Treaties of Nijmegen Medal 2012

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Treaties of Nijmegen Medal 2012

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Contents

7 Foreword15 SpeechProfessorEllenvanWolde35 SpeechMayorWimDijkstra45 SpeechSecretaryofStateBenKnapen53 AddressProfessorUmbertoEco

61 ‘ThesigningofthepeacetreatybetweenFranceandSpain on17September1678/1679’ – Paintingby HenriGascar(d)

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7 Foreword

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On7May2012theTreatiesofNijmegenMedalwasawardedtoUmbertoEco.ThenameoftheawardcommemoratesaseriesofPeaceTreatiessignedinNijmegenin1678and1679.ThesepeacetreatieswereoneofthefirstattemptstoachievepeaceonaEuropeanscale.

ThemostimportantlessontheTreatiesofNijmegencanteachus,isthatdiscussion,dialogueandmutualrespectcanleadtoEuropeanpeaceandtolerance.ThisiswhatinspiredtheCityofNijmegen,RadboudUniversityNijmegenandRoyalHaskoning,togetherwiththeMinistryofForeignAffairstoawardaTreatiesofNijmegenMedaleverytwoyears.TheMedalisawardedtoapersonororganizationthathasdevotedspecialeffortstowardsachievingpeace,prosperityandtoleranceinEurope.In2010thefirstTreatyofNijmegenMedalwasawardedtoJacquesDelors,whowaspresidentoftheEuropeanCommissionfrom1985tot1995.

BenKnapen,SecretaryofStateforForeignAffairs,praisedauthorandscientistUmbertoEcointheSt.Stephen’sChurchon7May,forhiscontributiontothediscussionandthinkingaboutthepastandfutureofEurope.“HisfutureofEuropeisacommunityofpeoplewhocanrelatetothespirit,theflavourandtheatmosphereofdifferentlanguages.Becausewhentheyunderstandthelanguages,theyunderstandtheculturaluniversebehindthemaswell.” InthiscollectionyouwillfindBenKnapen’sspeech,togetherwiththeaddressesdeliveredbyProf.EllenvanWoldeandtheMayorofNijmegen.Ofcourse,theTreatiesofNijmegenLecturebyUmbertoEcohimselfisalsoincluded. Thecollectionalsocontainsareproductionof‘ThesigningofthepeacetreatybetweenFranceandSpainon17September1678/1679’byHenriGascard(1635-1701),apaintingwhichisondisplayintheMuseumHetValkhofinNijmegen. Inthisway,Nijmegenauthorities,academicsandbusinesscometogethertohonouranimportantEuropeanandtohelpshapethefutureofEurope.

Eco, Europe, and the Dynamics of SemiosisEllen van Wolde, Radboud University Nijmegen

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15 Eco, Europe, and the Dynamics of SemiosisProfessor Ellen van Wolde

We must remember that it is culture,

not war or economy, that cements

our European identity. Umberto Eco

W1. Eco and Europe

WhenwethinkofEuropetoday,mostofusmightthinkofpolitics,economiccrisesorahistoryofwars.However,oneofthemaincharacteristicsofEuropeisculture:anaggregateofideasandhabitsthatmigratedfromtheancientNearEastandEgypttoGreece,Anatolia,allovertheRomanEmpire,throughtheMiddleAgestravellingfromByzantineEuropetoWesternEurope,fromtheMediterraneantotheNorthwestandMiddleEuropeanempires,fromEuropetoAmericaandothercoloniesaroundtheworld.Inthis“Migrationofthemind”Europehasplayedanimportantrole.

Eco and his studentsThirtyyearsago,studentswouldtraveltoBolognatostudywithUmbertoEco.TheycamefromalloverEurope:Italy,Germany,England,Belgium,France,Spain,GreeceandtheNetherlandsbutalsofurtherafieldfromAustralia,Iraq,EgyptandAmerica.ThiswassimilartotheMiddleAges,theRenaissanceperiodandtheGrandTourperiodwhenstudentstravelledformilestobetaughtbyfamousprofessorsandtodeveloptheirintellectualstrengthsandcapacities.NowadaysstudentscangetsupportfromtheErasmusProgrammebutthirtyyearsagostudentshadtosupportthemselves.

