tribal policy, voluntary organisations and...
TRANSCRIPT
TRIBAL POLICY,
VOLUNTARY
ORGANISATIONS
AND
POWER STRUCTURE .
Chapter-S
Tribe
The term 'tribe' usually referred an ethnic group geographically isolated or semi
isolated, identified with one particular territory and having distinct social, economic,
and cultural traditions and practices. In the present Indian context, the term has
undergone gradual changes, particularly, in post-independence period. The
Constitution of India incorporated certain tribes which have been specified as
Scheduled Tribes (STs). The Constitution neither defines nor lays down any criteria
for specifying the Scheduled Tribes. The Scheduled Tribes may be specified by the
President oflndia, under Article -342, through a public notification.
Thus, 'Scheduled Tribe' is a legal and administrative category rather social
category. The primitive groups included in the scheduled called Scheduled Tribe are
not a homogenous group rather variable in terms of development and other indicators.
There is wide variation among these groups such as Bhil and Meena tribes in
Rajasthan are at two extremes of educational level and economic status. Though
regionwise differences is more explicit, like tribes of Himachal Pradesh and North
East region are far ahead than central Indian tribes and south India in developmental
parameter. In spite of these differences, there is uniform constitutional provision and
welfare measures for all tribal groups except some primitive tribal groups.
Tribal policy: concept and its changing connotations
Indian State has neither any written tribal policy nor any fixed guidelines for tribal
development. After Independence, anthropologists and policy makers discussed a lot
on tribal policy with reference to culture-contact i.e. the continuum between isolation
and assimilation. Following J.H. Hutton, anthropologists have advocated isolation of
tribal groups to protect their culture. Contrary to this S. C. Roy, A. R. Desai and
others supported assimilationnist approach for tribal development. In between there
was a third approach called 'no change or revivalism' supported by Varrier Elvin.
Each of these has its own inherent limitations in Indian context .
This is due to diversity of tribal groups in terms of their socio-economic and
political development, level of assimilation, nature of problems etc. This diverse
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features is a biggest hurdle to develop a precise definition of 'tribe' 134• The problem
of concept is also a barrier to develop a uniform tribal policy. Two distinct settings of
tribal development is clearly visible in India, viz., the North-Eastern region and the
central India tribal region. On the one hand, the North-Eastern situation is that there
was a period of almost full insulation, partly as a matter of policy and partly because
of difficult terrain and hostile disposition of tribal communities themselves. In the
Central India, on the other hand, the dividing line between the tribal areas and non
tribal areas has not been clear and there has been freer interplay of economic and
social forces. Thus it is very difficult to draw a sharp line of distinction between tribal
and non-tribal communities either race or religion or langu.age135• The region of
North-East had active involvement of initial Christian missionary and voluntary
initiatives which resulted far ahead in educational and health services. Thus, the pace
of educational development in the tribal pockets of central India has been extremely
slow, other development indices are also low like, employment and health care.
The tribal region of central India includes Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Orrissa, Gujarat and Rajasthan, have ample scope of development than
North-East region. This region has abundant mineral resources and industrial
complexes for economic development. The proportion of tribes in this region is also
largest, about 406.82 lakhs forming 60.04 percent of the India's tribal population.
South Rajasthan is one part of this region comprising five districts namely Udaipur,
Dungarpur, Bhilwara, Banswara, Chittoregarh with tribal population 2928645, which
is more than half of (53.53 percent) of the Rajasthan's total Scheduled Tribes
population136• In this area (five districts) the percentage of literate tribes of the total
tribes ranges 10 to 14 percent only which is lowest in the State.
Indian State and Tribal Policy
During British rule, the term 'tribe' has rarely been viewed different from rest of the
Indian Population and British administrators often penetrated into the tribal area with
134 Andre Beteille, 1977, The Definition of Tribe, in Romesh Thapar (ed.) Tribe Caste and Religion in India, Macmillan India Limited, New Delhi, p. 7 135 Andre Betei1e 1993, Myth oflndigenous People: Dark Face of a Popular Belief, The Times oflndia, 20 January, p.10 136 According to census of Rajasthan (1991), see also 'Table- 2.1'
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a view to consolidate their position in this sub-continent. This encroachment in tribal
areas and their traditional habitat resulted into armed revolts137• The highest number
of such discontentment manifested in nineteenth century. Later on, this forced the
British administrator to declare the tribal areas as the non-regulatory area and
recognized their traditional system of administration. However, administration
supported the missionaries who have all ready entered the tribal areas.
The changing connotation and category in different census also manifests also
supports this assumption that lack of tribal policy during British rule. In the census of
1891, they are enumerated as 'Forest Tribes' under a category of 'Agricultural and
Pastoral Castes' and estimated nearly sixteen million. In the census report of 1901,
they were classified as 'Animists' and in 1911 'Tribal Animists' the people following
tribal religion with a population of respectively. The census report of 1921, they were
specified as 'Hill and Forest Tribes' and their number was estimated to be 16 million.
According to 1931 census, they were described as 'Primitive Tribes', followed in
1935 the Government oflndia Act categorized as 'Backward Tribes' and 1941 census
classified as 'Tribes' only.
After 1947, the process of tribal development gtven importance through
constitutional provisions and other safeguards. The stress has also given to develop a
tribal policy, and unfortunately could not succeed till date. Since Independence many
committees and conferences constituted in this regard. For instance, Anthropologists
and workers in Tribal Welfare Committee held in Calcutta (1952) suggested tribes
policy and development measures on the line of 'assimilation' and 'isolation'. Now,
the existing paradigm of tribal development is mixed of above two approaches.
Since Independence the tribal policy has undergone various changes, which
can be observed in five different phases, as following. Just after Independence, the
constituent assemblies have adopted two pronged strategies in dealing with tribal
problems, i.e. protection from exploitation and economic development. Though most
of these provisions rarely achieved due to many fold reasons reflected in different
committees.
137 SeeK. S. Singh. 1983 (ed.), Tribal Movements in India, Vol. 2, Manohar Publictions, New Delhi, p. xi
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1- In 1958 Elwin Committee reviewed the tribal situation and made two important
recommendations -i.e. first a cautious approach in the introduction scheme in
tribal areas; and less intensive model of tribal development. In this phase main
thrust given to economic development, education, health and communication.
2- Dhebar commission (1961) finds that the pace of development in the tribal areas
was very slow. Investment and other protective measures were also inadequate.
Commission suggested a comprehensive legislation to cover all tribal and simple
administrative system. He also suggested a scheme for Tribal Development
Blocks (TDBs) for all areas with more than 50% Scheduled Tribe population.
3- Shilu Ao Committee (1969) again revised tribal development programs and
observed that most of the recommendations of Dhebar Commission was remain
unimplemented. He disapproved the block approach as inadequate and stressed
the problem ofland alienation.
4- Development of a 'Tribal Areas' was again examine the tribal situation by task
force of planning commissions in 1974-1975. It found that problem pointed out
by the earlier commission was unattended. Secondly, the welfare problem
looked as a different from developmental problem and lack of people
participation in tribal developmental programs.
5- B.D. Sharma, in his 28th report of 'Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes'
highlighted major drawbacks of government's plan and policy for tribal
development. He stressed that the real development of tribes only possible when
their vital skill should used properly and their command over natural resources
must be established. However, unfortunately his report could not implemented or
not even discussed. Recently in October 1999, a new Ministry of Tribal Affairs
(Govt. of India) has created after separation from Ministry of Social Justice and
Empowerment in order to give more focused attention to the tribal issues.
