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PsychologyYear 12 Unit 2: Psychological Theories

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Overview

Summary of the 5 approaches to psychology

A. Biological approach

This approach often explains behaviour in evolutionary terms and explores the role of the nervous system and the endocrine system (hormones). Biological psychologists explore what happens to us physically. They investigate the effect of various chemicals in terms of experiencing pleasure or feeling depressed. They are interested in the function of different parts of the brain (localisation of function) and the influence of genes. They believe that nature is a bigger determinant of behaviour than nurture. They look to see which behaviours occur across cultures (and are therefore genetic rather than culturally defined).

e.g., Addiction: Genetic predisposition towards alcoholism, hereditary factors, chemical changes that take place in the body when using drugs, tolerance (increasing amounts of a drug are needed to obtain the same effect), withdrawal (symptoms and feelings that develop when the user stops taking the drug). Changes in body chemistry through drug use can result in physiological dependence.

B. Behaviourist

The emphasis is on observable behaviour. Learning takes place through reinforcement – look for situations which involve reward or punishment. Remember that there are various types of rewards – e.g. it is rewarding to fit into a group. The emphasis is on observed behaviour. If there are links to certain times there may be patterns of behaviour that have developed through repeated reinforcement. The behaviourist approach also incorporates modelling (imitation the behaviour of others, especially people with high status or authority) and vicarious learning – learning by watching the consequences of other people’s behaviour. An organism may become habituated to a stimulus and no longer respond to it.

e.g., Addiction: effects of drugs are rewarding, drugs reduce negative feelings (negative reinforcement), social learning – modelling by media, family, friends. Association learning through advertising, films – linking an attractive model or actor to alcohol, drugs etc. Positive reinforcement – fitting into peer group.

Summary – behaviour is a learned response to external stimuli. Behaviour is controlled by external stimuli which act as reinforcers.

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C. Cognitive

This approach focuses on the role of mental processes in activities such as learning and visual perception. It seeks to understand the internal processes of the mind such as decision-making, memory and attention. Information processing implies the capacity to change in response to altered situations and think out logical solutions to problems.

e.g., Addiction: drug abuse is automatic processing. Once a drug has been used on several occasions individuals may respond automatically to external cues such as smell, sound. They may also respond to internal cues to celebrate or ‘drown their sorrows’. Whether or not individuals believe they have the skills necessary to achieve a desired outcome affects whether they can break an addiction. Perception of drugs and their acceptability is also important.

D. Psychodynamic approach

This approach explains behaviour in terms of unconscious drives and the dynamics of the id, ego and superego. The conscious mind is the part of the mind that is aware of its thoughts and actions. The unconscious mind is the part of the mind that is repressed. This is where we put things that our conditioning does not allow us to look at. The id is the unconscious pleasure seeking part of ourselves. The superego is our conscience and embodies social values and parental values and the need to conform to socially appropriate behaviours. Conflicts between the different parts of the personality result in anxiety. Defence mechanisms are used to protect the ego from too much anxiety. For example – repression (storing information in the unconscious mind), denial (refusing to accept the reality of a situation), projection (projecting your own faults onto someone else). This approach focuses on the first five years of life. Traumas experienced by a child result in abnormal behaviours as an adult. Freud believed that if a trauma occurs at a particular stage of their development (e.g. oral stage, anal stag, phallic stage etc) fixation occurs. For example, if a child experiences a trauma when they are one year old they may develop an oral fixation – they may eat a lot, smoke etc (anything related to mouth).

Chief motivating factors: Freud believed that the chief motivating factors are sexual drives. The reduction or satisfaction of these drives is restricted by social taboos. Because our drives are often not acceptable, we channel them into more acceptable behaviours.

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e.g., Addiction: Human behaviour is affected by unconscious conflicts. Drugs are used to reduce or conceal the anxiety generated by inner turmoil.

E. Humanistic

Humanistic psychologists believe that every human being is unique and that their experiences are also unique. Their approach focuses on the whole person. They believe that empathy and unconditional positive regard given to a person in therapy can help them on the path towards self-actualisation (fulfilling their potential as a human being). This approach emphasises free-will – people are free to choose how they will behave.

Chief motivating factors: The need for self development or self-actualisation. People are motivated to meet the needs of each level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs e.g. physiological needs – food, water, oxygen, safety needs – protection from anxiety producing situations, social needs – need for a sense of belonging, receiving affection and friendship, self-esteem needs – need for self confidence, self respect, independence as well as status, recognition, appreciation, respect and self-actualising needs – self-development and self-fulfilment, achieving one’s potential and being creative. Feelings of accomplishment and satisfaction.

e.g., Addiction: Using drugs as a way of meeting needs mentioned above – e.g. social needs – fitting into the group, perhaps to mask self-esteem needs etc.

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Checkpoint Two:

Describe 3 key points of the BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH Explain the contribution made to psychological understanding and practiceThis helps us to understand.....

Checkpoint Three:

Describe 3 key points of the PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH

Explain the contribution made to psychological understanding and practiceThis helps us to understand.....