16 In1982,Iwassuchastudent.Recentlygradu-atedfromRadboudUniversityNijmegen(thentheCatholicUniversityofNijmegen),IwenttoBolognaforayeartostudyanillustriousbranchoftheartsandhumanitiescalledsemiotics.Iwaseagertolearnhowpeopledevelopideas,howculture,languageandideascaninfluencepeople’sperceptionsandmindsandtoexploremyresearchquestion:howdolanguageandconceptsrelatetotheactualworld?Areweimprisonedbylanguage,unabletoreachouttotheworld;arewesimplyproductsofculture,neverabletounderstandthemindsor‘other’peoples?Whatiflanguageconstructstheworld?Howthenwouldweeverbeabletounderstandpeoplebornandraisedinothercultures,forexample,Indian,Islamic,AfricanorevenancientMesopotamianorGreekcultures?ThesequestionsintriguedmeandsoItoowenttovisitProfessorUmbertoEcohopingtofindsomeanswers. EveryThursday,FridayandSaturday,ProfessorEcowouldtravelfromMilantoBolognatoteach.OnThursdayhegaveageneralcourseonsemiotics,onFridayacourseonlanguageandmeaning,andonSaturdaymedievalphilosophyandsemantics.HugenumbersofstudentsattendedhisThursdayclasses.Theroomwasalwayspackedwith

studentssittingonchairs,onthefloororleaningagainstthewalls.IalwaysfollowedtheclassesbeforeEco’s,tomakesureIhadachairtositoninhisclass,whichmeantthatIinadvertentlylearnedalotaboutthefilmsofPasolini,thetopicofthepreviouscourse.TheEcoclassonThursdaywassopackedthatonedaythefloorgavewayundertheweightofstudents. TheFridaygroupwassmaller,fiftyorso,andweconcentratedontopicsoflanguageandmeaning,languageandcommunication,semanticsandpragmatics.Quiteoften,expertsfromabroadwereinvited.OnSaturdaytherewasaseminarwithsixtoeightstudentsspecialisinginmedievalphilosophyandsemantics.WereadtextswritteninLatin.Westudiedthemclosely,discusseddetails:howshouldwereadthisLatinword,howdoestheargumentruninthistext?Anditalwaysturnedoutthatthestudyofdetailshasimportantconsequencesfortheinterpretationoftheentiretext.MyimpressionwasthatEcolovedtheseseminarsmost.

17 Eco and the UniversityFigure 1offersapictureofEco’steachingcoursesatBolognaUniversityfromthespecialisedsmallgroupstolargerstudentgroupsandlargeintroductionclasses.Thisimagerepresentsgooduniversityeducation,classesfromintroductiontospecialisation,studentseagertolearnandprofessorswhoareexpertsintheirfieldswithgreatintellectualrigourandasenseofresponsibilitytowardstheirstudents.InadditiontohisresearchandcoursesatBolognaUniversity,UmbertoEcostartedtowriteforalargeraudience,thenovels,oftendetectivestorieswithasemioticbackground:The Name of the Rose, The Pendulum of Foucault, The Prague Cemetery.

WhydidsomanyEuropeanstudentswanttostudywithEco?BecauseofTheory of Semiotics,thebookhewrotebetween1967and1974whichwaspublishedinEnglishin1976.Init,hedescribedsemioticsasa‘logicofculture’,aunifiedapproachtoeveryphenomenonofsignificationand/orcommunication.Intheearlyeighties,hewroteSemiotics and the Philosophy of Language(1984).IassumehewaswritingitwhileIwasstillhisstudent,becauseitstopics(whataresigns,whatisthediffer-encebetweendictionaryandencyclopaedia,thetopicsofmetaphor,symbolsandmirrors)figuredwidelyinhiscourses. Afteracoupleofmonthsofintensivestudy,IpluckedupthecouragetoaskEcomyownquestionsandheinvitedmetohisoffice.‘Idiscovered’,Isaid,‘thatsemioticsisakindofconstructivisttheory,andevenmorethatyouareaconstructivist.Youonlybelieveinthenameoftherose,notintheroseitself.’ProfessorEco,startedlaughing,andsaid:‘Piccolateologa,that’syourproblem,isn’tit.WhatifGodonlyturnsouttobeaname,andnothingelse?’Andhewasrightofcourse. Butletmephrasethisprobleminotherterms,intermsofquantummechanics.‘Isquantummechanicsadescriptionoftheactualworldorisitsimplyasystemthathappensto

Figure 1: Eco, University and general audience

18 work?’ThiswasamatterthatdominatedEinstein’slifeandledhimtoinsistthatthetheorywascorrectbutincomplete.Intuitively,hejustcouldnotacceptthattherewasnorealitywithoutanobserver,orthatthisrealitywasdefinedbytheobserver,asBohrandtherestseemedtobesaying.InEinstein’smemo-rablephrase,therewasouttherea‘realfactualsituation’.‘Whenamouseobserves’,heonceasked,‘doesthatchangethestateoftheuniverse?’EinsteinexpressedhimselfbetterthanIdid,butthequestionwasthesame. AnditwasagreatpleasuretodiscoverthatEco,inhislasttheoreticalbook,Kant and the Platypus. Essays on Language and Cognition(1997,2000Englishedition),addressedthisquestionanddiscusseditextensivelyinthefirsttwoessays.