Voluntarism and Tribes
Tribal society is characterized by strong community structure and close inter-personal
relationship. Voluntary institutions in these primitive groups can be observe ·mainly
two forms- one is membership voluntary associations and part of their community
institutions such as youth associations or dormitories. Second is 'altruistic voluntary
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associations' which emerge outside tribal society for their development. For instance,
Adim Jati Seva Mandai, Ram Krishna Mission, Vanvasi Seva Mandai, Akhil Bhartiya
Vanvasi Kalyan Parishad (1952), Bhartiya Adim Jati Sevak Sangh and many
Christian missionaries are working exclusively for tribal issues and having nationwide
networking. Similarly, Regional voluntary agencies confined either in the State or
particular geographical location such as Rajasthan Vanvasi Kalyan Parishad
(Udaipur), Seva Kendra (Ranchi), Bhil Seva Mandai (Gujarat), Banvasi Seva Mandai
(Madhya Pradesh), Ram Krishna Mission (West Bengal) are widely-known and
established voluntary institutions. Besides these a largest number of grass-root level
of organisations mostly self sustained and true example voluntarism. The volume and
impact of these institutions are rarely assessed and valued138• A directory of NGOs
recently prepared by Ministry of Tribal Affairs (Govt. of India) listed 490 voluntary
organisations all over the India 139•
Table-5.1 State-wise tribal distribution and the NGOs working in the tribal area
Name of State/ Union No. Of NGOs Tribal Tribal Proportion (in percent) Teritory population
Country's State's
India 490 67758000 100.00
Madhya Pradesh 52 15399000 22.73 23.27
Chattisgarh 3
Orissa 68 7032000 10.38 22.21
Bihar 6 6617000 9.77 7.66
Jharkhand 10
Maharastra 19 7318000 10.80 9.27
GuJarat 18 6162000 9.09 14.92
Rajasthan 17 5475000 8.08 12.44
Andhra Pradesh 72 4200000 6.20 6.31
WestBengal 27 3809000 5.62 5.59
Assam 13 2874000 4.24 12.82
Arunachal Pradesh 12 550000 0.81 63.66
Manipur 40 632000 0.93 34.41
138 S. L. Sharma 1992, op. cit., p. 870 139
It included only those NGOs wl).o received the financial support between 1997 and 2002 from Ministry ofTriba1 Affairs, Government oflndia. (see the appendix-11).
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Chapter-S
Meghalaya 3 1518000 2.24 85.53
Mizoram 10 654000 0.97 94.75
Nagaland 34 1061000 1.57 87.7
Sikkim 2 91000 0.13 22.36
Tripura 2 883000 1.30 30.95
HimachalPradesh 5 218000 0.32 4.22
UttarPradesh 28 288000 0.43 0.21
Uttaranchal 3
Kama taka 14 1916000 2.83 4.26
Kerala 9 321000 0.47 1.1
Tamil Nadu 8 574000 0.85 1.03
Pan jab 0
Jammu & Kashmir 8
Haryana 0
Delhi 6
Chandigarh 0
Lakshadweep 0 48000 0.07 93.15
Dadar and Nagar Haveli 1 109000 0.16 78.99
Andamand & Nicobar 0 27000 0.04 9.54
Daman& Diu 0 12000 0.02 11.54
Source- Th1s table hasd prepared from two sources- one IS 'the drrectory of voluntary orgamsat10n' published by Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Govt. of India, 2002 and the distribution of tribal population obtained from Special Table of STs, Census oflndia ( 1991 ).
Voluntary Associations and Tribal Policy
Sachidanand in the study of Santhal tribe of Bihar and the role of local
voluntary agencies, Badlao Foundation and found a unique case of sustainable
development and popularization of organic manure. Another study conducted by P.C.
Metha in microanalysis of three regional voluntary organizations in Udaipur district,
and found that the voluntary organization are not functioning proper rather dependent
on government I semi-government/ other external funding or supporting agencies140•
Therefore, the above studies reflects contradictory role of voluntary action - on the
140 Sachidanand and Anirudh Prasad. 1994, Tribal Development and Voluntary Organizations: A Case Study of the Badlao Foundation, Inter-India Publications, New Delhi; P.C. Metha. 1992, voluntary organisations and tribal development, New Delhi
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one hand observed many success stories while on the other side few cases of
dependency and deviating from the objectives of the voluntarism.
In Udaipur district has the highest number of voluntary organisations in
Southern Rajasthan, though very few evolved from tribes and by the tribes as we saw
in last chapter. The constitution of registered voluntary organisations rarely given
importance to tribal concerns exclusively, however, seven out of ten tehsils (district
sub-divisions) are Scheduled Tribe Areas (STAs) in Udaipur district. After going
through most of the well-known NGOs in Udaipur district only one NGO has
mentioned in their constitution that working exclusively for tribal development. The
name of that NGO is Rajasthan Vanvasi Kalyan Parishad (RVKP), established in
1978. Two Christian voluntary organisations namely, Church's Auxialary for Social
Action (CASA) and World Vision oflndia also similar focus towards tribal problems
but unavailability of its document restrict our conclusion141• Besides these, Seva
Mandir, Astha Sansthan, Ubeshwar Vikas .Mandai, Jagran Jan Vikas Samiti, Aravali
Volunteers Society, Ankur Sansthan are actively engaged in tribal villages ofUdaipur
district.
Before the description of tribal policy of individual the NGOs, few similar
features. A large number of voluntary organisations, particularly recent origin, having
similar constitutional descriptions and objectives. The NGOs constitutions rarely
addressed the specific issues rather a broad perspectives, covers wider scope of
objectives. Tribe as a target group also rarely mentioned in the objectives ofNGOs in
Udaipur district. Thus similarity in NGOs constitution and focus of target group
irrespective of caste/ creed reflects in NGO documents. Following are well
established and popular NGOs of Udaipur district has played significant role in tribal
development. NGO wise tribal policy mentioned below both structure and function.
All these NGOs are working in tribal villages ofthe Udaipur district.
. 141 These two international organisations are working in south Rajasthan through their branch office and very influential in tribal pockets. The branch office couldn't provide the constitution of the organisation. (Details of these organisation dealt in chapter-2)
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Rajasthan Vanvasi Kalyan Parishad (RVKP)
Tribal development is central objectives in their constitution as well as function. It is
established as a regional center of Akhil Bhartiya Vanvasi Kalyan Parisad (1952) but
it has also separate and local identity like locally registered rather a branch office,
local leadership, local resources and local tribal concerns. It is inspired by Hindu
ideology and indigenous culture. Its emergence is, as leaders claims, to protect local
tribal culture from external forces through developmental programmes- siksha,
swasthya, swablamban aur sanskar (education, health, independence and culture).
The work of RVKP spread in 27 CD blocks of eight tribal districts namely Udaipur,
Dungarpur, Bhilwara, Banswara, Chittoregarh, Sirohi, Pali, Baran. Major programmes
of this organisation are health centers, educational institutions, sports center, hostels,
Satsang Kendra and Sanskar Kendra. Tuberculosis control programme is most
important and popular initiative taken by this organisation started in 1992 from Jhadol
and Kotra Block of Udaipur district. Till 1999 it benefited 1053 and 555 patients
respectively in Jhadol and Kotra tehsil alone. Health care programmes also include
permanent health center and mobile van for interior tribal villages.
Education and sports are the second important aspect of RVKP to remove
illiteracy in the region. It runs seven such programmes namely- vidya mandir (before
primary), primary schools, hostels, sports centers, sahaj siksha kendra, Lok jumbis,
Shiksha Karmi. Last two are government programmes implemented through RVKP in
tribal areas. Besides these, there are programmes related to Indian culture and religion
such as Bhajan mandali, Ganesh mahotsav and anniversaries of national freedom
fighters. However, none of the activities seems proselytizing purposes rather protect
from these activities and maintain the tribal culture.