Checkpoint Four:

Describe 3 key points of the HUMANISTIC APPROACH Explain the contribution made to psychological understanding and practiceThis helps us to understand.....

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Checkpoint Five:

Describe 3 key points of the COGNITIVE APPROACH Explain the contribution made to psychological understanding and practiceThis helps us to understand.....

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BIOLOGICAL THEORYBiological psychologists attribute all human behaviour down to their biological make-up. Our genes, brains and nervous systems all play their part in determining how a person will behave.

GENETES & HEREDITY BRAIN STUCTURETHE NERVOUS SYSTEM NEUROTRANSMITTERS & DRUGS

Brain BasicsLying in its bony shell and washed by protective fluid, the brain is the source of all the qualities that define our humanity. The brain is the crown jewel of the human body. The Architecture of the Brain

The brain is like a committee of experts. All the parts of the brain work together, but each part has its own special properties. The brain can be divided into three basic units: the forebrain , the midbrain, and the hindbrain. The hindbrain includes the upper part of the spinal cord, the brain stem, and a wrinkled ball of tissue called the cerebellum. The hindbrain controls the body’s vital functions such as respiration and heart rate. The cerebellum coordinates movement and is involved in learned rote movements. When you play the piano or hit a tennis ball you are activating the cerebellum. The uppermost part of the brainstem is the midbrain, which controls some reflex actions and is part of the circuit involved in the control of eye movements and other voluntary movements. The forebrain is the largest and most highly developed part of the human brain: it consists primarily of the cerebrum and the structures hidden beneath it. For some as-yet-unknown reason, nearly all of the signals from the brain to the body and vice-versa cross over on their way to and from the brain. This means that the right hemisphere primarily controls the left side of the body and the left hemisphere primarily controls the right side. When one side of the brain is damaged, the opposite side of the body is affected. For example, a stroke in the right hemisphere of the brain can leave the left arm and leg paralyzed.

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The Geography of Thought

Each cerebral hemisphere can be divided into sections, or lobes, each of which specializes in different functions. To understand each lobe and its specialty we will take a tour of the cerebral hemispheres, starting with the two frontal lobes which lie directly behind the forehead. When you plan a schedule, imagine the future, or use reasoned arguments, these two lobes do much of the work. One of the ways the frontal lobes seem to do these things is by acting as short-term storage sites, allowing one idea to be kept in mind while other ideas are considered. In the rearmost portion of each frontal lobe is a motor area which helps control voluntary movement. A nearby place on the left frontal lobe called Broca’s area allows thoughts to be transformed into words. When you enjoy a good meal—the taste, aroma, and texture of the food—two sections behind the frontal lobes called the parietal lobes are at work. Reading and arithmetic are also functions in the repertoire of each parietal lobe. As you look at the words and pictures on this page, two areas at the back of the brain are at work. These lobes, called the occipital lobes process images from the eyes and link that information with images stored in memory. Damage to the occipital lobes can cause blindness. The last lobes on our tour of the cerebral hemispheres are the temporal lobes, which lie in front of the visual areas and nest under the parietal and frontal lobes. Whether you appreciate symphonies or rock music, your brain responds through the activity of these lobes. At the top of each temporal lobe is an area responsible for receiving information from the ears. The underside of each temporal lobe plays a crucial role in forming and retrieving memories, including those associated with music. Other parts of this lobe seem to integrate memories and sensations of taste, sound, sight, and touch.

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The Cerebral Cortex

Coating the surface of the cerebrum and the cerebellum is a vital layer of tissue the thickness of a stack of two or three coins. It is called the cerebral cortex, from the Latin word for bark. Most of the actual information processing in the brain takes place in the cerebral cortex. When people talk about "grey matter" in the brain they are talking about this thin rind. The cortex is grey because nerves in this area lack the insulation that makes most other parts of the brain appear to be white. The folds in the brain add to its surface area and therefore increase the amount of grey matter and the quantity of information that can be processed.

Making Connections

The brain and the rest of the nervous system are composed of many different types of cells, but the primary functional unit is a cell called the neuron. All sensations, movements, thoughts, memories, and feelings are the result of signals that pass through neurons. Neurons consist of three parts. The cell body contains the nucleus, where most of the molecules that the neuron needs to survive and function are manufactured. Dendrites extend out from the cell body like the branches of a tree and receive messages from other nerve cells. Signals then pass from the dendrites through the cell body and may travel away from the cell body down an axon to another neuron, a muscle cell, or cells in some other organ. The neuron is usually surrounded by many support cells. Some types of cells wrap around the axon to form an insulating sheath. This sheath can include a fatty molecule called myelin, which provides insulation for the axon and helps nerve signals travel faster and farther. Axons may be very short, such as those that carry signals from one cell in the cortex to another cell less than a hair’s width away.