2. Eco, Semiotics and the Dynamics of Semiosis

Inhisgroundbreakingandfundamentalbook,A Theory of Semiotics,Ecoofferedacomprehen-sivestudyofsemiotics,whichwillbesketchedhereshortlyinasortof‘semioticsfordum-mies’.

Semiotics for dummiesWe,thehumanspecies,seemtobedrivenbyadesiretomakemeanings.Weare,aboveall,Homosignificans–meaningmakers.Distinc-tively,wemakemeaningsthroughourcreationandinterpretationof‘signs’.Asignisevery-thingwhichcanbesaidtosignificantlystandforsomethingelse.Initswidestsense,asignmaybedefinedasaformthatstandsforsomethingelse,whichweunderstandasitsmeaning.Forexample,raisingone’seyebrowisunderstoodtobeasignofsurprise,whereasblowingone’snoseisusuallynottakentobeameaningfulsign,butitmaybecomeoneifitisintendedasanexpressionofprotest.Weinter-pretthingsassignslargelyunconsciouslybyrelatingthemtofamiliarsystemsofconven-tions.Themeaningfuluseofsignsisattheheartoftheconcernsofsemiotics.InEurope,wehavebeeneducatedbyamixtureofsocial

19 codesorsemioticconventionsfromGreek,Roman,JudaicandChristianorigins.Example a:EuropeansigncodesincontrasttoAmericansigncodes:‘justice’. ThesocialpoliticalphilosopherMichaelJ.SandelofferedthefollowingexampleoftheAmericanideaofjusticeinhisbookJustice. What is the right thing to do?(2009).Inthesummerof2004,HurricaneCharleyroaredoutoftheGulfofMexicoandsweptacrossFloridatotheAtlanticOcean.Thestormclaimed22livesandcaused$11billionindamage.AgasstationinOrlandowasselling$2bagsoficefor$10;storesthatnormallysoldsmallhouseholdgeneratorsfor$250werenowasking$2000.Oneresidentwastolditwouldcost$10,000toremoveafallentreefromhisroof.Andsoonandsoforth.ManyFloridianswereangeredbytheinflatedprices. Floridamadealawagainstpricegouging.Butinthediscussion,someeconomistsarguedthattheprice-gouginglawwaswrong.‘Inmedievaltimes,philosophersandtheologiansbelievedthattheexchangeofgoodsshouldbegovernedbya“justprice”,determinedbytheintrinsicvalueofthings.Butinmarketsocietiespricesaresetbysupplyanddemand.Thereisnosuchthingasa“justprice”.This

isn’tgreedyorbrazen.It’showgoodsandservicegetallocatedinafreesociety.’ ForsomeonebornandraisedinEurope,thissoundsoutrageous.Fortunately,AttorneyGeneralCrist(aRepublicanwhowouldlaterbeelectedgovernorofFlorida)defendedthelawagainstpricegouging,saying(andIquoteSandelwhoquotesCrist):‘This is not the normal free market situation where willing buyers freely elect to enter into the market-place and meet willing sellers, where a price is agreed upon based on supply and demand. In an emergency, buyers under duress have no freedom.’

Example b:ChristiansigncodesincontrasttoArabicsigncodes:ArabicBibletranslations. RecentlyacontroversyaroseoverthreereputableChristianorganizations,WycliffeBibleTranslators,SummerInstituteofLinguis-tics(sil)andFrontiers,becausetheypublishedArabictranslationsoftheBible,inwhichthewords‘Father’forGodand‘Son’and‘SonofGod’forJesuswerereplacedby‘Lord’and‘Messiah’.Thetranslatorsclaimthataword-for-wordtranslationofthesetitleswouldcommunicateanincorrectmeaninginArabicsocietiesinwhichthenotionof‘GodtheFather’wouldhavebeeninterpretedasGodphysicallyhavingsexwithMary,thusjustify-

20 ingsubstituting‘Father’and‘Son’innewtranslations.InourEuropeansocialconven-tions,basedonalongChristiantradition,wewouldneverthinkofGodtheFatherasonewhohadsexwithMarywhobegatGod’ssonJesus.InArabicculture,thesemanticconceptoffatherwouldinvolvesex,orsotheAmericantranslatorsassumed.Theyletculturalanthro-pologyprevailoverbiblicaltheology,orsoatleasttheprotestersassume.(see:http://news.yahoo.com/father-son-ousted-trinity-bible-trans-lations-003300519.html)

SemiosisTheAmericanphilosopherCharlesSandersPeirce(1939-1914)isoneofthefoundingfathersofsemiotics.Heformulatedthebasicconceptsofsemioticsinhisfamousessay:Some consequences of four incapacities(1868).

