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EGOISM

Some call it arrogant, I call it confident a verse from Beyonces song ego. This is pretty much

what egoism is all about. Charles Kay, a professor in Wofford College, describes egoism as a

teleological theory of ethics that positions oneself as the sole beneficiary of pleasure, or thegreatest of oneself alone. It is an ethical theory holding that the good is based on the pursuit of self-

interest. Egoists concern themselves for the betterment of oneself. They see perfection through thefurthering of own welfare and profit. It is opposed to altruism, which holds the criterion ofmorality to be the welfare of others.

Psychological Egoism

Psychological egoism claims that humans, by nature, are motivated by own welfare. This claim

describes the human nature. It asserts that all acts are provoked by self-interest, selfish desire, nomatter how altruistic it may seem. This type of egoism allows one to aim others welfare, such as

helping others, due to its understanding that there is almost always some benefit to ourselves in

any action we choose. For example, if we let others borrow our possessions; we assume that in

time that we need their assistance, they would reciprocate the act.

A common objection to this type of egoism is the proposition that one must desire things other

than that for my own welfare in order to get welfare. For example, should I help others, I would

not derive welfare from helping, unless I desired. Psychological egoist can concede that I musthave desires for things, but there is no need to concede that the satisfaction of these desires is not

part of my welfare.

Ethical Egoism

Ethical Egoism states that the need for an action to be considered as morally right is that it should

maximize ones self-interest. Ethical egoism contradicts psychological egoism. Basically, ethicalegoism suggests that we do what is in our own self-interest, psychological egoism, on the other

hand, claims that people do only act in their self-interest. Ethical egoism states that one must act in

own self-interest, even is its in conflict with own values and interests of others, due to the fact thatit is what I value the most.

Minimalist Egoism

Rational egoism claims that it is necessary and sufficient for an action to be based on reason, to

maximize one's self-interest. Its main principle is that an action is rational, only if it makes the

most for ones self-interest. In businesses, we may frequently assume that people will act in such away as to promote their own interests; this is rational egoism, put into contemporary world.

Strengths of Egoism

Provides a basis for formulating and testing moral policies

Provides moral decision making flexibility without being arbitrary

Weaknesses of Egoism

pay no attention to unconcealed mistakes

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irreconcilable with social role of most organizations

does not resolve conflicts of Egoistic interests

offers conflicting moral guidance

Proponents

Max Stirner was the first egoist philosopher. He published The Ego and Its Own, which basically

portrays the life of a human individual as dominated by authoritarian concepts, which must be

shaken and undermined by each individual in order for that person to act freely. These

concepts include primarily religion and ideology, and the institutions claiming authority over

the individual.

Alisa Rosenbaum promoted ethical egoism while rejecting the ethic of altruism. She

considered reason to be the only means of acquiring knowledge. She proposed that the

supremacy of reason, if applied consistently, would result to a magnificent beginning.

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UTILITARIANISM

Utilitarianism basically asserts that we should always act so as to produce the greatest ratio of goodto evil for everyone concerned with our decision. It proposes that an action is right if it tends to

promote happiness and wrong if it tends to produce the reverse of happiness. Happiness should be

felt not only by the performer but everyone affected by it. Such theory is in opposition of egoism.

Utilitarianism also differs from ethical theories that make the rightness or wrongness of an actdependent upon the motive of the agent; for, according to the Utilitarian, it is possible for the right

thing to be done from a bad motive. Its nature basically answers the question What ought a manto do?

Utilitarianism has established itself as one of the small number of live options that must be taken

into account and either refuted or accepted by any philosopher taking a position in normative

ethics.

Negative utilitarianism

Negative utilitarianism necessitates us to promote the smallest amount of harm, or to avoid doingharm for the greatest number. Proponents argue that this is a more effective ethical formula, since,

they contend, there are many more ways to do harm than to do well, and the greatest harms aremore consequential than the greatest goods.