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Or axons may be very long, such as those that carry messages from the brain all the way down the spinal cord. Synapses are the place where a signal passes from the neuron to another cell. When the signal reaches the end of the axon it stimulates the release of chemicals known as neurotransmitters into the synapse. The neurotransmitters cross the synapse and attach to receptors on the neighbouring cell. These receptors can change the properties of the receiving cell. If the receiving cell is also a neuron, the signal can continue the transmission to the next cell.

Some Key Neurotransmitters at WorkNEUROTRANSMITTER:

Acetylcholine is called an excitatory neurotransmitter because it generally makes cells more excitable. It governs muscle contractions and causes glands to secrete

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hormones. Alzheimer’s disease, which initially affects memory formation, is associated with a shortage of acetylcholine. High levels Acetylcholine = high levels arousal.

GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid) is called an inhibitory neurotransmitter because it tends to make cells less excitable. It helps control muscle activity and is an important part of the visual system. Drugs that increase GABA levels in the brain are used to treat epileptic seizures and tremors in patients with Huntington’s disease. Serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that constricts blood vessels and brings on sleep. It is also involved in temperature regulation. . Low levels Serotonin = high levels depression.Dopamine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in mood and the control of complex movements. The loss of dopamine activity in some portions of the brain leads to the muscular rigidity of Parkinson’s disease. Many medications used to treat behavioural disorders work by modifying the action of dopamine in the brain. Low levels Serotonin = high levels depression.

Draw an example of neurotransmitters being released at the synapse.

For neurons to communicate an electrical impulse called an action potential must travel down the axon. When it reaches the pre synaptic ending it triggers the release of neurotransmitters. When released, these neurotransmitters fit into specific receptors like a phone and its charger. This information is now passed onto the next neuron.

The Whats

What is a neuron?

A neuron is a nerve cell. The brain is made up of approximately 100 billion neurons.

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1. Neurons have specialized projections called dendrites and axons. Dendrites bring information to the cell body and axons take information away from the cell body.

2. Neurons communicate with each other through an electrochemical process.

3. Neurons form specialized connections called "synapses" and produce special chemicals called "neurotransmitters" that are released at the synapse.

It has been estimated that there are 1 quadrillion synapses in the human brain. That's 1015 or 1,000,000,000,000,000 synapses!

One way to classify neurons is by the number of extensions that extend from the neuron's cell body (soma).

Neurons can also be classified by the direction that they send information. Sensory (or afferent) neurons: send information from sensory receptors

(e.g., in skin, eyes, nose, tongue, ears) TOWARD the central nervous system.

Motor (or efferent) neurons: send information AWAY from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.

Interneurons: send information between sensory neurons and motor neurons. Most interneurons are located in the central nervous system.

Did you know?

Neurons are the oldest and longest cells in the body! You have many of the same neurons for your whole life. Although other cells die and are replaced, many neurons are never replaced when they die. In fact, you have fewer neurons when you are old compared to when you are young. On the other hand, data published in November 1998 show that in one area of the brain (the hippocampus), new neurons CAN grow in adult humans. Neurons can be quite large - in some neurons, such as corticospinal neurons (from motor cortex to spinal cord) or primary afferent neurons (neurons that extend from the skin into the spinal cord and up to the brain stem), can be several feet long!

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How big is the brain? How much does the brain weigh?

The adult human brain weighs between 1300 g and 1400 g (approximately 3 lbs). A newborn human brain weighs between 350 and 400 g. For comparison:

elephant brain = 6,000 gchimpanzee brain = 420 grhesus monkey brain = 95 gbeagle dog brain = 72 g cat brain = 30 grat brain = 2 g

The invention and advancement of brain scanning technology, along with other discoveries in the medical field have made the Biological perspective increasingly popular.

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The Human Brain(Image courtesy of the Mammalian Brain Collection)

Left hand/Right hand DifferencesComplete Left/Right Dominance Quiz to assess your preference.

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Checkpoint One:

Describe 3 key points of the BIOLOGICAL APPROACH Explain the contribution made to psychological understanding and practice

This helps us to understand.....

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BEHAVIOURAL THEORY

The Beginnings of

Behaviourism

John Broadus Watson (January 9, 1878 - September 25, 1958) was an American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviourism. He is famous for boasting, facetiously, that he could take any 20 human infants, and by applying behavioural techniques, could create whatever kind of person ("beggar, butcher man, thief") he desired. Naturally, he admitted that this claim was far beyond his means--noting, merely, that earlier psychologists had made such claims for decades.

With his behaviourism, Watson put the emphasis on external behaviour of people and their reactions on given situations, rather than the internal, mental state of those people. In his opinion, the analysis of behaviours and reactions was the only objective method to get insight in the human actions.

Watson also believed that children had no inborn tendencies, but rather were shaped by their environments. That is, children were largely influenced by their parents and other significant people in their lives. For this reason, Watson stated that parents must train their children to instil good habits.

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Note:

Watson has become immortalized in introductory psychology textbooks for his attempts to condition fear of a white rat into "Little Albert”Little Albert: Albert B., was recruited for this study at the age of nine months from a hospital where he had been raised from birth.