1.WehavenopowerofIntrospective,butall knowledgeoftheinternalworldisderived byhypotheticalreasoningfromour knowledgeofexternalfacts.2.WehavenopowerofIntuition,butevery cognitionisdeterminedlogicallyby previouscognitions.

Peirceproposestocalltheinterpretativeprocesssemiosis,inwhichhedefinessemiosisasanoperationofthreesubjects:thesign,itsobjectanditsinterpretant.Thesignisde-scribedabove,theobjectistheactualormentalphenomenonreferredto,andtheinterpretantisthemeaningeffectormentalimagethatistheresultoftheprocessofsemiosis.InhisstudiesPeircetriestoexplainhoweverysemiosisinvolvesaformofinfer-encemakingthattakesasignasitsorigin,generatesinterpretation,andhasameaningoramentalimageasitseffect.Thusheshowsthatinferencemakingisattheheartofsemiosis.Take,forexample,thefollowingthreestatements:“JohnMiltonwroteParadise Lost”,“Hiswifedied”,“JohnMiltonwroteParadise Regained.”Whenthesestatementsareinterpretedchronologically,theinferenceismadethattheseeventsjusthappenedoneaftertheother(=post hoc).However,whentheyareinterpretedcausally,theinferenceismadethatthelasteventwastheconsequenceoftheantecedents(post hoc, ergo propter hoc).However,thelatterinferenceiswrong,sincethethreestatementswereorderedandexpressedasasubsequenceandnotasaconsequence.Peirceexplainshowtheonlyjustificationofaninferencefromsignsisthattheconclusion

21 explainsthefact.Andhemakesadistinctionbetweenthreetypesofinferences,namelyabduction, induction,anddeduction.• Abductionisaninferencefromabodyofdatatoanexplaininghypothesis.LaterPeircedescribedabductionasthemethodofdiscover-inghypotheses.• Inductionisaninferencefromasampletoawhole.LaterPeircedescribedinductionasthemethodoftestinghypotheses.• Deductionisaninferenceinwhichtheconclusionisofnogreatergeneralitythanthepremises.LaterPeircedescribeddeductionasthemethodofgeneralization,theestablish-mentofrules,habitsandconventions.AbductionconstitutesaccordingtoPeircethefirststageofscientificinquiriesandofanyinterpretiveprocesses.Itcoverstwoopera-tions:theselectionandtheformationofplausiblehypotheses.Asprocessoffindingpremises,itisthebasisofinterpretiverecon-structionofcausesandintentions,aswellasofinventiveconstructionoftheories.Thinkingandreasoningisbasedonabductive,deductiveandinductiveinferences,andaimsatestablish-ingbeliefs,habits,rulesandcodes.

Eco and the dynamics of semiosis Sofar,wehavearguedthat(1)semiosisrequiressign-functionsandsocialcodes,andthat(2)semiosisrequiresinferencemaking,whichcanbespecifiedinthreedifferenttypesofinferences.UmbertoEcoelaboratesonPeirce’sviewonsemiosisinacrucialway.Ecoconsidershumanculturetobecharacterisedbytheon-goingproductionsofmeaninginnodalnetworks.Inhisphilosophicalexplora-tionsoflexicalandencyclopaedicsemantics,EcoproposesamodelwhichhecallsModelQ.Thismodeldiffersfrommanyothers,bothancientandmodern,inthatitdoesnotassumethatnatural,conceptualorculturalrealitycanbearrangedaccordingtohierarchicalclassifi-cationsortaxonomiessuchasthosepresentedbyLinnaeusinhisSystema Naturae,inwhichheclassified4,400speciesofanimalsand7,700speciesofplantsinclasses, ordines, generaandspecies.Becauserealityissocomplex,Ecoargues,therewillinvariablybealternativeconfigurationsandarrangementsofinferences,conceptsandexpressions,whilenoarrange-mentisnecessarilyorontologicallythecorrectone.Eacharrangementandunderstandingistheresultofdynamicinterpretationprocesses,representedinModelQasadynamicnetworkthatconsistsofamassofnodesinterconnected

22 byvarioustypesofassociativelinks.ModelQshowsastructurethatmaygrowincomplexityalmostwithoutlimit,basedasitisonaprocessofunlimitedsemiosis.Insuchagrowingnetwork,newnodespreferentiallyattachtoexistingnodes.Thesenodesareclusteredandfirmlybasedonsocialcodesandopentogrowinon-goinginteractions.