Astha Sansthan
Astha Sansthan established in 1986 and became popular in a very short period in the
region. Most of its leaders worked earlier in Seva Mandir and experienced social
worker. It had played more of political role rather conventional developmental role.
The awareness of tribal rights and freedom from money local money lenders is one
well known contribution of this organisation. The Kotra tehsil, a scheduled tribal area
of Udaipur, is the center of its activities where it started and often organize training
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camps for various programmes. Till date it has evolved and supported 10-12 tribal
organisations for different objectives (see chapter-3). The tribal rights for land and
forest produces are two important issues often touched by this organisation. Tendu
leaves is a local forest produce in the region that was exploited by contractors and
money lenders. With the help of Astha tribal people have given rights to this forest
produce and a cooperative society established in favor of tribes.
Training is the core strategies of this institution to spread awareness for
various issues. Second important focus of Astha Sansthan is women's issues and their
participation in development programmes. Ginni Srivastava, one of founding leader of
this organisation, have expertise for women's issues. Tribal women are the main
target group of its programmes like minimum wages, women's health, women saving
groups, participation of women in Panchyati Raj Institutions and other political roles.
The anniversary of Astha Sansathan organized as a 'Milan Mela' in Kotra tehsil for
consecutive two days to discuss the local problems and share experiences.
Vidya Bhawan Society
Vidya Bhawan Society is the initial voluntary effort which continue even today. This
was established in 1931 with a dedicated efforts of Dr Mohan Singh Mehta and a
group of like minded people. The thrust of this organisation was to educate the rural
masses of that region where the percentage literacy rate was only 4.9. it started with a
middle school and today twelve different institutes are running under this society and
all are concerned to rural development with professional expertise. These institutes
not only comprises formal education but also entrepreneurial training, professional
courses suited to the local needs. For instance, Anganwadi Workers Prasikshan
Kendra, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Cellulose Waste Recycling Education, teachers
training etc all focussed to local requirement. The peoples commitment reflects
through Dr. Mehta writes about the social condition ofVBS.
"the wives of many teachers, who were used to life of seclusion (purdah) in the past,
spontaniously came out and took their place in the community. The son of the school sweeper
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(Bhangi) would join the boys in their games during the time he was off duty without any fuss
and exicitement."142
These lines seems unexpectable for 1930 and particularly in Mewar society
having a strong hold of religion. Thus social reform is the basic motive of VBS
through school education. The organisational constitution does not consider tribe
either exclusive target group or any other social groups. Though most of its
programmes reflects wider tribal participation. Recent establishment of the school for
citizenship and training in Local Self Government reinforces grassroot democratic
process 143.
Rajasthan Vidyapith Kul (RVK)
This is one of oldest voluntary institution which has now partly changed to deemed
university with numerous institutions. It stared in 1937 by a local social reformer
Pandit Janardanray Nagar and like minded people of Mewar144• Rajasthan Vidyapith
are the initial steps in tribal education by establishing the schools in tribal pockets
before independence such as Jhadol, Davok, Pratapnagar. Other institutions of
Rajasthan Vidyapith has also given priority and privileges to tribal students in that
region. Besides these, Lok Sishan Sansthan (a unit of RVK) started in 1939 and
continue even today for rural development of South Rajasthan. Community
development is the core objective of this unit through adult education and extension
programmes among tribes. The constitution of this organisation clearly mentions the
tribal interest as core issue and their development through educational programmes.
Now, RVK is a registered society (1992) and also executes various governmental
projects, like child schools in two villages along with 29 local NGOs. With the
passage of time and changing leadership has also eroded its influence from leading
142 This is written by Dr. Mehta in his article titled "The Story ofVidya Bhawan' and I have quoted it from the Annual Report (2000-2001) ofVidya Bhawan Society, p. 47 143 See detailed analysis in Chapter-3, Programmes ofNGOs in Udaipur district. 144Initially the name of institution was Hindi Vidyapith that has changed later Rajasthan Vidyapith, Pandit Nagar born in 1911 at Udaipur, was a Hindi teacher in Maharana Bhopal College (1937-38), Vidya Bhawan (1938-45). Along with this he started evening adult education programmes voluntarily under the Rajasthan Vidyapith. In 1987 Rajasthan Vidyapith with some of its institutions given a status of deemed university while rest of the institutions comes under a registered society called Rajasthan Vidyapith Kul.
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voluntary organisation to partly project implementing agency and partly deemed
university like structure.
Rajasthan Bal Kalyan Samiti (RBKS)
This is also a voluntary organisation registered in 1983 and managmg several
educational institutions of Udaipur district. This has established by a local resident of
Jhadol tehsil who is by profession a primary school teacher. Unlike the other NGOs it
is completely village based and totally devoted for tribal development. RBKS is
located in Jhadol tehsil, a scheduled tribe area, and later on spread to other areas such
as Gogunda, Kotra and Girwa. It provides the formal education through school and
college education with special focus to tribal masses. Jhadol tehsil has very few high
schools and not a single college for further education except one college recently
established by RBKS. It also provides hostel facilities for exclusively tribal boys and
girls separately with minimal charges because they receive the grant from Ministry of
Tribal Affairs (Govt. of India) and other sources. Tribal girl education is the major
thrust ofthis organisation.
Apart from educational programmes, it also runs Balwari, Nirasrita Bal Griha
(orphan child house), Janjati Kala Kendra (tribal art center), Palna Ghar (creche) for
working women, environmental projects and strengthening community groups. Under
RBVS a group of local NGOs united for mutual cooperation called Insan in Jhadol
tehsil. In this organisation tribal participation is also more than seventy five percent in
the leadership category which is not usual feature in the volunatry organisation of
Udaipur, that explained in previous chapter.
Seva Mandir (SM)
Seva Mandir (literally means temple of service) is one ofthe most popular and oldest
NGO of Udaipur district established by Shri Mohan Singh Mehta145 in early 1960s
145 Dr. M S Mehta ( 1895-1985)was the education minister of pre-independent Mewar State and highly influenced by the thoughts ofTagore, Gandhi, Kunzru and Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya as well as the tenets of the scout movement of America. He was deeply committed to a vision of a just society and citizens obligation to address problems of the society also started the Vidya Bhawan School, a teacher training college, handicraft and rural institute at Udaipur in Rajasthan. He was also India's ambassador to a number of countries after independence.
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though it was registered later in 1966, under the Rajasthan Society Act (1958) at
Jaipur. SM is operational in five tribal dominated C. D. Block of Udaipur district
namely, Jhadol, Kotra, Kherwara, Girwa and Badgaon C. D. Block. It runs the
program with permanent institutional setup in each Blocks at different levels that
covers the largest area in the district, more than 400 villages. All these operational
areas are 'scheduled tribe area' and tribal proportion of first three are more than 70
percent where the organisation has highest impact. Thus, the target group is obviously
tribal people who are the most poor section in that region. However, the constitution
of the organisation nowhere mentions the tribe as a target group rather visualized
egalitarian and democratic set-up.
SM followed peaceful developmental approach since its inception rather than
radical formation or political mobilization. Its major strategies to improve 'physical
quality of life' by providing basic inputs such as- education, health and sanitation,
natural resource development, employment opportunities. This is achieved by
influencing the existing development programmes and their delivering systems or by
directly demonstrating alternative designs for development. First two issues always
given the priority in the organisation since its inception. As SM launched a literacy
program, particularly the adult literacy program among the tribal community of
Budgaon in 1969, later on spread to other Blocks of Udaipur district. The impact of
this literacy program was long lasting that even today people recall the organisation
with this program. Similarly, health and sanitation aspects carried out in different
phases covering a wider spectrum- health education, MCH care, population control
measures etc.