When Albert was 9 months old, Watson ran Little Albert through emotional tests. The infant was confronted briefly and for the first time to a white rat, a rabbit, a dog, a monkey, masks with and without hair, cotton wool, burning newspapers etc. The infant at no time showed any fear.

The experiment began by placing Albert on a mattress on a table in the middle of a room. A white laboratory rat was placed near Albert and he was allowed to play with it. At this point, the child showed no fear of the rat.

Watson made a loud sound behind Albert's back by striking a hammer suspended on a steel bar when the rat was presented to him. Not surprisingly in these occasions, Little Albert showed fear as he heard the noise.

After several such pairings of the two stimuli, Albert was again presented with the rat alone. Now, however, he cried, turned away from the rat and tried to move away.

Albert had associated the white rat (original neutral stimulus, now conditioned stimulus) with the loud noise (unconditioned stimulus) and was producing the fearful or emotional response of crying (originally the unconditioned response to the noise, now the conditioned response to the rat).

Loud sound (US) => Fear (UR) Natural response.

Loud sound (US) + Rat (NS) => Fear (UR) After pairing them.

Rat (CS) => Fear (CR) Learning occurs. Notice how the response never changes.

What was even more problematic about this experiment was that Little Albert seemed to generalise his response so that when Watson sent a (non-white) rabbit into the room seventeen days after the original experiment, Albert also became distressed. He showed similar reactions when presented with a furry dog, a seal-skin coat and even when Watson appeared in front of him wearing a Santa Claus mask with white cotton balls as his beard, although he did not fear everything with hair.

Albert was adopted and was scheduled to leave the hospital in the near future. Therefore, all testing was discontinued for a period of 31 days. Watson and his colleagues had planned to attempt to recondition little Albert and eliminate these fearful reactions. However, Albert left the hospital on the day these last tests were made, and, as far as anyone knows, no reconditioning ever took place. Nothing is known of his later life. Hence the opportunity of developing an experimental technique for removing the Conditioned Emotional Response was denied. However, Watson himself stated later that he knew the boy would depart one month before the trial ended. Had the opportunity existed, they would have tried several methods: i) constantly confronting the child with those stimuli which produced the responses, in the hope that habituation would occur ii) trying to "recondition" by showing objects producing fear responses (visual) while simultaneously stimulating the erogenous zones (tactual), first the lips, then the nipples, and, as a last resort, the sexual organs. iii) trying to "recondition" by feeding him candy or other food just as the animal is shown iv) building up

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"constructive" activities around the object by imitation and putting the hand through the motions of manipulation.

The Next Step Big in BehaviourismClassical conditioning just involves the pairing of stimuli and the association that results between the two. A behaviour that would normally be the result of one stimulus becomes the result of the other also due to the association created. Pavlov's dogs salivating at the sound of the bell they'd come to associate with being fed is an example.

Operant conditioning requires that the subject perform some action (and that the action is either rewarded or punished to either encourage or discourage the behaviour.) Behavioural Psychologists: Skinner and Pavlov

Term associated

with behavioural psychology

What the term means How the term is an important feature of behavioural psychology

Reinforcement(praise)

Behaviourist psychologists believe that the consequences of behaviour determine the probability that the behaviour will occur again

Stimulus(school bell)Shaping(baby step, truancy, dog obedience)Association(dog barking, dog biting)

Behaviourist psychologists believe that we learn through making associations between stimuli and responses.

conditioned stimulus(lunch bell)

Reward(lollies)

Behaviourist psychologists believe that behaviour is a response to external stimuli – a reward can act as a reinforcer, increasing the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.

Punishment(ignoring)

Behaviourist psychologists believe that behaviour is a response to external stimuli – punishment will decrease the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.

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IVAN PAVLOV

Ivan Pavlov [Evän´ pEtrô´vich päv´luf] was a Russian physiologist and experimental psychologist. In 1904 Ivan Pavlov was awarded a Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in relation to his researches in the area of digestive processes. He had become interested in the relationship between salivation and the digestive process. Quite apart from finding that saliva was of the first importance as an aid to digestion he also noticed that dogs that had been familiarised with the pre-feeding routines in his research facility began to salivate apparently in association with certain pre-feeding routines being initiated.

In order to explicitly validate his observations he began to feed his dogs in association with the ringing of a bell. After a certain time the dogs were shown to salivate profusely in association with the ringing bell where the actual sight or smell of food was not also present. Pavlov regarded this salivation as being a conditioned reflex and designated the process by which the dogs had picked up this reflex classical conditioning.

Despite seeming to have been personally opposed to Communism his fame was such that the Soviet government built a specialist research laboratory to accommodate his studies in 1935. It happened however that Ivan Pavlov did not derive much benefit from this new facility as he passed on in 1936.