TheTwitterdiagraminfigure 2(fromhttp://burak-arikan.com/tr/growth-of-a-twitter-graph)showswhatsuchaModelQmightlooklike.Itisanetworkofclusters,startingatoneplace.Viainteraction,linksandsocialgroups,itspreadsoutandexplodes.Inthenineteen-eightiesandnineties,thenetworkmodelbecamedominantinneurologicalstudiesofthebrain,artificialintelligence,cognitivestudies,andinlinguisticsandthesocialsciences.Atpresent,thestudyofcomplexitynetworkshasbecomethebridgebetweenagreatnumberofdisciplineswhichuntilrecentlyhadbeenseparatedinsciences,humanitiesandsocialsciences. Infact,UmbertoEcowasthefirsttoexplainthelogicofculture,languageandcommunica-tionasacomplexgrowingnetwork,ahighlyinteractivechainofsigns,codesandin-ferences.Whatwasfirstaspeculativemodel

developedinthestudiesofsemioticsbecameanexplanatoryinstrumentwithwhichonecanexplaintheculturalconditionsofthemigrationofthemind.

3. An example: Semiosis and the concept of God

Withintheframeworkofthissemiotictheory,IwillofferashortreflectionononeofourideasrootedinEuropeantradition,ourconceptualimageofGod.Myopeningquestionis:Doyouthinkof‘God’ashavingawife?Andwhydoyouthinkso?Isyourinferencebasedoncultural-religiouscodesinEurope?AnddoyouthinkthatGodintheBibleisthoughtofashavingawifeanddoyouconsideritlikelythatthebiblicalconceptofGodexerteditsinfluenceonEuropeancodesand/oronyourself ?Inordertoanswerthesequestions,Iwillexam-inewordsintheHebrewBible(alsoknownastheOldTestament),artefactsfoundinancientIsrael,andEarlyHebrewinscriptionsandpicturesthatrelatetothegoddessAsherah,alsoknownasYahweh’sconsort.Words,texts,picturesandartefactsareusedassignsininferentialreasoningthatconsistsof:

23 1. Collection,constructionandreconstruction ofdata2. Formulationofhypotheses(abduction)3. Falsification/verificationanddrawing conclusions(induction)4. Deducinggeneralrules(deduction)

Thewordsasherah(singular)andasherimorasheroth(plural)occur40timesintheHebrewBible.Theyareusedinthecontextofaltarsorotherplacesofworship.Foratleast2,000years,anyconnectionwithagoddesswasforgotten–orperhapsdenied.IftherewereoriginallyanydirectorindirectreferencestoagoddessintheHebrewBible,bythetimeoftheGreektranslationoftheSeptuaginttheconceptofagoddessbythatnamehadgone.TheHebrewasherahwastranslatedas‘sacredplace’(Greek:alsos)(twice,in2Chron.15:16and24:18,theSeptuagintindicatesthegoddessAstarte).TheVulgatealsogavethemeaning‘grove’(lucus)or‘wood’or‘grove’(Latin:numus).TheKingJamesVersion(kjv)translatesthepassageswith‘grove’or‘groves’,too.Butbythelate19thcenturyce,beliefinthisgoddessbeginstoreappear(seeforasurveyofthishistory,Hadley2000).TheAssyrianevidenceofagoddessAshratuconvincedmanythattherewasprobablyaCanaanitegoddessof