World Vision of India (Navprabhat)
This is an international organization and spread in more than 160 countries. In India,
it is spread with its six zones covering entire country though the organisation has
registered at Chennai in 1976. Each zone has been further divided into field centers
and sub-centers. Udaipur is one such field center (with two sub-centers Jhadol and
Kerwara). This field center executes the development programmes of Rajasthan,
particularly South Rajasthan. Among local people it is known by its program called
Navprabhat rather organisation's name. WVI started recently in 1999 and got wider
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recognition in the operational area. Unlike the other Christian organisation, it directly
execute programmes as well as collaborate with other local NGOs. Both tehsils
namely, Jhadol and Kherwara are tribal dominated and within that its selection of
villages and people are not only tribes though also not benefited by other NGOs.
Tribes are their major concern in the region because both Jhadol and Kerwara
tehsils has the highest tribal concentration, that is more than 80 percent. like many
other NGOs, the organizational objectives does not describes 'tribe' or any social
groups as their target group. Rather emphasis the victims of natural calamities and
other poor to achieve self reliance and development. Overall functions of the
organisation is not specific rather general called area development program which is
very flexible and depends on local needs. The organisation supports tribal people
through community infrastructure like education, health and communication. The
annual reports proclaims that most of the beneficiaries lies under the category of
Below Poverty Line (BPL) having different sub-castes like Bhagora, Vadera,
Nanama, Wahiya, Damore, Garasia, Kasota, Dama, Pargi, Lonat etc. Besides these
favorable aspects of tribal policy, one drawback noticed that majority of the officials,
social worker are outsider not from South Rajasthan.
Christian Auxialary and Social Action (CASA)
Like World Vision of India, CASA is also an international Christian organisation and
is representing 24 Protestant and Orthodox Churches in India146• This is one of the
oldest and established Christian voluntary organisation in south Rajasthan. It has
highest and direct intervention in Banswara and Dungarpur district where more than
75 percent population is tribes. However, in other parts in this region executing
Rajasthan Development Project (RDP) in 122 villages of eight districts (including
districts of South Rajasthan) with the help of 20 local partner NGOs. Only two
districts in South Rajasthan, as above mentioned, the organisation has direct contact
146 Earlier, CASA was a Committee on Relied and Gift Supplies (CORAGS). In 1967 it emerged as the Christian Agency for Social Action. It's name was changed to Church's Auxiliary for Social Action, in 1972. In February 1976, CASA was converted into an autonomous registered voluntary agency. Till late from 70's CASA was a relief organisation however the early 80's saw a marked shift from pure Relief to Relief & Development. In the 90's CASA's thrust has shifted from "project" to "process" and from "need based approach" to "issue based approach." -Web site ofCASA
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with target group. Even Udaipur district where its regional office is situated doesn't
have direct contact with people. Tribal problems are the major concern of RDP as
reflected through schemes like, restoration of environment, socio-economic
development through entrepreneurial training and programmes of human resource
development.
Unlike the other project funding agencies CASA also provides training to the
partner NGOs' to effective implementation of the project. Its training center is located
in Udaipur city with trained personnel and other infrastructure. Though organisation
has hesitation to accept as funding agencies rather claim local organisation. I have
limited information of this organisation due to two fold reasons- first in Udaipur
district it has no direct concern with peolple and secondly the office bearers didn't
provide sufficient local information.
Bhartiya Agro-Industries Foundation (BAIF)
A professionally managed voluntary organisation for sustainable management of
natural resources and agro-industries in Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,
Kamataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra, and Uttar Pradesh covering more than
10000 villages. It was established by a noted Gandhian of Pune, Dr Manibhai Desai,
in !96i47• However, the operational area in Rajasthan is spread to the south and the
south-eastern part of the State, comprising 13 districts and five districts of them have
highest intervention. These five districts are Udaipur, Dungarpur, Banswara,
Chittorgar and Bhilwara which is obvious tribal region. Total eleven programs of
rural development planned by the organisation with the help of various agencies148•
Most of these programs are implemented in tribal pockets of south Rajasthan. Only
one program is meant for non-tribal areas that is cattle development program. Rest ten
147 Bhartiya Agro Industries Foundation (BIAF) established at Urli-Kanchan in 1967, later on it was renamed as BAIF Development Research Foundation under the Bombay Public Trust Act (1880). In this process further state societies were established and Rajasthan rural Institute of Development Management (RRIDMA) came into existence in 1993. The thrust of the institute on disaster management and various issues related to the natural resouce management, rural poverty and human values.
148 According to RRIDMA Annual Report (2001-2002), Programmes are supported by these funding agencies- Indian Council Agricultural Research (ICAR), Canadian International Developmental
. Agency, Department of International development (DFID), NABARD, and government agencies of India and Rajasthan including tribal development of department of Rajasthan.
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programs are like- Transfer Technologies, Watershed Development, Energy
Conservation, Silvipasture Development, Scavanging Poultry, Biogas Construction,
Sirohi Breed Characterization, Women Health and Empowerment, Self Help Groups.
Besides these, one exclusive program for local tribe is horticulture
development program. This is a agro-industrial planning in which local forest produce
are changed for market consumption and getting employment opportunities. For
instance, Ambia produced in the local forest but poor quality BAIF is helping to
improve its quality with technological support and produce both higher quality and
quantity. The program is in favor of area development as well as support employment
option for tribal people. During my field visit in Madri panchayat of Jhadol tehsil
found people are very enthusiastic and optimistic with this scheme. This program is
also financially supported by department of tribal area development, Rajasthan.
Action For Food Production (AFFRO)
AFPRO is the second voluntary organisation, after BAIF, which provides technical
and professional expertise in the region 149• Rural poverty is the core of its objectives
by promoting and working with other voluntary organisations. For this, it gives the
technical aid to local grassroot organisations to fight with food problems. For
instance- testing of soils, verifying of underground water condition, water harvesting
technique, other local topographical and geological knowledge to enhance agricultural
output. Unlike BAIF it has less stress on direct program unless the demands come
from local people or local NGOs. Therefore, capacity building programs are the major
thrust of this organisation. South Rajasthan is one of the region, most affected with
drought and food problem and its role has acted as catalytic effect.
It is directly concerned with area development rather target group approach.
The organizational documents no where mentions any specific social group rather
stressed on poor and naturally devastated area. It means that tribe are not concerned
because most of the tribal region based on forest and agricultural produce needs such
149 Action For Food Production (AFPRO) is a non-governmental and technical organisation working for the rural poor since 1966 and registered under the Society Registration Act XXI, 1860. AFFRO Field Unit (III) of Udaipur working since 1997 and covers the area of Rajasthan and Gujarat, particularly the natural resource management of Aravali region.
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technical intervention to maintain the survival conditions. Apart from these, it is also
playing a role of networking local voluntary organisation for exchange of information
and experiences on different issues such as development of natural resources, better
agricultural production, livestock management etc. It has also played an important
role in the devastating earthquake of Gujarat in 2001 for relief and rehabilitation
work.
Jan Jagriti Vikas Samiti (JJVS)
JNS is working at Udaipur (Vali) since 1985 and registered under the Rajasthan
Society Act (1958). This is organisation known for promoting traditional health
system and medication as a viable option for rural development in South Rajasthan.
The role of Guni (folk doctor) is to visualize as correct measure for restructuring the
community health and particularly the tribal health. In order to realize these
objectives, the organisation has developed a herbal garden, publication of magazines,
training programmes for Gunnis and dispensaries in all prime locations of South
Rajasthan. Today, the issue has spread to wider area covering many States in north
India through camps and other partner voluntary agencies. Traditional or folk
medicine is directly concerned with tribal health conditions with three fold reasons.