Classical Conditioning In 1902, the Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, began his famous experiments on conditioning. Pavlov repeatedly presented a dog with food following the ringing of a bell. When the bell sounded without the presentation of food, the dog would still respond to the bell as if it were food. Pavlov collected the dogs' saliva and found that the amount of saliva produced by bell ringing increased as the dogs were more frequently exposed to the coupling of food presentation and bell ringing. The dog had learned to associate the sound of the bell with food. Pavlov called the food an unconditional stimulus, or UCS, because the dog's normal reaction would be to salivate at the presentation of food. The bell he termed the conditional stimulus, or CS, because response to the bell was conditional upon the association between the bell and food. For the same reasons, salivation in response to food was labelled the unconditional response, or UCR, while salivation in response to the bell was called the conditional response, or CR. Conditioning the dog to salivate at the sound of the bell occurred as a result of a contingency between the UCS and the CS.

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B. F. SKINNER1904-1990

"The consequences of behaviour determine the probability that the behaviour will occur again"

B.F. Skinner was an American psychologist, born in Pennsylvania, USA. Skinner was the leading exponent of the school of psychology known as behaviourism, which explains the behaviour of humans and other animals in terms of the physiological responses of the organism to external stimuli. Like other behaviourists, he rejected unobservable phenomena of the sort that other forms of psychology, particularly psychoanalysis, had studied, concerning himself only with patterns of responses to rewards and stimuli.

Skinner maintained that learning occurred as a result of the organism responding to, or operating on, its environment, and coined the term operant conditioning to describe this phenomenon. He did extensive research with animals, notably rats and pigeons, and invented the famous Skinner box, in which a rat learns to press a lever in order to obtain food.

Operant Conditioning In classical conditioning, the animal receives no benefit from associating the CS with the UCS. However, in operant conditioning, an unassociated behaviour becomes associated with a reward. B.F. Skinner designed an apparatus called a "Skinner box" to test the interaction between UCS and CS. A rat was placed inside the Skinner box; if the rat pressed down a lever inside the box then the box would release a food pellet. Soon, the rat pressed the lever far more often than he would just by chance. Most likely, the first time the rat pressed the lever it was by chance. But with each instance of lever pressing, the operant is reinforced by reward with food. The rat learns that pressing the lever is associated with food, and so he will increasingly press it. Almost any operant and reward system can be used effectively.

A "Skinner Box" is simply a special cage into which an animal (rats and pigeons are usual) is placed. What makes the cage special is that there is a device (lever or panel or disk) on the wall and a small food tray near it. The whole thing is connected to automated equipment which detects when the device is pushed food is delivered to the food tray according to some "reinforcement schedule" that explains lotto-ticket buying behaviour.

A "Skinner Box"

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PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY

There are 3 parts to the personality:Ego:

Id:

Superego:

Within the personality there are 4 stages:

1: Oral

2. Anal

3. Phallic

4. Latency

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Word Response Word Response

head frog

green to part

water hunger

to sing white

dead child

long to take care

ship pencil

pay sad

window plum

friendly to marry

to cook house

to ask sweetheart

cold glass

stem to quarrel

to dance fur

village big

lake carrot

sick to paint

pride part

to cook old

ink flower

angry to beat

needle box

to swim wild

voyage family

blue to wash

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lamp cow

to sin friend

bread luck

rich lie

tree behavior

to prick narrow

pity brother

yellow to fear

mountain stork

to die false

salt anxiety

new to kiss

custom bride

to pray pure

money door

foolish to choose

pamphlet hay

despise contented

finger ridicule

expensive to sleep

bird month

to fall nice

book women

unjust to abuse

What do my results mean?100 words to identify abnormal patterns of response as a means to identify psychological complexes, along with what Jung calls "intellectual and emotional deficiencies."

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Repitition Time gaps Responses to emotional words Unusual responses

Carl Jung (1875-1961) A Freudian.

The mind constantly tries to seek balance and integration between the conscious and the unconscious and between different types of personality. Thoughts, emotions and behaviour result from this self-regulating psyche. If there is an imbalance, compensations will result in personality characteristics, dreams and symptoms of mental disorder.

Jung himself, became alienated from Orthodox Christianity. He felt that this led to anxiety and incompleteness. People need a myth or a set of beliefs to live by in order to add meaning to their lives. Compare this to Richard Dawkins bus campaign. He believed in a personal conscious and a collective unconscious, which is an accumulation of previous generations experiences. We all share this collective unconscious. It contains archetypes, which are hardwired abilities or patterns that are implanted from the beginning. These archetypes are expressed in religious ideas, relationships, our lifestyles and literature. We all share a commonality in the stories we write or within the media. They mean something to us. They come from our collective unconscious.

As we grow and develop, we make choices about the types of characteristics and traits that we want to adopt, so that we can become the person we want to become. This is our potential. The characteristics we choose to adopt have opposites, for instance, ‘caring’ and ‘selfish’. If we choose to adopt the ‘caring’ characteristic, the opposite, ‘selfish’ becomes part of our shadow, and therefore remains part of your potential. All of the things we have decided not to be, both good and bad, remains part of our shadow.