thatname.In1885,theRevisedVersion(theBritishrevisionoftheKingJamesVersionof1611)usedthetranslationAsherahwithcapitalletter.ItwasthetabletsfoundatRases-Shamra(oldUgarit)thatbroughtthegoddessAstarteorAsherahintoprominence.Thiswasevidencethatagoddessofthatnamewasworshippedinthegeneralregionduringthesecondhalfofthe2ndmillenniumbce.Yet,inmodern(confessional)BibletranslationswehardlyfindtracesofthegoddessAsherah.IntheNewRevisedStandardVersion(1989;nrsv)theHebrewasherahisonly6outof40timesunderstoodasthenameofthegoddessAsherah,andtheothertimesitistranslated‘sacredpole(s)’.TheNewJewishPublicationSociety(1999;njps)renderstheHebrewwordasherah7timesAsherah,theother33times‘sacredpost(s)’.TheonlymodernEnglishtranslationIknowofinwhichasherahisconsistentlytranslatedasthenameofthegoddessAsherah,oritspluralformAsherimorAsherothistheEnglishStandardVersion(2001;update2007;esv);thisisan“essentiallyliteral”translationoftheBibleincontemporaryEnglish(seewww.esv.org).ThepassagesthatinwhichasherahiscommonlytranslatedAsherahare:

24 Judges 3:7

“TheIsraelitesdidwhatwasevilinthesightofthelord,

forgettingthelordtheirGod,andworshipingtheBaals

andtheAsherahs.”(nrsv,njps,esv;kjvtranslates‘groves’)

1 Kings 15:13

“HealsoremovedhismotherMaacahfrombeingqueen

mother,becauseshehadmadeanabominableimagefor

Asherah;Asacutdownherimageandburneditatthe

WadiKidron.”(nrsv, njps, esv; kjvtranslates‘grove’)

1 Kings 18:19

“NowthereforehaveallIsraelassembleformeatMount

Carmel,withthefourhundredfiftyprophetsofBaaland

thefourhundredprophetsofAsherah,whoeatat

Jezebel’stable.”(nrsv, njps, esv; kjvtranslates‘grove’)

2 Kings 21:7

“ThecarvedimageofAsherahthathehadmadehesetin

thehouseofwhichthelordsaidtoDavidandtohisson

Solomon”(nrsv, njps, esv; kjvtranslates‘grove’)

2 Kings 23:4

“ThekingcommandedthehighpriestHilkiah,thepriests

ofthesecondorder,andtheguardiansofthethreshold,

tobringoutofthetempleofthelordallthevessels

madeforBaal,forAsherah,andforallthehostofheaven;

heburnedthemoutsideJerusaleminthefieldsofthe

Kidron,andcarriedtheirashestoBethel.”(nrsv, njps, esv)

However,inothertextsthereisstillnoconsensuswhetherornotthebiblicalrefer-encesaretothegoddessAsherahorsomesortofwoodenobject(“sacredpole”)usedatculticsites(“highplaces”)inconjunctionwithstandingstonesandaltars.Someexamplesare:

Exodus 34:13

“Butyeshalldestroytheiraltars,breaktheirimages,andcutdowntheirgroves”(kjv)

“Youshallteardowntheiraltars,breaktheirpillars,and

cutdowntheirsacred poles”(nrsv)“No,youmustteardowntheiraltars,smashtheir

pillars,andcutdowntheirsacred posts”(njps)

“Youshallteardowntheiraltarsandbreaktheirpillars

andcutdowntheirAsherim”(esv)

Judges 6:25

“ThatnighttheLordsaidtohim,“Taketheyoungbull

belongingtoyourfather,andanotherbullsevenyears

old;pulldownthealtarofBaalwhichbelongstoyour

father,andcutdownthesacred postwhichisbesideit”

“ThatnighttheLordsaidtohim,“Takeyourfather’s

bull,andthesecondbullsevenyearsold,andpulldown

thealtarofBaalthatyourfatherhas,andcutdownthe

Asherahthatisbesideit”(esv; kjv‘grove’,nrsv‘sacred

pole’,njps‘sacredpost’)

25 Judges 6:28

“Whenthemenofthetownroseearlyinthemorning,

behold,thealtarofBaalwasbrokendown,andthe

Asherahbesideitwascutdown,andthesecondbullwas

offeredonthealtarthathadbeenbuilt.”

(esv; kjv‘grove’,nrsv‘sacredpole’,njps‘sacredpost’)

Judges 6:30

“ThenthemenofthetownsaidtoJoash,“Bringout

yourson,thathemaydie,forhehasbrokendownthe

altarofBaalandcutdowntheAsherahbesideit.”

(esv; kjv‘grove’,nrsv‘sacredpole’,njps‘sacredpost’)

Basedonthedatasetof40usagesofasherahintheHebrewBible,thefollowinghypotheses(abduction)areformulated:(1)thiswordeitherreferstothegoddessAsherahortoitsrepre-sentative(culticobject),(2)thiswordcorre-spondstobeliefsofthepeopleatthetimewrittenaboutorisapolemicredefinitionbylaterbiblicalauthorsorredactors,and(3)thenotionofafemaledeityAsherahoritsrepresentativewaspresentasamentalconceptinthemindsofancientIsraelites. Inadditiontobiblicaltexts,wehaveotherdata.ArchaeologistshaveexcavatedthousandsuponthousandsoffemalefigurinesintheareacalledCanaan,ancientIsraelorJudah,Sama-ria,PalestineormodernIsrael,respectively.