Rule Utilitarianism

This type of utilitarianism determines the rightness of an act by a different method. First, the bestrule of conduct is established. This is done by finding the value of the consequences of following a

particular rule. The rule the following of which has the best overall consequences is the best rule.

Currently, rule-utilitarian formulations seem to be ought of favor, but there are attempts to

rehabilitate them. Rule utilitarianism states that the best act is to follow the general rule whichwould yield the most happiness

Act-Utilitarianism

Act-Utilitarianism is the value of the consequences of the particular act that counts when

determining whether the act is right. Act utilitarianism states that the best act is whichever

act would yield the most happiness.

Preference utilitarianism

Preference utilitarianism defines utility in terms of inclination satisfaction. This type of utilitarianclaims that which produces the best consequences is the right thing to do. Moreover, it abandonsthe attempt to measure utility in terms of the extent or duration or causes of happiness, and

measures instead the satisfaction of desires or preferences.

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PROPONENTS

David Hume

First advanced the idea that moral rules

are justified by promoting the utility of

the persons involved.

Jeremy Bentham

He formulated the principle of utility,

which approves of an action in so far asan action has an overall tendency to

promote the greatest amount of

happiness. Happiness is identified with

pleasure and the absence of pain.

John Stuart Mill

Wrote a book entitled Utilitarianismabout the philosophical defense of

utilitarianism in ethics.

WEAKNESSES

it invites us to consider the consequences of the general following of a particular rule

Another problem is that the best rules would not be simple.

although the widespread practice of lying and stealing would have bad consequences,resulting in a loss of trustworthiness and security, it is not certain that an occasional lie

to avoid embarrassment or an occasional theft from a rich man would not have good

consequences, and thus be permissible or even required by Utilitarianism.

the value of life is more than a balance of pleasure over pain

the prevention of suffering should take precedence over any alternative act that would

only increase the happiness of someone already happy.

ALTRUISM

Merriam- Webster defines altruism as an unselfish regard for or devotion to the welfare of others,

and a behavior by one that is not beneficial to or may be harmful to him but that benefits others of

its species. It is a theory of conduct that regards the good of others as the end of moral action. As a

theory of conduct, its adequacy depends on an interpretation of the good. Most altruists have

agreed that a moral agent has an obligation to further the pleasures and alleviate the pains of other

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people. Moreover, it is a concept in philosophy and psychology that holds that the interests of

others, rather than of the self, can motivate an individual. Dealing with altruism in this modern

world, is the abdication of claims of power over others. To state that "None of us are worth more

and none are worth less than anyone else" is almost a truism, but modern technology has given a

new urgency to all such appeals for altruism.

Altruism is a system in which everyone tries to think of others and care for them just as they carefor themselves. It has been used since time immemorial within families, close friends and religious

communities etc. but has rarely been conceived as applicable on a larger scale.

PROPONENT

Auguste Comte calls for living for the sake of others. One who

holds to either of these ethics is known as an "altruist." As the

French founder of positivism, he expresses altruism as the

ethical doctrine he supported. He believed that individuals had a

moral obligation to renounce self-interest and live for others.

For Comte, the thought would be summed up in the phrase:

Live for others.

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HEDONISM

Hedonism, as The Columbia Encyclopedia states, is the doctrine that holds that pleasure is the

highest good. It is a group of ethical systems that hold, with various modifications, that feelings of

pleasure or happiness are the highest and final aim of conduct; that, consequently those actionswhich increase the sum of pleasure are thereby constituted right, and, conversely, what increases

pain is wrong. This thought emphasizes the superiority of social and intellectual pleasures over

those of the senses. Pleasure, in hedonism, is the universal and ultimate object of endeavor. It is

not merely sensual gratification but also the higher forms of enjoyment, mental pleasures, domestic

love, friendship, and moral contentment. Hedonism suggest that only immediate sensations can

ever really be known and that indulgence in the pleasure of the moment is the supreme good

toward which we should aim our lives. This principle argues that all creatures naturally attempt to

pursue pleasure and to avoid pain. Practically, all hedonists have argued that what are known as the

"lower" pleasures are not only temporary in themselves but also productive, of a great amount of

consequent pain that the wise man cannot regard them as truly pleasurable; the sane hedonist will,therefore, seek for those so-called "higher" pleasures, which are at once more lasting and less

likely to be reduced by consequent pain. It should be observed, however, that this choice of

pleasures by a hedonist is conditioned not by "moral" but by relative considerations. Modern

hedonism is universalistic in that it is conceived in a social sense"the greatest happiness for the

greatest number.