First, the issue of 'tribal health' has always been neglected from government planning
either in policy or its implementation irrespective of medication system. Secondly, in
developing countries, health facilities based on allopathic system and, in forest areas
or tribal villages it is out of reach and insufficient. Thirdly, peoples' perspective and
sustainability herbal medicine is the most suitable option than other system among
rural masses or tribal people.
Perhaps, the concern of JJVS with traditional or conventional medicine is later
evolved because its constitution have no as such describes, through, some specific
situation mentioned in organisations document150• Besides these, the organisation is
also engaged in programmes related to drought and famine conditions. It is
150 According to the report of JJVS (Published by JNS, Udaipur) during the year 1989 Dyptheria was spread as an epedemic in one village of Girwa tehsil in Udaipur district and 15 children lost their lives. Antipathy of government health institutions forced the local people to approach voluntary organisations for epidemic escape and health facilities. As result of that the local people organized for Jagranjan Vikas Samiti with the help of CRY and Voluntary Health Association oflndia.
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coordinating agency of 'food for work' program funded by Christian Relief Society
(US) in '\Vhich infrastructural constructions are built like small dams, anicut, lift
irrigation and other watershed development. It has also developed SHG groups in
some tribal villages with a saving capital of more than seven lakhs. Lastly, one
important missing link that observed in its head dispensary area Vali (Girwa) that
local villagers and poor are not their real target group rather outsider and urban based
people. Presently, there is less differences between this organisation and other
Aurvedic company such as Dabur and Vaidyanath, except the awareness campaign for
traditional medicine.
Narayan Seva Sansthan (NSS)
NSS is Udaipur city based another very popular voluntary organisation for health
programmes. This is the only organisation in the region whose major thrust is
disability, that is Polio-affected persons. The organisation has a big Polio hospital
called Cainraj Samantraj Lodha Polio Hospital in the city and often organize camps
for Polio operation and its awareness in Rajasthan and outside. For this significant
contribution, the organisation has been awarded by the Ministry of Social Justice and
Empowerment (Government of India). Besides polio, the organisation is also
promoting the awareness campaign against local problems like- old age problems,
alchohal consumption, tobacco, Gutka and drug addiction. A good proportion of
beneficiaries are tribe among them, though, organisation's document rarely consider
tribe as target group. Disable are not only beneficiaries health facilities but also
employment opportunities in this organisation with optimistic approach to life.
Unlike other the voluntary organisation, NSS is very much influenced by
religious consideration and very efficient in mobilizing local resource. The issues
Hinduism and Jainism are often raised for voluntary participation and resource
generation. Because majority of the population in this region profess these two
religion are 93.42 and 3.07 percent respectively in Udaipur district. Though the
purpose and activities no way seems proselytizing either tribe or else population
rather getting peoples support.
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Ubeshwar Vikas Mandai (UVM)
UVM is also one widely popular voluntary organisation working in tribal villages of
Budgaon and Gogonda in Udaipur district. Shri Kishore Sant is the charismatic leader
of this organisation, established in 1986, but with passage of time, his role is limited
to advisory status151• It is continuously engaged from last two decades in the region
mainly environmental projects like prevention for soil erosion, plantation, watershed
development. Dhar, a village in Budgaon Panchayat, where the organisation first
started and succeed in its plantation task and later on formation of village
management group to maintain forest cover. As villagers narrated the story how they
stopped the tree-cutting in the village by their own villagers. Village is 16-17
kilometer from Udaipur city and most of the villagers are daily wage laborers, the
major source of livelihood. It is a scheduled tribe area comprising mostly Gamati
Bhils and integrated with Hindu religion. A good proportion of people engaged of the
organizational activities and very committed to the organisation.
The organisation has no doubt important contribution for sustainable
development through natural resource management and community participation. But
this success story has not repeated or replicated by the organisation in other places
which shows some discouraging results. Because in this region soil erosion and
deforestation is very common environmental problem. Owing to this environmental
problem has forced the local people to change the livelihood from agriculture to daily
wage labourer in mines and urban setups. This problem has also enhanced the rate of
tribal migration outward and other rehabilitation problems.
Aravali Volunteers Society (AVS)
A VS is also one popular voluntary organisation engaged for tribal development.
Kherwara tehsil is the major center of this organisation, though, overall its function is
scattered in few other tribal pockets of Udaipur district like Madra, Padawali,
Sameecha (Kotra tehsil), Ambavi (Jhadol tehsil), Tokar (Sarada tehsil). Unlike the
151 During personal interview it revealed that by profession Shri Kishor Sant is a geographer and tought in USA. Before UVM also worked in Vidya Bhawan Society and Seva Mandir with leading positions. He had long association with the area of voluntarism and influenced with Gandhian view of social change.
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other NGOs it is no office in Udaipur city rather located in village. It supports many ·
local voluntary organisations with various tribal issues. Kathodi, a primitive tribe of
south Rajasthan, is its major target group in that region which is unique feature of this
organisation. No other organisation in Udaipur found except this engaged in
Kathodi's development. Kathodi tribe in South Rajasthan mainly in Udaipur district
located few pockets of Kherwara and Jhadol tehsils whose population is only 2984
and 1871 respectively Rajasthan and Udaipur district (according to 1991 census).
Though Kathodi tribe in Udaipur is less than one percent of total tribal population
whereas 62 percent of total Kathodi population Rajasthan.
Mr. S. K. Yusuf established this organisation and continue playing a leading
role. He says that people consider him a Bhil because of his life style and living in
forests among Bhils. So far as the programs of this organisation, a wide spectrum of
issues followed like, health & sanitation, watershed development, soil and water
conservation, forest management, education, income generation schemes, saving
groups etc. the strategies of implementation is more of informal kind of management
as well as very innovative in approach. Among beneficiaries particularly the Kathodi
tribe is focal target group and the perception of organisation is very optimistic among
them with respect to other local organisation. People are less known to the
organisation rather the leader, Mr Yusuf. This tendency reflects the relationship is not
like 'selfhelp group' rather recipient and donor.
Therefore, we may conclude that most of the NGOs, in their constitution, has
not specified their target groups whether it is tribe or other social groups. However the
programmes and activities of voluntary organisations directed towards tribal areas in
South Rajasthan. The absence of tribe as a target group in their constitution due to
following factors. First, the nature of the NGOs are not membership voluntary
organisation or self help groups rather a non-membership voluntary organisation and
altruistic in nature. Secondly, these are private voluntary organisation (PVOs) whose
prime interest is organisation development rather people's development. In order
compete other voluntary organisations keep all options open of development. Thirdly
many voluntary organisations established with certain ideals which prevents them to
specify any social group as target group. For instance, the World Vision of India, the
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CASA delineate in their memorandum of the organisation that will working without
discrimination of race, nationality, caste or creed.
The concept of rural development or tribal development has visualized two
maJor approaches. One is people's development through specific 'target group
approach' and another is 'area development approach'. Former is one important
strategies in the government planning whereas voluntary organisations followed the
latter approach. Grassroot NGOs more attach with particular location or region rather
a specific group. In Udaipur district many NGOs dealing with environmental projects
like- plantation and further maintenance. In these programmes, they have given
priority to develop the Common Property Resources (CPRs) like- community
pastures, forests, land and pond. Due to overuse of CPRs and deforestation is the
major environmental threats. The depletion of CPRs is also an indicator of
deteriorating community ties. NGOs like, Ubeshwar Vikas mandai, Seva Mandir,
Chetna Arogya Mandir and Samaj Seva Samiti, Alert Sanasthan, Ankur Sansthan are
actively engaged with the environmental campaign and the forest restoration. One
important strategies in their work observed that they always select first CPRs, such as
community lands, than personal lands. Therefore voluntary development policy
focused to area development approach.