Femalefigurines(figures 3a, 3b)werefound,oftennearaltars.Manyhadlargebreastsanddisplayedsymbolsoffertility,suchasthetreeoflifeorapubiczoneintheformofthetreeoflife.UntilrecentlyarchaeologiststendedtoseetheseasbelongingtoCanaaniteculture,sinceofficialIsraelitecultwouldneverhaveallowedthesekindsofimages.However,thelargenumberoffigurinesfoundandagrowingawarenessthatbiblicaltextswere(re-)writtenbyauthorsandredactorswhodefendedtheofficialreligionandcultinJerusalem,hasmademanyscholarsawareofthecontrastsbetweentheofficialcultandfolkreligionspreadovertheland.TheabductionwasmadethatthesefigurinessignifytheexistenceofadynamicfolkreligionthatwasoppressedbytheofficialliteraturetransmittedintheHebrewBible(seeF.Stavrakopoulou2010, 2013). Ancientinscriptionswerediscoveredthatprovidedevenmoreinformation.First,atKhirbetel-QomintheJudeanMountainsnearHebron,aninscriptionwasfoundthatdatesfromca.750 bce.TheinscriptioniswritteninEarlyHebrewscriptandoffersthreelinesinwhichYahwehandAsheraharementionedsidebyside.

Figure 2

Figure 4 Figure 5

Figure 3a Figure 3b

27 1. “Uriyahutherichwroteit.2. BlessedbeUriyahubyYahweh3. byAsherah/hisasherahforfromhis enemieshehassavedhim.”

Thechief(orwealthyperson)UriyahupresentshimselfasthewriterofthetextandasksforYahweh’sblessingandcallsuponYahweh’sasherah,orYahwehandAsherahfordeliver-ancefromhisenemies.WhereasinbiblicaltextsAsherahorasherahisoftenconnectedwithidolsordeitiessuchasBaal,inthisinscriptiontheasherah/AsherahiscloselyconnectedwithYahweh.Thescholarlydiscussionfocussesonthepossessivepronoun‘his’(expressedbyapronominalsuffixinHebrewattheendoftheworda.sh.r.th.)whichisconveyedinancientHebrewscriptbyashortverticalline.Becausethestonesurfaceonwhichthetextwasinscribedisinapoorconditionandhaslongscratchesonitssurface,thestrokesofthelettersaresometimesbarelydistinguishablefromthecracksandstriationsintherock.So,toconsiderashortverticallineasasignofaletterthatexpressesapossessivepronounisalreadyaninferenceonwhichtwohypothesesareformulated:iftheinscriptionreads‘toYahwehofSamariaandtoAsherah’,itreferstoYahwehandtohisconsortAsherah;if

theinscriptionreads‘toYahwehofSamariaandhisasherah’,itreferstoYahwehandaculticobjectthatrepresentshim.However,inbothcases,YahwehandAsherah/asheraharementionedinonebreathandthetwoappeartobecloselylinked. AnevenmorerevolutionaryfindwasmadeinKuntillet‘AjrudintheNorthernSinaiwherevariousPithoiorlargestoragecontainerswerediscoveredthatdatedfromtheendofthe9thcenturyandthebeginningofthe8thcenturybce.OnPithosAwehavetextsandpicturesonbothsides(see figure 4). Thepictureontheforegroundoffigure 4showsacowwithasucklingcalf,whichisacommonrepresentationofthemothergoddessesinseveralcultures,representingherfertilityandnurturing.ThemalefiguresarecommonlyunderstoodtorepresentEgyptianBesfigureswhilethefemalefigureisplayingthelyrewhilesittingonafelinethrone.Thelionthronechairisasignofroyalty.TheaccompanyinginscriptionsthatareinamixofPhoenicianandHebrewscriptread:“I bless you [by] Yahweh of Samaria and by Asherah/his asherah.” Againthediscussionconcernsapronominalsuffixexpressingthepossessive‘his’;doestheHebrewtextcontainssuchasignordoesit