Jung still believed in this idea of having a strong ego in order to deal with the world. Individuals seek balance between the ego and the self (the inner core of the personality). YouTube - Carl Jung speaks about Death

Introversion and extraversion (also spelled extroversion)

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Whether we are introverts or extroverts, we need to deal with the world, inner and outer. And each of us has our preferred ways of dealing with it, ways we are comfortable with and good at. Jung suggests there are four basic ways, or functions:

The first is sensing. Sensing means what it says: getting information by means of the senses. A sensing person is good at looking and listening and generally getting to know the world. Jung called this one of the irrational functions, meaning that it involved perception rather than judging of information.

The second is thinking. Thinking means evaluating information or ideas rationally, logically. Jung called this a rational function, meaning that it involves decision making or judging, rather than simple intake of information.

The third is intuiting. Intuiting is a kind of perception that works outside of the usual conscious processes. It is irrational or perceptual, like sensing, but comes from the complex integration of large amounts of information, rather than simple seeing or hearing. Jung said it was like seeing around corners.

The fourth is feeling. Feeling, like thinking, is a matter of evaluating information, this time by weighing one's overall, emotional response. Jung calls it rational, obviously not in the usual sense of the word.

We all have these functions. We just have them in different proportions, you might say. Each of us has a superior function, which we prefer and which is best developed in us, a secondary function, which we are aware of and use in support of our superior function, a tertiary function, which is only slightly less developed but not terribly conscious, and an inferior function, which is poorly developed and so unconscious that we might deny its existence in ourselves.

Most of us develop only one or two of the functions, but our goal should be to develop all four.

Assessment

Katharine Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers found Jung's types and functions so revealing of people's personalities that they decided to develop a paper-and-pencil test. It came to be called the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, and is one of the most popular, and most studied, tests around.

The test has four scales. Extroversion - Introversion (E-I) is the most important. Test researchers have found that about 75 % of the population is extroverted.

The next one is Sensing - Intuiting (S-N), with about 75 % of the population sensing.

The next is Thinking - Feeling (T-F). Although these are distributed evenly through the population, researchers have found that two-thirds of men are thinkers, while two-thirds of women are feelers. This might seem like stereotyping, but keep in mind that feeling and thinking are both valued equally by Jungians, and that one-third of men are feelers and one-third of women are thinkers. Note, though, that society does value thinking and feeling differently, and that feeling men and thinking women often have difficulties dealing with people's stereotyped expectations.

The last is Judging - Perceiving (J-P), not one of Jung's original dimensions. Myers and Briggs included this one in order to help determine which of a person's functions is superior. Generally, judging people are more careful, perhaps inhibited, in their lives. Perceiving people tend to be more spontaneous, sometimes careless. If you are an extrovert and a "J," you are a thinker or feeler, whichever is stronger. Extroverted and "P" means you are a senser or intuiter. On the other hand, an introvert with a high "J" score will be a senser or intuiter, while an introvert with a high "P" score will be a thinker or feeler. J and P are equally distributed in the population.

Each type is identified by four letters, such as ENFJ. These have proven so popular, you can even find them on people's license plates!

ENFJ (Extroverted feeling with intuiting): These people are easy speakers. They tend to idealize their friends. They make good parents, but have a tendency to allow themselves to be used. They make good therapists, teachers, executives, and salespeople.

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ENFP (Extroverted intuiting with feeling): These people love novelty and surprises. They are big on emotions and expression. They are susceptible to muscle tension and tend to be hyperalert. they tend to feel self-conscious. They are good at sales, advertising, politics, and acting.

ENTJ (Extroverted thinking with intuiting): In charge at home, they expect a lot from spouses and kids. They like organization and structure and tend to make good executives and administrators.

ENTP (Extroverted intuiting with thinking): These are lively people, not humdrum or orderly. As mates, they are a little dangerous, especially economically. They are good at analysis and make good entrepreneurs. They do tend to play at oneupmanship.

ESFJ (Extroverted feeling with sensing): These people like harmony. They tend to have strong shoulds and should-nots. They may be dependent, first on parents and later on spouses. They wear their hearts on their sleeves and excel in service occupations involving personal contact.

ESFP (Extroverted sensing with feeling): Very generous and impulsive, they have a low tolerance for anxiety. They make good performers, they like public relations, and they love the phone. They should avoid scholarly pursuits, especially science.

ESTJ (Extroverted thinking with sensing): These are responsible mates and parents and are loyal to the workplace. They are realistic, down-to-earth, orderly, and love tradition. They often find themselves joining civic clubs!

ESTP (Extroverted sensing with thinking): These are action-oriented people, often sophisticated, sometimes ruthless -- our "James Bonds." As mates, they are exciting and charming, but they have trouble with commitment. They make good promoters, entrepreneurs, and con artists.

INFJ (Introverted intuiting with feeling): These are serious students and workers who really want to contribute. They are private and easily hurt. They make good spouses, but tend to be physically reserved. People often think they are psychic. They make good therapists, general practitioners, ministers, and so on.

INFP (Introverted feeling with intuiting): These people are idealistic, self-sacrificing, and somewhat cool or reserved. They are very family and home oriented, but don't relax well. You find them in psychology, architecture, and religion, but never in business. Both Jung and I admire this type. Of course, both Jung and I are this type!