Psychological hedonism

Psychological hedonism affirms that the motives of human action are to be found in the pursuit of

pleasure or in the avoidance of pain. It is a theory of psychological motivation

Ethical hedonism

Ethical hedonism asserts that actions are good insofar as they produce pleasure or prevent pain. In

contrast with psychological hedonism, it is a theory of ethical conduct.

Egoistic hedonism

Egoistic hedonism affirms that each individual should aim to promote his own

happiness

Universalistic hedonism

Universalistic hedonism affirms that each individual should aim to promote thehappiness of all individuals. Moreover, it asserts that all individuals have an equal

right to be happy and that there is no individual whose happiness is more important

than that of any other individual. It also asserts that the rightness or wrongness ofactions depends on whether or not they promote universal happiness.

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PROPONENT

Aristippus

He apprehended that pleasure, to be the highest good and virtue, is to

be identical with the ability to enjoy. His doctrines, comprising thefirst coherent exposition of hedonism, opposed those of the Cynics,

although both groups drew upon aspects of Socratic philosophy.

Aristippus advocated a life of pure sensual pleasure. Indeed, he

claimed that immediate pleasure is the ultimate goal of all our actions.

Aristippus himself seemed to enjoy being a non-conformist.

WEAKNESSES

It rests on a false psychological analysis

It falsely supposes that pleasure is the only motive of action.

Even if it were granted that pleasure and pain constitute the standard of right and wrong,

this standard would be utterly impracticable.

Egoistic Hedonism reduces all benevolence, self-sacrifice, and love of the right to mere

selfishness.

No general code of morality could be established on the basis of pleasure.

Hedonism has no ground for moral obligation, no sanction for duty.

an individual may have to decide whether an action is right or wrong by estimating not

only how much personal happiness will be produced by the action but also how muchgeneral happiness will be produced by the action

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RATIONALISM

Rationalism, as described in PhilosophyOnline.com, comes from the Latin ratio, meaning 'reason'.It is a point of view that states that reason plays the main role in understanding the world and

obtaining knowledge. The Columbia Encyclopedia describes rationalism as a theory that holds thatreason alone, unaided by experience, can arrive at basic truth regarding the world. Rationalism, in

the broader, popular meaning of the term, is used to designate any mode of thought in whichhuman reason holds the place of supreme criterion of truth; in this sense, it is especially applied to

such modes of thought as contrasted with faith. Thus Atheism, Materialism, Naturalism,

Pantheism, Scepticism, etc., fall under the head of rationalistic systems. While rationalism hasexisted throughout the history of philosophy, it is usually associated specifically with three

philosophers during the Renaissance, Ren Descartes, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Baruch Spinoza.

All 3 of these philosophers shared the belief that we can best understand the world through logicand reasoning. This Rationalism is now rather a spirit, or attitude, ready to seize upon any

arguments, from any source and of any or no value, to urge against the doctrines and practices of

faith.

Key Notions in Rationalism

1. A Priori Knowledge Some ideas are true independent of experience. Rationaliststhought that the senses sometimes mislead us. For this reason, they argued that knowledge

which is independent of experience must be more trustworthy because it has less to do with

the senses.

2. Innate Ideas Some ideas are present from birth. Among those ideas which do not

require experience, are concepts which are present from birth. These ideas which are

called innate can theoretically be discovered or brought from within the mind of eachindividual.