'Area development approach' does not mean neglect of weaker sections of
society rather revives the community structure to bear the social responsibility. The
significance of area development approach often looked in two fold reasons. First
strengthen the social bond in rural society which is disintegrating with external forces.
Secondly, it supports equal regional development and optimum resource
mobilization. Contrary to this, target group approach improve the individual status
but that also leads emigration from their cultural habitat for employment and other
needs. That also disturbs traditional institutions, community ties and leads alienation
in primitive groups. Kathodi, a small tribal group in South Rajasthan is an important
example of this development paradigm. This tribe basically carne from Maharastra in
pre-independence phase and still having a nomedic life style in forest area.
Government plans tried to settle them in a particular place and constructed a Kathodi
colony in Jhadol tehsil of Udaipur. Though, the program could not succeed due to
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mismatch of their occupation and housing conditions. Few of them who are staying in
Kathodi colony losing their identity and trapped in various forms of exploitations.
Some times this kind of programmes, that is people centric schemes rather
area development becomes exploitative and leads to adverse results or contra-culture.
The Garasia, a culturally very rich tribal group of South Rajasthan, mainly located in
Kotra tehsil of Udaipur district. Any interference in their internal matters like mate
selection, inter-personal disputes, and other related matters often leads to paralysis of
local administration. That can only solve through community decisions and no
external force can change their decisions. The Garasias are very suspicious to
outsiders and it is impossible for government agencies to execute tribal development
programmes without the help of local voluntary organisations. Because the members
of the voluntary organisations are locally recruited, innovative in strategies and well
acquainted with the situation. Even Panchayati Raj Institutions are less effective in the
region due to illiteracy and lack of knowledge about the Institutions.
The NGOs role for tribal development, South Rajasthan and particularly
Udaipur, can be classified into two kinds. One is dependent on government or other
agencies for resources and smaller in operation area. Secondly, the NGOs, execute its
own developmental programmes with the help of external support, whether
governmental or private agencies. Very few voluntary organisations are planning and
executing its own programmes in Udaipur district, that will be hardly 10 to 15 out of
150 known and existing voluntary organisations152. A major proportion ofNGOs are
project implementing agencies. These are smaller in operational area and executing
governmental as well as other agencies programmes. The NGOs of this category are
more in tribal areas, like Girwa, Kotra, Jhadol and Kherwara tehsils in Udaipur
district. Because there are more governmental assistance and external funding as well
as limitations of government agencies to execute developmental programmes. For
instance, there are more than 25 percent ofNGOs in tribal areas particularly in Girwa
tehsil concerned to educational institutions such as primary schools because of ample
opportunity of resources for education (see appendix-III).
152 see 'the list of Voluntary organisations in Udaipur district' given in chapter- 2
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Chapter-S
NGOs in the former category are less numbers but covers larger operational
area and are also widely popular in the region. For instance, Rajasthan Vidyapith,
Vidya Bhawan Society, Seva Mandir, Narayan Seva Sansthan, Astha Sansthan, World
Vision of India, Christian Auxialary and Social Action, Ankur Sansthan, BAIF,
Rajasthan Vanvasi Kalyan Parishad, Ubeshwar Vikas Mandai, Jan Jagriti Vikas
Sansthan, Aravali Volunteers Society are such types of volunatry organisations in
Udaipur district. These are the leading voluntary institutions in their respective fields
and they also execute their own programmes.
They are not solely dependent on any single funding source or project rather
multiple resources channels. They also mobilize the local resources like industrialists,
business houses, individual philanthropy. Narayan Seva Sansthan is working for polio
affected persons through operation and its allied instrumental support. It collects a
good proportion of amount from small shops and local people through fixed
'collection boxes' and other innovative terchniques. Similarly, Seva Mandir and
Vidya Bhawan Society getting supports from Britania and Mafatlal Groups.
Therefore, these strategies of resources generation prove that resource is not a big
hurdle if there is desire or will for development.
II. VOLUNTARY ORGANISATIONS AND THE STATE
Political and economic aspects are two most important sub-system of any society to
direct the welfare measures. The interaction of voluntary organisations with these two
context must be clear. The relationship between two sectors and voluntary
organisations are contradictory and complex. This is because voluntary organisations
are characterized as non-political and non-profit organisations while in practice the
association voluntary organisations with these two sectors always found relationship
whether it is direct or indirect. Here, I would like to analyse this relationship with
particular reference to Udaipur district and south Rajasthan. In other words, how
much voluntary organisations are influenced by political and economic institutions
and vice versa.
The emergence and growth of voluntary organisations in 'developing
countries' is due to disenchantment with the State (Kean, 1988; Saligman, 1992;
Hann, 1996) and 'developed countries' because of consumerist or coperate culture
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(Saligman , 1991 ). The form of governance often suspected and leveled as authoritarain
away from the human governance in developing countries . Therefore, the structure,
strategies, role and nature of voluntary organisations are largely influenced by the
political conditions and its institutions. These institutions includes- state, government,
political parties, interest groups, trade unions, and many other institutions.
Indian state and its institutions played important role in the formation of
voluntary organisations and further functioning. All the voluntary organisations in
India did not emerge against state. A good proportion of NGOs are supported by the
state in different form either through resources or policy. context these institutions
have relationship with voluntary organisations. The nature of state, the ideology of
political parties, the functions of local Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRJ's) playing a
significant role in the formations of voluntary organisations and its functioning.
However, the relationship between state institutions and the people's organisations are
not uniform it changes with time and place . This change, sometimes, creates a
confusion in understanding the voluntary nature of NGOs. Here, taking the inferences
on this line, we may analyse the important dimension of relationships and its changing
connotations, as following.
I. State as regulator
II. State as resource provider
III. State as development actor
IV. State as moderator
First, the nature of state and government of modem society is to regulate the
social, political, and economic space. For this, state acts as varieties of regulatory
mechanisms through its organ and agencies as well as laws and legislation. In
contemporary Indian situation; three types of laws concerned to voluntary
organisations which directly influence their structure and function. The first set
related to the laws of registration process. The most common form of registration is
Society Act (1860), which was enacted during the colonial rule. The Indian Society
Act (1860), has been subsequently modified and amended by several state
government in different parts of the country. In Rajasthan, it was enacted after state
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formation m 1958, thereafter amended m 1991 with encroachment in financial
activities.
In some fundamental ways, the incorporation and registration provide a legal
identity to voluntary organisations and, therefore, limit the ability of promoters and
founders. Each successive amendment to the 'Society Registration Act' in different
states of the country ,according to NGOs, has been an attempt to further tighten the
noose around the neck of voluntary organisations by giving unilateral and inordinate
powers to the agents of the state to intervene, regulate, and check the fates of
voluntary organisations registered under the Society Registration Act of those states.
The second set of legislations that affect voluntary organisations are those
related to finance. Two specific laws -The Income Tax Act of 1961 and The Foriegn
Contribution Regulation Act of (1976) are relevant to analyse here .According to the
leaders of the voluntary organisations, the Income Tax Act (1961) has always treated
the work of voluntary organisations at par with that of a business trust , charitable
hospitals . The act gives some special concession to educational and health
institutions but not to environmental economic skill generation, forest management
and other issues, even non- formal education. There are often voices raised from
voluntary sectors to create provisions by which the economic viability or the
autonomy ofvoluntary organisations, are not undermined153•
The FCRA (1976), enacted during emergency in 1976, was created to regulate
the flow of foreign grants and contribution to all kinds of voluntary organisations in
the country. This act has been located in the Ministry of Internal Security and Home
Affairs (MIS&HA) under the Govt. of India. It is responsible for the implementation
of that act treat as a problem of law and not a problem of developmental social
change. There are two kinds of reaction about this act including the amendments.