INTJ (Introverted intuiting with thinking): These are the most independent of all types. They love logic and ideas and are drawn to scientific research. They can be rather single-minded, though.

INTP (Introverted thinking with intuiting): Faithful, preoccupied, and forgetful, these are the bookworms. They tend to be very precise in their use of language. They are good at logic and math and make good philosophers and theoretical scientists, but not writers or salespeople.

ISFJ (Introverted sensing with feeling): These people are service and work oriented. They may suffer from fatigue and tend to be attracted to troublemakers. They are good nurses, teachers, secretaries, general practitioners, librarians, middle managers, and housekeepers.

ISFP (Introverted feeling with sensing): They are shy and retiring, are not talkative, but like sensuous action. They like painting, drawing, sculpting, composing, dancing -- the arts generally -- and they like nature. They are not big on commitment.

ISTJ (Introverted sensing with thinking): These are dependable pillars of strength. They often try to reform their mates and other people. They make good bank examiners, auditors, accountants, tax examiners, supervisors in libraries and hospitals, business, home ec., and phys. ed. teachers, and boy or girl scouts!

ISTP (Introverted thinking with sensing): These people are action-oriented and fearless, and crave excitement. They are impulsive and dangerous to stop. They often like tools, instruments, and weapons, and often become technical experts. They are not interested in communications and are often incorrectly diagnosed as dyslexic or hyperactive.

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HUMANISTIC THEORY

Humanism is a philosophical movement that emphasises the personal worth of the individual and the centrality of human values.  This approach is very optimistic and focuses on noble human capacity to overcome hardship and despair.

Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

The idea that we are responsible for our own lives, embodied in existentialism, is exemplified in the work of Carl Rogers. However Rogers approach was extremely OPTIMISTIC.

Rogers used the term Fully Functioning Person for someone who is self-actualizing. These people are OPEN TO EXPERIENCING THEIR FEELINGS, and don’t feel threatened by those feelings no matter what they are. They trust their own feelings. They are open to the experiences of the world. They live lives full of meaning, challenge and fulfilment.

According to Rogers, the main determinant of whether we will become self-actualized is childhood experience. Rogers believed that it is crucial for children to receive positive regard, that is: affection and approval from the important people in their lives, particularly their parents. Rogers believed it is important for us to receive unconditional positive regard, that is affection and acceptance with no strings attached. Often however, according to Rogers this regard is conditional, it comes with strings attached. To be loved and approved the child must be well-mannered, quiet, assertive, boyish, girlish, whatever. These things are incorporated as conditions of worth. If the conditions are few and reasonable then the child will be fine but if the conditions of worth are severely limiting then self-actualization will be severely impeded. According to Rogers, external conditions of worth come to control more and more of a person's behaviour. We even start to apply these conditions to ourselves. This pattern of self-acceptance and self-rejection is called conditional self-regard. Eventually, a gap opens between a person’s actions and his or her true self. The person automatically covers over the split with perceptual distortions, denying the conflict between self and reality. Rogers felt that these distortions can become so severe that they may lead to personality breakdown.Rogers: Self congruenceRogers said one way of looking at the self is to look at the ideal self and the actual self:

The ideal self is the person you’d like to be.

The actual self is what you are now or even what you THINK you are because remember from this perspective it’s all about subjective perceptions.

When you are self-actualized then there is congruence (i.e. harmony or agreement) between the real and the actual selves. That is you become more like the self you want to be.

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There’s a second kind of congruence and that is between the actual self and experience. That is the experiences in life should fit with the type of person you think you are.  So there will be incongruity if you think you’re generous but find yourself being mean to someone or if you think you're ruthless and you find yourself being soft and mushy.  If you think you’re clever and do badly in a test there will be incongruence.

Incongruence is bad. Incongruence leads to anxiety, whether the incongruence is between actual & real self or between actual self and experience.

Rogers: Incongruence and DefencesThis concept of defences is very similar to the psychodynamic concept. Rogers assumes 2 main categories of defences:

1. DISTORTION OF EXPERIENCE: An example is rationalization: creating a plausible but untrue reason for why something is the way it is. OR another distortion of experience is when you try to change you perception of an event from what you really know it to be: you go out with someone other than your partner but tell yourself that it doesn’t matter because your partner won’t mind.

2. PREVENTING THREATENING EXPERIENCES FROM REACHING AWARENESS AT ALL: Denial serves this function.

Ultimately, defences are there to maintain the congruity or integrity of self. Defences protect and enhance our self-esteem.Rogers ‘Client-centred Therapy’ (1951)The best known and probably the most popular humanistic therapy is Rogers “client-centred therapy”.  Remember that Rogers believed that human beings are intrinsically good and are motivated to self-actualize. Self-actualization may be impeded by conditions of worth so they need to be removed. REMOVING these conditions of worth is the way to solve people’s problems. Client centred therapy is the means to that end. Treatment is focussed on the INDIVIDUAL. The therapist tries to see the world through the client’s eyes so that the client will come to see his or her view of reality as having value. The therapist empathizes with the client and offers unconditional positive regard i.e. UNLIMITED ACCEPTANCE. By doing this, the therapist hopes to induce the client to accept the totality of his or her experience and thus facilitate unconditional positive SELF-regard. The therapist “hears” the client by mirroring back the message they are getting from the client. They restate the content and state the feelings they are picking up from the client. This process helps the client clarify their feelings and not to feel threatened when doing so. The touchstones of this approach are EMPATHY, and UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD. Ultimately the client is responsible for his or her own growth - the therapist just helps to facilitate this process.