3. Logical Necessity Some things cannot be conceived of as otherwise. Another

important idea for rationalists is that of necessity. Although we may use the word everyday,the rationalists actually meant something very specific by it.

PROPONENTS

Descartes

His influence on philosophy was immense, and was widely felt in law and

theology. Frequently he has been called the father of modern philosophy,but his importance has been challenged in recent years with the

demonstration of his great debt to the scholastics. He influenced the

rationalists, and Baruch Spinoza also reflects Descartes's doctrines in some

degree.

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Spinoza

Spinoza's philosophy is deductive, rational, and monist. He shares with

Descartes an intensely mathematical appreciation of the universe:

Things make sense when understood in relation to a total structure;

truth, like geometry, follows from first principles with a logic

accessible and evident to man's mind. Spinoza's rationalism, unlikethat of later idealists, does not proceed at the expense of empirical

observation.

Liebniz

Leibniz's philosophy is a consistent rationalism. The universe forms

one context in which each occurrence can be seen in relation to

every other. The principle of continuity as expressed in the phrase

"nature makes no leaps" is another part of Leibniz's rationalism.

WEAKNESSES

One cannot gain all knowledge through logic and reason

inadequate system as it fails to explain the full workings of human mind, of human

emotions, for instance, or matters involving human instinct

it does not accept intrinsic judgment

Supposes that the laws of logic are infallible

it tells us nothing of great interest about the external world because of our a priori

knowledge

We are gaining nothing new or useful

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NIHILISM

The Catholic Encyclopedia states that Nihilism derives its name from the Latin root nihil, which

means nothing, or that which does not exist. This same root is found in the verb annihilate to

bring to nothing, to destroy completely. Nihilism is the belief wherein, labels all values as

worthless, therefore, nothing can be known or communicated. It also associates itself with extreme

pessimism and a radical skepticism, having no loyalties. A Nihilist is one who bows to no authority

and accepts no doctrine, however widespread, that is not supported by proof.

Nihilism stressed the need to destroy existing economic and social institutions, whatever the

projected nature of the better order for which the destruction was to prepare. Nihilists were not

without constructive programs, but agreement on these was not essential to the immediateobjective, destruction. Direct action, such as assassination and arson, is a distinct characteristic of

the thought. Such acts were not necessarily directed by any central authority, however, small

groups and even individuals were encouraged to plan and execute terroristic acts independently.

The objective of nihilism manifests itself in several perspectives:

Epistemological nihilism denies the possibility of knowledge and truth, and is linked to

extreme skepticism.

Political nihilism advocates the prior destruction of all existing political, social, andreligious orders as a prerequisite for any future improvement.

Ethical nihilism (moral nihilism) rejects the possibility of absolute moral or ethical values.Good and evil are vague, and related values are simply the result of social and emotional

pressures.

Existential nihilism, the most well-known view, affirms that life has no intrinsic meaning

or value.

PROPONENTS

Ivan Turgenev

The Nihilism theory was given its name by Ivan Turgenev in his novel

Fathers and Son. The novel examined the conflict between the older

generation, reluctant to accept reforms, and the idealistic youth. In the

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central character, Bazarov, Turgenev drew a classical portrait of the mid-nineteenth-century nihilist

- the word was invented by the author. Later the temperament of a nihilist found a number of

different manifestations: the terrorist, the anarchist, the atheist, the materialist, and the Communist.

EUDAEMONISM

Eudaemonism is an ethical stance, which claims that happiness is the property by which allintrinsic goods are good and by which all our rational behavior is ultimately justified. This thought

is concerned with the attainment of some objectively defined happiness, rather than simply the

subjective experience of pleasure. We ought to seek happiness as our ultimate end in life and

pursue everything else for the sake of happiness. This ethical eudaemonism is related to

psychological eudaemonism, but not identical with it. Psychological eudaemonism proposes that

all intentional behavior of an agent aims at the agent's own happiness. Although happiness has

been the ultimate good, there is no agreement about what constitutes happiness. To theories of

morality, the good of man is in some form of happiness.

