Tree showing proposed relationships between mosquitoes, midges, and their relatives. (After various sources.)

Figure 7.1

A cladogram showing the relationships of four species, A, B, C, and D, and examples of (a) the three monophyletic groups, (b) two of the four possible (ABC, ABD, ACD, BCD) paraphyletic groups, and (c) one of the four possible (AC, AD, BC, and BD) polyphyletic groups that could be recognized based on this cladogram.

Box 7.1

Box 7.2

Figure 7.2

Cladogram of postulated relationships of extant hexapods, based on combined morphological and nucleotide sequence data. Broken lines indicate uncertain relationships or alternative hypotheses. Thysanura sensu lato (s.l.) refers to Thysanura in the broad sense. An expanded concept is depicted for each of two orders – Blattodea (including termites) and Psocodea (former Psocoptera and Phthiraptera) – but intra-ordinal relationships are shown simplified (see Figs 7.4 and 7.5 for full details). (Data from several sources.)

Figure 7.3

Cladogram of postulated relationships of extant hexapod orders, based on morphological and molecular data. There are alternate views concerning internal relationships and monophyly of Entognatha. (Data from several sources.)

Figure 7.4

Cladogram of postulated relationships within Dictyoptera, based on combined morphological and nucleotide sequence data. The revised concept of order Blattodea includes the termites, which are given the rank of epifamily (-oidae) as Termitoidae; similarly the woodroaches (Cryptocercidae) and blattid cockroaches (Blattidae) are placed in epifamilies of the superfamily Blattoidea. (Data from several sources, with classification of Eggleton et al. 2007.)

Figure 7.5

Cladogram of postulated relationships among suborders of Psocodea, with Condylognatha as the sister group. The depicted hypothesis of relationships suggests two origins of parasitism in the order. (After Johnson et al. 2004).

Figure 7.6

Cladogram of postulated relationships within Hemiptera, based on combined morphological and nucleotide sequence data. Broken lines indicate paraphyletic taxa, with names italicized. (After Bourgoin & Campbell 2002.)

Figure 7.7

Two competing hypotheses for the relationships of Antliophora: (a) based on nucleotide sequence data, including ribosomal genes, supported by morphology (after Whiting 2002); and (b) based on nucleotide sequence data from single-copy protein-coding genes (after Wiegmann et al. 2009). The order Mecoptera is paraphyletic in (a) as indicated by its italicized name and the broken line, whereas it is monophyletic in (b) as indicated by the solid line.

Figure 7.8

Cladogram of postulated relationships of selected lepidopteran higher taxa, based on morphological data. (After Kristensen & Skalski 1999; Kristensen et al. 2007.)