First, the state is limiting the space of voluntary action by putting over constraints .
The other is an arguments against the voluntary organisations that it misusing the
funds for communal and anti-social activities. (A. K. Sen, 2002: 38) and in the long
run it creates dependency that is also an imperialist design (Prakash Karat, 1984).
153 Rajesh Tondon, 1988, op cit. , p. 19
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State As Resource Provider
Historically, there is a very unique role of funder to voluntary organisations. Right
after independence, the Congress government began to utilize its access to vast
resource to provide land, facilities, infrastructure and funds to a large number of
Gandhian institutions related to social work and welfare. In fact, several institutions
not only supported, even established and initiated by the government over the last 50
years to find ways, to promote voluntary activities of community participations- such
as Bharat Sewa Sangh (1952) established by Jawahar Lal Nehru, Khadi and village
Industries Corporations in early 1950s.
Even after that both State and central government established many quasy
voluntary agencies -like Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB) and its branches in
different states, the National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB), Community
Participation People's Action and Rural Technology (CAPART) in 1986 all are
playing the role between state and voluntary organisations called 'Governmental
NGOs'. Rajasthan government also established this kind of institution either as branch
or its own. In Udaipur district one such organisation which is coordinating the child
labour issues. Udaipur child labour projects providing the resources to the local NGOs
on behalf of government.
Over the years, voluntary organisations have utilized the government fund and
resources and this is continuously increasing. A good number of all these government
role on the work of voluntary organisations has been guided by the nature of
relationship between the above two, one as resource mobilization and state as
resource provider. This relationship often questioned on voluntary nature of local
agencies154• Clearly, such relationship, the recipient has no complete freedom ,their
power is controlled by donors (State). As a result of this true voluntary character of
organisation gets effected in following dimensions.
Most of the funding from the State is available for specific schemes and
programmes, largely conceptualized and designed by the state itself . Voluntary
agencies have to fit their proposals into those schemes and programmes if they want
those resources. Thus resources from the state for the work of voluntary organisations
1.54 Harsh Sethi, 1985,. The Immoral Other: Debate Between Party and Non-Party Groups, Economic
and political Weekly, Vol. XX, No.8, pp. 378-380
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is unique and useful, controlling and dependence creating, on the other hand it has
been limiting, controlling and dependence creating, on the other hand. This approach
of funding, in fact, has been used to support charity, welfare and narrow
developmental work of voluntary organisation. Contrary to this discourage
empowerment and struggle oriented work.. It has been to support those voluntary
organisation who has not raised significant voice against the state and its agencies
(Anil Bhatt, 1999)
Hence, state as fund providing agency has confined issues and approaches of
development not empowerment. Even today more than eight Ministries and Govt.
Departments are directly functioning and discharging development role with the help
of voluntary organisations ; but still the basic approach is same. (see table-5.2).
Therefore the relationship between the state and voluntary agencies is recipient and
donor rather than equal partnership for people's participation and developments,
which often creates uneasy situations.
Table-5.2 Schemes of 1oth Five year Plan for Voluntary Organisations
Serial Ministry/Department Number of Scheme of 10'" Five Year Plan NO. schemes
1. Ministry ofHRD 24 Education, training, housing (women and child), Research, Loans etc
2. Ministry of Rural 18 water conservation, rural tech, participation Development disability, employment land resources, sanitation.
3. Ministry Health & Family 27 Population control, health problems/diseases, traditional medicine.
4. Ministry of Tribal 5 welfare of STc, educational schemes, vocational training financial assistance, research! workshop.
5. Ministry of Social Justice 28 welfare of SCs, OBCs, Minorities, Disable, older & Empowerment people, children, drug abuse, Research/Publication.
6. Ministry of Environment 14 Eco-regeneration, Environmental education & and Forest training Environment research.
7. Dept. of Science & Tech. 13 Society & Science programmes, Research, Communication and expansion.
8. Dept. of Culture 8 Preservation and Promotion of Culture- National Museum, Local Menoire, Folk, and other celebrations.
Source- Report of the Steermg Commtttee on Voluntary Sector for the Tenth Ftve Year Plan (2002-2007), pp. 30-35, Government of India, Planning Commission, January 2002, p. 30-35. It has also reproduced here in the Annexure- III.
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State as development Actor
The third and current approach of relationship has to be often understood that state as
dominant actor in the development. As a socialist welfare state, it has defined through
the constitution of India. Since 1950s various developmental programs and schemes,
specialized departments and agencies have been started with a view to promote and
direct the development policy of the country. In virtually every aspects of
development from health, education, drinking water, sanitation, population,
agriculture, rural development, forestry, environment, family planning etc, the
governments own departments, programmes, schemes, are most dominant and active.
Thereby the space of voluntary organisation in the development arena has been
increasingly shrinking. As a consequence of this has been the use of developmental
modelsand the frameworks promoted by the state which implemented through its own
programmes, departments and schemes. It is a major agencies in rural and tribal
regions are DRDOs, Tribal Research Institute, Panchayati Raj Institute etc.
Over the years state has established hagemony over such models of
development and such frameworks. Therefore, state, often, prepares that all other
actor in the arena of development accepts its hagemony. The result of this sometimes
conflicts manifested between government and voluntary organisation155•
The voluntary organisations engaged in various welfare and developmental
activities; and they demand more freedom, less constraints in their functioning. Those
who question the policies and programmes of the state, create new solutions and
innovations which challenge the models of the state finds that state as a dominant
development actor comes in conflict with them. In those situations of conflict and
confrontation, a varieti~s of mechanism are used by the state to sustain or perpetuate
its hagemony over development models and frameworks. Use of regulatory
mechanism is one such example but perhaps more crucial and powerful is the use of
funding mechanism. (Kundal Commission, 1987)
By limiting finds to its own programmes and schemes, by providing funds to
certain type of voluntary organisations, the state maintain hagemony in the arena of
155 See the SCWR, Tilonia (Ajmer) in Sanjit Roy, 1985, Let Voluntary Agencies Plans Their Own Schemes, Kurukshetra, 34 (1), Oct, pp. 8-9
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development. Besides these, repression intimidation, harassment~ rejection and
delegitimization of those who question this hagemony if the state as development
actor is natural consequence very commonly practiced in the contemporary context.
State as moderator of power
The growing number and large varieties of voluntary organisations in 21st
century has changed the position of state (Kortan, D.C., 2001) state as a confluence of
political forces operating in a society and it is in this role of the state that voluntary
organisations are most confused and not so clear about the relationship among
themselves and with state. This relationship depends a great deal on the nature of
voluntary associations themselves - such as, welfare activities, political mobilization
or a form of radical movement.
The first category of voluntary organisations do not involve the major confrontation
with the state as they operate within the space defined by the state. The organisations
play the role of project implementing agencies, whether national or international
project156.
Those operating with alternative perspective and visions, engaged in empowerment,
those with larger size and greater visibility and don't continue to find themselves in
difficult situations with the state. They are, according to NGO leader, either co-opted
and harassed, they are occasionally rejected and de-legitimised but mostly repressed
and intimidated. State uses its own funding arm as well as its regulating arms to carry
out and sustain its adversial relationship with voluntary organisations.