One, must however, separate hedonism to eudaemonism. Hedonism is considered as the search fora continuous series of physical pleasures, eudaemonism, on the other hand, is a condition of

enduring mental satisfaction. Such a distinction involves the assumptions that bodilypleasures are generically different from mental ones, and that there is in practice a clearly

marked dividing line.

PROPONENTS

Aristotle

Eudaemonism was first raised by Aristotle and basically it tells us to

obtain happiness by leading a life according to reason. Aristotle argued

that a person does his own ethical duty an injustice by refusing to

reason. A good human should reason as best he can. The capacity to

reason is the single largest differentiator between humans and other

beings on this Earth, and as such it is the most uniquely human. To

embrace humanity, one must embrace the uniqueness that we hold, and

one must embrace reason. Similarly, the capacity to recognize andreflect upon the deepest workings of nature, of beauty, and passion are

powerfully and primary human definers.

WEAKNESSES

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eudaemonism did not consist in declaring virtuous happiness and enjoyment to be the

highest good

eudaemionism exaggerates the role of necessity and understimates the role of reason in

forming conception of the ultimate end.

It fails to recognize the claims of morality

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INTUITIONISM

Intuitionism in philosophy, is a way of knowing directly; immediate apprehension. It is understood

as the grasp of universal principles by the intelligence, as distinguished from the fleeting

impressions of the senses. According to ethical intuitionism, there are fundamental ethical truthsthat can be known directly and do not have to be inferred. It affirms that proper conduct is defined

by rules or principles which may be known instinctively. It asserts that the rightness or wrongness

of actions may be known intuitively; even if the consequences of these actions have not been

determined. Following common sense, we should recognize an objective moral order. The basic

principles of ethics, like those of math and logic, are self-evident truths. These principles become

clear to us when we reach sufficient intellectual maturity. Intuitionism makes three claims. The

first is that Good is inexpressible, the term good is a simple, indefinable notion. It is a subjective

thought that varies from one persona to the others. What is good to me may not be good to others.

There are endless meanings of good that one cannot evaluate what good is. The second claim is

that there are objective moral truths. There are moral truths that don't depend on human thinking orfeeling. "Hatred is wrong" is an example. Hatred is wrong in itself. It would still be wrong even if

everyone approved of it. It's an objective truth that hatred is wrong. Lastly, the basic moral truths

are self-evident to a mature mind. This claims that there are known truths that require no further

proof or justification. It's never self-evident what we ought to do in a concrete situation.

Three phases:

Perceptional - Perceptional intuitionism affirms that some ethical truths may be intuitively

apprehended.

Dogmatic - Dogmatic intuitionism affirms that some ethical truths may be accepted

without being intuitively apprehended.

Philosophical - Philosophical intuitionism affirms that some ethical truths may be

intuitively apprehended without being undeniably or absolutely self-evident.

PROPONENTS

G.E. Moore

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He developed a concept of ethics and aesthetics called intuitionism. Basically he assumed thatmoral facts existed. His theory then stated that it was possible to intuit whether a moral statement

or an artwork was good or bad. This rested on the idea that goodness or badness is a property of a

statement or thing. Intuitionism was simply another sense that allowed one to detect that property.

Harold Arthur Prichard

Prichard is an English philosopher, one of the leading members of the

Oxford intuitionist school of moralphilosophy, which held that moral

values are ultimate and irreducible and can be ascertained onlythrough the use of intuition.

William David Ross

He defended ethical intuitionism. Ross argued that there are objective ethical truths, that the basic

ones are self-evident, and that skeptical attacks on morality fail. He further argued that our ethical

intuitions are best captured, not by utilitarianism, but by a set of "prima facie" duties that hold

other things equal.

WEAKNESSES

Intuitionists don't agree on the moral principles that they claim are self-evident.

Does not tell whose judgment is better when our intuitions differ.

Does not justify the choice of the seven prima facie duties.

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