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Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)

Maslow viewed human needs or motives as forming a hierarchy.

1. PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS: At the bottom are the basic, primitive needs for air, food, water - those things we HAVE to have to survive

2. SAFETY AND PHYSICAL SECURITY NEEDS: shelter from weather, protection against tigers etc.

3. LOVE AND BELONGINGNESS NEEDS: Companionship, acceptance from others (like Rogers’ positive regard), affection.

4. ESTEEM NEEDS: needs for a sense of mastery and power. Need for appreciation from others. 5. SELF ACTUALIZATION: similar use of the term to the way Rogers used it. “The tendency to become whatever you’re capable of becoming”: The highest of human motives.

Draw pyramid here

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Psychology Maslow Project

Your assignment is to analyze advertisements according to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. You will create:

- A Pyramid which shows Maslow’s Hierarchy: correctly labeled, in the correct order.

- You will then look through various advertisements and pick out examples that promise to fill each of Maslow’s 5 Needs (example: an ad for food satisfies the physiological). You should have at least 2 examples for each level.

- These ads should be glued on to your pyramid in the appropriate section. You do not need to glue on the entire ad, you can simply use pictures, slogans, etc.

-Next you will pick out one ad and write a short 2-3 paragraph essay in which you answer the following questions:

- Which need or needs is your advertisement attempting to satisfy and why?- How persuasive is your advertisement?- How successful do you think your product is in satisfying the need or needs?- Be sure to include a copy of the ad you are analyzing along with the paper.

This project will go towards your final grade based on pass/fail. Your mark will be based 50% on the quality of the pyramid and 50% on the quality of the paper.

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COGNITIVE THEORY

Cognitive ApproachIt looks at how we: direct our attention, perceive, think, remember, and solve problems.The cognitive approach emphasizes the scientific aspect of psychologyInformation processing looks at minds like computers.Piaget stressed that children do not just passively receive information from their environment, they actively construct their own cognitive world.

1. Sensori — Motor Stage http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ue8y-JVhjS0

is the first Piagetian stage of development that lasts from birth - 2 years of age. In this stage the infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions.

Object Permanence is Piaget’s term for one of the infant’s most important accomplishments: understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched.

2. Preoperational Stage http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SkGy7Uua3Pc

is the term Piaget gave to the 2 to 7 year old child’s understanding of the world. Children at this stage of reasoning cannot understand such logical operations as the reversibility of mental representations.

Conservation is the belief in the permanence of certain attributes of objects or situations in spite of superficial changes.

The child’s thought in the preoperational stage is egocentric.

Egocentrism is the inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and someone else’s perspective.

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3. Concrete Operational Stage http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gA04ew6Oi9M&feature=related

is the term Piaget gave to the 7 to 11 year old child’s understanding of the world.

At this stage of thought children can use operations.

Logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought as long as the principles are applied to concrete examples.

4. Formal Operational Stage http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjJdcXA1KH8&feature=related

is Piaget’s name for the fourth stage of cognitive development which appears between 11 and 15 years of age. This stage is abstract, idealistic, and logical.

Piaget believed that adults and adolescents think in the same ways.

Additionally:

Other developmental psychologists did not believe the same as Piaget.

According to Paiget, Children should not be taught how to think. They need to construct their own world through their interaction with the environment.

We are not robots.

Memory, Language and Thinking are components of cognition.

Cognitive therapies stress that the individual’s beliefs are the main source of abnormal behaviour. These therapies attempt to change the individual’s feelings and behaviours by changing beliefs. They adhere to a conversational format. These therapies are very effective in treating mood disorders.

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Beck’s Cognitive Triad

Patient has negative thoughts about themselves, the world, the future (Triad) then the therapist with the patient identifies the problem, and desired goal.

Next step is to challenge negative thoughts associated with depression. The patient takes away ‘homework’ to test these challenges and thoughts.

E.g., recording how many times people are ruse to them. Last step = patient monitors own perceptions more accurately.

Psychological Theories Assessment

For achieved For merit For excellence

Analyse different approaches used in psychology for explaining behaviour.

The analysis includes a comparison of the three explanations of behaviour from different identified approaches, with key points of similarity and difference between the approaches identified and discussed. Supporting psychological theories and evidence must be included in the analysis.

The analysis includes a comprehensive comparison of explanations of behaviour with supporting psychological theories and evidence presented that is perceptive, relevant to behaviour, and consistently applied.

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