The second aspect of this relationship has remained stable over a period of
history and types of voluntary organisations. In some cases voluntary organisations
known as one man organisation loses its role after that charismatic leader. An
American social worker remarked while working with an Indian NGOs that they are
still rather feudalistic in management. In his words, "only one follower can bloom at a
time in each voluntary organisations in India". Maxine K. Weisgrau in his study of
156 Ranjita Mohanty, 2002, Are Created Institutions Sustainable?, Seminar (June), No. 514,
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Udaipur itself describes that the prevalence of traditional 'Patron-Client' relationships
in NGO sector157•
In certain configuration of persons sitting in certain higher positions, either
administrative or political, the adversial character of relationship gets underplayed
and a collaborationist approach emerges. Thus, on the whole beneath the veneer of
collaboration lies the fundamental differences in approach as well as its origin.
III. Relations Between Voluntary Organisations and Political Parties
The relationship between voluntary organisation and political parties m present
context can not be ignored. Each political parties, whether national or regional have
larager membership base or cadre. Some of the political parties have social
organisations -such as RSS of BJP, Seva Dal of Congress, IPTA of CPI(M) etc158•
The changing nature of voluntary organisation from welfare to political mobilisation
has direct or indirect concern with local political parties and leaders.
Before independence, Gandhi's concept of political action for the Indian freedom
strugglle was linked to his concept of social action for constructive work. Thus
voluntary organisations were part of a larger political struggle and the link between
political action and social action was integral, close and continuous159•
Some significant trends and experiences in different parts of the country
indicates the following. First, political parties based on clearly articulated ideology
and focussing on some interest groups and having also cadre base tend to limit more
sharply the political space for voluntary organisations. As mentioned above that
political parties, particularly the regional parties, have their socio-political formations
like youth wing, women wing, tribal and Dalit social formations, trade unions. The
second trend that the ruling party at the state and national level finds itself in a
situation of discomfort when certain roles and functions are played by certain
voluntary organisations. For instance present ongoing critique of larger dams as a part
of the policy framework and the descomfort that the successive ruling parties at the
157 Maxine K. Weisgrau. 1997, Interpreting Development: Local History, Local Strategies, University Press of America, NewYork, p. 92 158 Franda M. 1983, Voluntary Associations and Local Development in India: The Janta Phase, Young Asia Publication, New Delhi 159 Desai, A. R. 1975, State and Society in India: Essays in Dissent, Popular Prakashan, Bombay
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national level have been experiencing- the Congress, the United Front, the BJP or
NDA.
Hence the relationship between voluntary organisations and political parties
viewed in two ways- either adversial or no relationship. The former is often
manifested. While the latter is internet and less visible. Because usually voluntary
organisation choose the area where is no situation of confrontation from state. That is
the reason that a good proportion of voluntarism is found in tribal areas where state
agencies are not effective- South Rajasthan is one such region. Grass root voluntary
organisations are looked as non-party activities160• These are small in size but possess
revolutionary potential for social change and development. It has more social base,
irrespective of caste, class, or religion rather political.
IV. Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRis) and Voluntary Organisations:
collaborative and conflicting roles
Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRis) have a long root in Indian tradition or civilization,
even the name panchayat refers the community structure. Before independence
Panchayat system was based social formation, whether it is caste panchayat or village
panchayat. Village administration looked by these caste panchayat or village
panchyat. It is voluntary in resource mobilizations but membership was compulsory.
Thus the basic structure of voluntary organisation and Panchayati Raj Institutions has
similarity as well as some differences.
Modern voluntarism retains the feature of resource mobilization. while the
membership criteria become liberalized and changed to complete voluntary unlike the
earlier system. It still has social base as its emergence and growth relies on people's
initiative in order to solve their problems. After independence, Indian State also
realized and provided the legal and constitutional support to PRis for community
development programmes. But this PRis was little changed as compared to traditional
panchayat system such as open membership, fixed territory of village and panchayat,
selection of leader through formal election, centralize planning and resource support.
160 Sharma, S. L. 1992, Social Action Groups as Harbingers of Silent Revolutions, Economic and Political Weekly, Nov. 21, 1992; Anil Bhatt. 1989, Development Action in India: Roles Trends, Challenges, Economic and Political Weekly, Apr 22,; Rajni Kothari. 1984, Non-Party Political Process, Economic and Political Weekly, XIX, No.5, 4 Feb
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Chapter-S
Thus both evolved in similar source but one from people's initiative and other
as State's agencies. NGOs are niether established nor necessarily supported by State.
Whereas PRis being a local government agencies are created and supported by State
but represenmtative are elected on the basis of collective choice. It has fixed rules and
regulation as per the constitution161• Despite these differences among both institutions,
the role of both initiative to strengthen the social capital. Both are directly concern
with decentralization of power and overall development of local community. Thus
both are acting the role of mediating institutions between State and citizens.
The relationship in contemporary period between these two institutional set up
are not always common. PRis after new amendments, even today not effectively
implemented inmany state, particularly in tribal scheduled areas it has later extended.
In those regions at the local level citizen's groups are operating through voluntary
organisations. In terms of numerical strength and operational situations, voluntary
agencies are not uniformly distributed to every part. Many villages and town there are
no voluntary organisations at work. The program of voluntary organisations rarely
covers all the districts, their major areas are water harvesting, natural resouce
management and local banking.
In comparison to that, PRis strengthen with over 250,000 village panchyats,
5000 panchayat samities at the block/ tehsil level and over 500 district level Zila
Parisad/ panchayats. On the other hand it is not exacly known figure of voluntary
organisations most of the statistics ranges between 10 million to 1000 millions. While
the working and effective are very low in proportion. In Udaipur district 5000
registered NGOs till date while functioning ofthem are less than 11101h.
In Rajasthan total village panchyats are 9185, while in Udaipur and
Rajsamand district 498 and 203 respectively. The number of women sarpanch are 166
and 69 in above two districts. This is the first time that women, SCs, STs has given
proportional representation in 1997. After the new amendment act, PRis given more
power, authority and responsibilities for preparation of plans for socio-economic
development that listed 29 activities listed in the XI schedule. However all these legal
161 72"d Constitutional Amendment Act (1992) and the Pancbayati Raj Act, 1996 extended to the Scheduled Tribe Areas
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Chapter-5
changes significant, but aims can not achieve without collective conscience or moral
base (John Rawls 1971, K.L Sharma, 1994). In his observation of Rajasthan's
Panchayati Raj Institutions, K. L. Sharma viewed that "the statutory provisions being
made available would be considerable relevance for rural development if Panchayati
Raj Institutions becomes a philosophy, a practice, a movement ensuring people's
confidence for having social justice and fair play under the new dispensation" (1984:
38).
The collaborative role between these institutions has observed in a recent
study of Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar pradesh. The study conducted by PRIA
(N. Delhi) and AVARD (New Delhi) with a sample of 12 Panchayats and evaluated
participatory micro planning. The study reveals that NGOs and PRis playing
collaborative relation and ideal case for local development like Gram Panchyat. One
is best in top-down resource allocation while the other is best in bottom-up planning
with existing resource mobilisation (Philip Oldenberg, 1999: 4). This has also
observed in Udaipur district that many organisations are actively create an awareness
campaign for PRis like people's right and how to get the maximum benefits. Two
major formation clearly explicit without any collision- one is Panchayati Raj Sahyog
Samiti under leadership of Asthan, other Panchyati Raj Training Institute under Vidya
Bhawan and Seva Mandir. This effort has tremendous impact in tribals. Because they
completely illiterate to this institutions and after training there is lot of awareness
observed.
Therefore, we may conclude that PRis and NGOs share common features as
well as the distinction to each other. The structural and functional aspects are variable
with respect to time and space. Besides these, the social, political, economic and
cultural system also directly or indirectly determine their relationship.
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