ugandan projects coordinate some of the training contents with
the Uganda Association of Private Training Institutions (UGAPRIVI). LSD is supported by local
government institutions in identifying training needs and in monitoring their interventions. The
activities of the GYDA center are monitored by the District Education Officers, District
Commissioners, and Local Council members. COWA and SITE have built strong relationships with
SMEs and their associations which impacts positively on their market orientation and placement of
completers.
203. Management. Not much information was found about the management and
organizational capacity of the organizations and thus we cannot draw conclusions on best practices in
terms of effectiveness of the project outcomes.
204. Some of the projects were managed directly by the donor organization (BSMDP). This is
generally a guarantee of efficiency so long as the donor organization continues to oversee the running
of the project. It is, however, difficult to judge how sustainable the success of these projects will be in
the long term period.
205. In other cases committed individuals ensure good management practice (GYDA), but
again it is impossible to gauge the long-term sustainability of these activities once the individuals
concerned cease to oversee the management.
206. In all cases there has been insufficient evaluation of the relationship between
management and project sustainability. For this reason it is difficult to make a differentiated judgment
on the respective contributions of management practice, on the one hand, and the approach adopted by
the project, on the other, towards the success of the training measure.
207. For the future it would be important to consider how monitoring and evaluation of
management practices can be integrated into the assessment of the individual projects.
208. Costs and Financing. Similarly there is only scarce information about financing and
conclusions can only be preliminary. Further analysis of costs and financing is needed to provide
additional empirical results. However, pro-poor growth and informal sector projects suffer from a
critical lack of resources which constraints management, monitoring and evaluation, and research to
structure the activities. Inadequate financing also causes inadequate provision of equipment and
facilities.
209. There is no standard cost structure, as the contexts within which training is undertaken
varies according the type of training that is being provided. However, a number of measures have been
introduced by providers to cover some of the costs or render training delivery more cost effective:
210. Most of the projects collected fees from their participants. Taking into account the limited
resources of the target groups, it is probably not possible to finance all the training costs from fees.
The project examples reveal the need to link fees to the type of training that is being provided.
Participants of the pre-employment training delivered by most organizations were only charge a
commitment fee, while skills upgrading of people already in business could recover a substantial
amount of the training costs through the contributions of participants. The SITE project demonstrated
that fees can be raised once the training has led to tangible progress in the beneficiaries‟ employability
and individual livelihoods. In this respects it could also be considered to progressively charge follow-
up services and post-training counseling,
211. LSD tries to sustain the activities without external funding. The members‟ annual
subscription does not suffice to meet most of the costs. Services to the community are rarely paid for.
The organization tries hard to keep the costs at a minimum level by only hiring local facilitators,
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mostly former participants. In the long run this might endanger the training quality and even the
sustainability of the network.
212. The GYDA program has been funded mainly by donors. The center follows a training
cum production approach, which seems to gain a substantial income (no data available) because it is
hoped that it can sustain the center after the donors phased out. However there is no information about
how many trainees are realistically involved in the production and the time frame for using the
workshops plainly for commercial purposes. Neither is there an evaluation about the competition they
may develop to the small industries they seek to promote. Costs are cut low through the employment
of former trainees as instructors and through the use of scrap material. With regard to training, scrap
material is certainly a cost effective measure. With regard to selling the products, the difference of
profits achieved through using new materials would need further investigation.
213. Also COWA suffers from financial constraints; again the fees cannot cover the costs and
only few profits are made by frequent production orders. However, the organization did manage to
draw some government funding.
214. The training costs of the SITE approach were covered through donor funding. The costs
declined drastically in the course of implementation. This was due to higher training fees (see above)
and a shift in the project approach to using master craftspeople to deliver both practical training and
applied knowledge. Despite the very positive results, the measure was not replicated by SITE or any
other NGO after the termination of donor support.
215. The BESD approach was a pilot in cooperation with the Department of Labor (at that
time responsible for vocational education and training), which included policy advice. In order to
achieve sustainability, it had been decided that funding will be gradually covered by the National
Skills Fund (NSF). In general, the costs for the BESD training delivery approach remained within the
limits of the national expenditure allowances for training of similar target groups. Though the cost
benefit ratio was evaluated highly by stakeholders, additional studies would be necessary to
verify/falsify such an assumption.
216. Many providers struggle to offer relevant and good quality training for poor and
disadvantaged population groups with only scarce resources. The limits on access to funding imply a
barrier to the development of non-formal skills programs and training delivery. There is, as yet, no
systematic approach to non-formal skills delivery in the sample countries and thus no systemic public
funding system.18
Consequently, funding of skills development measures is mostly provided by
donors, including the development of procedures and infrastructure, as part of specific enterprise
development or poverty alleviation programs. The available data reveal that many project activities
have failed to become sustainable after the donors phased out and that providers without access to
external funding often lack the means to deliver the desired quality. This may require reconsideration
of national priorities for funding skills development in the informal economy.
217. Changing Labor Markets. While taking into account marked differences in the overall
economic structure of the countries under discussion, there are significant similarities. In all three
countries there is a very high level of un- and underemployment. A high percentage of the workforce
is employed in the informal sector or in rural labor.
218. Informal sector employment is perceived as an engine for employment growth, but in the
changing global context the informal sector is increasingly threatened by cheap imported products. In
addition, the sector lacks diversification and access to markets. In order to provide a perspective it is
necessary to develop strategies which look further than individual work processes and, instead, focus
on the totality of the value chain. A good example is the BSMDP project. As yet, too little research has
been done into similar approaches in the area of manufacturing.
18 At present only South Africa foresees funding skills development through the National Skills Fund, but limited training
infrastructure combined with bureaucratic procedures have led to a situation of under-spending.
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219. Exploring new markets, value chains and product innovations is essential to develop
skills for productivity. This needs to be done at local levels and requires capacity building of training
providers in market assessment, including the identification of new markets (e.g. “green” skills).
220. Integration of the Formal and Non-formal Training System. The high demand for
skills development in all entities of rural labor and the informal sector has been recognized in the
Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) policies in Uganda, Kenya and South
Africa. In this respect a lot of individual efforts have been made to raise the quality and improve
performance standards through non-formal training. However, in the face of globalization, these
efforts do not suffice to tackle the current challenges of informal businesses.
221. The limitations for MSE and income generation development need to be addressed
through macro-economic policies and deliberate government interventions to complement skills
development, if it is to make an impact on economic compatibility and growth.
222. Establishing a platform for non-formal skills development requires close cooperation and
joint decision making with informal sector operators, business-oriented networks such as MSE
associations, and rural communities, crucial for addressing the unique sectorial problems and
advocating for sector specific interests. A comprehensive approach to interventions needs to be
adopted, to focus on changing enterprise behavior toward investment in skills, including investment in
skills for women, unemployed youth and people with disabilities. The approach has to address the
needs for raising productivity and improving the quality, standards, and reliability of informal
producers, which are prerequisites for participating in broader market-oriented value chains.
223. The issue on how to raise the economic and livelihood opportunity of people with no
access to formal education and training to continue to participate in structured learning processes that
lead to productive work and employment and lay a basis for participation in social and political life
has been crucial in recent policy developments. High priority has been given to the need for reforms
and new approaches towards an integrated TVET system that on the one hand includes education and
training at all levels of complexity, life skills, job skills and entrepreneurship and, on the other hand,
integrates all education and training providers: government institutions, NGOs, COs, private providers
and enterprises.
224. The existing concepts and strategies promote life-long learning and enhance the
opportunity of the individual to find employment and self-employment through increasing equitable
access for disadvantaged groups to education and training and incorporating and supporting training
by non-public providers, both institution and enterprise based. This entails building synergy between
non-public training providers, including MSEs, and government institutions with regard to improving
infrastructure, analyzing skill demands, bridging the gap between training delivery and practical skill
needs in the world of work and recognizing non-formally and informally acquired knowledge and
skills.
225. The implementation of these strategies is still lagging behind. The case studies have
shown that there are a number of very valid and different approaches to raising the skills level of
people who want to enter or are already in informal employment. They offer a broad range of
technical, managerial and business skills including crosscutting aspects of general education (literacy,
numeracy and life skills). As yet, such projects are not fully acknowledged as an important
component of an integrated and diversified TVET system.
226. At TVET system development level there is ample need for:
Recognizing/integrating non-public training providers
Strengthening traditional apprenticeships and enterprise based training
Building cooperation with MSE associations and other informal sector services which are
complementary to training
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Providing support for effective non-formal skills delivery (establishing continuous
information sharing and data exchange on market, informal sector and rural labor
developments, skill demands, program planning, resources, etc.)
Promoting sustainable financing for skills development
Monitoring and evaluating the impact of skills development.
Final remarks by GIZ:
The study highlights various successful projects in the field of skills development for secure
livelihoods. Various aspects could be highlighted that contributed to this outcome. There remain,
however, some areas that should be analyzed in greater depth in the future, as the respective data and
information found was not sufficient. Therefore GIZ recommends ADEA to put emphasis on the
following topics:
In general:
What will be the role of (non-formal) skills development in African countries in the future?
How should this topic be addressed to scale up projects and outreach? (This could be a result
of the Triennial.)
In detail GIZ recommends to focus on the following topics:
What role can and should skills development play in conflict affected regions?
What chances does skills development offer for people with disabilities? How can their needs
be best addressed?
How can Monitoring and Evaluation be improved for non-formal approaches?
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