28 not?InordertodrawaconclusiontheimageontheothersideofPithosAhastobetakenintoaccount(see figure 5). Thepictureinfigure 5showstheTreeofLife,arepresentationofthemothergoddessthatfeedsandsustainslife,withthetypicalcapridseatingfromtheTreeoneitherside.Thetreegoddessstandsonalionthatcarriesher.ThisimageryisverytypicalofstatuesandamuletsofAsherah.ThecombinationofbothsidesofPithosahasledtotheformulationofthehypothesisthatthefemalefigurerepre-sentsAsherah,theconsortofYahweh.Inthisabductivereasoning,thetextandpicturesaretakentogether:theyexpressacloserelation-shipbetweenYahweh,theGodofSamaria,thecapitalcityofthestateofIsraelinthe9thand8thcenturybce,andthegoddessAsherahor,somescholarswouldsay,betweenYahwehandhisasherah. OnPithosbfoundinKuntillet‘Ajrudthetextreads:“I bless you by Yahweh of Teman and by Asherah/ his asherah. May he bless you and observe you and be with my lord.” Againthequestioniswhetherornotapossessivepronouncanbedetectedinthelettersa.sh.r.th.Thosewhoclaimthatthereis,translatethetextas“andbyhisasherah”and

concludethatasherahisanobject,suchasawoodenpole.Thosewhotranslatewithoutapossessive“his”,readthetextasasignoftheancientconceptsofYahwehandhisconsortAsherah. Last,butnotleast,duringthesummerof1990,15inscriptionsonpotteryshardswerefoundinKhirbetel-Muqanna(biblicalEkron).Therelevantinscriptionwrittenonastoragejarofthe7thcenturybcereads:“for(thegoddess)Asherah”.Thereisnodoubthere,becausenopossessivepronounisattachedtoAsherah.Hence,onlythenameofthegoddesswasfoundonthejars. AllthesedatasetstogetherledtotheabductionthatthetermasherahreferstothegoddessAsherahwhoiscloselyrelatedtoYahweh,andismoreandmoretestedbyiconographic,epigraphicandtextualmaterial.Thistestingstageisbasedoninductivereasoning,inwhichthevarioussetsofdataaredescribed,compared,anddiscussed.Thediscussionisstillgoingon;seefortwocontestingviewshttp://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/Hadley_Asherah.shtml,andhttp://www.lebtahor.com/Archaeology/inscriptions/kuntillet ajrud inscriptions.html. Abductionsandinductionswillleadintheendtotheformulationofconcludingviews.

29 Thislaststage,then,isbasedondeductivereasoning.Itmightgolikethis.ThereisevidencethatagoddesscalledAsherah,whostoodbyYahweh’sside,wasworshippedinancientIsraelinthe9th-8thcenturybce.Inbiblicaltextswefindtracesofthisgoddess,butitcanalsobeshownthatthetermasherahshiftedfromdenotingagoddessandherimagetomerelyreferringtoanobject(foranextensivediscussion,seeHadley2000).ItmaybethatreligiousreformerswantedtoeradicatetheworshipofAsherah,whetheritwasthewoodenculticsymbolorthegoddessherself.Butduringthecenturiesbeforethis,AsherahhasappearedpairedwithYahwehinpositiveways.

4. Eco and the Humanities

Researchinthehumanitiesisbasedonsemiosisandonverifiableorfalsifiableinferencemaking:thatis,onabductions,inductionsanddeductions.Theresultsoftheseinferencesclusterintonetworksofmeaning,inwhichthenodesareassociatedvialogicallinks.Inthisway,knowledgegrowsthroughadynamicprocessofunlimitedsemiosis.ItbecameclearinthisstudyofAsherahthatthedevilisinthedetail.Infact,theentirewesternhistoryoftheunderstandingofaGodasadeitywithorwithoutawifedependsontheinterpretationofasmallverticalscratchonsomeancientpottery! TheresearchpresentedhereissimilartoUmbertoEco’sresearchontheMiddleAgesinsmallstudentseminars. Theillustrations(Figure 6)showushowdetailedexaminationoftextsandinscriptionswritteninancientlanguages,ofmaterialartefactsandarchaeologicalfindsareconduct-edintheframeworkofacademia,inwhichexpertsinvestigateandteachlanguages,ancientandnew,history,archaeology,icono-graphy,philology,etc.Thetheoreticalback-groundofthiskindofresearchisexplainedbyUmbertoEcoinhistheoryofsemiotics.His

Figure 6: Humanities Research of Asherah

30 modelQshowedushowwearecontinuouslyextendingournetworksofmeaningbyattachingnewnodestoalreadyexistingnodesofthinking. Thisisthemodernuniversity.Detailedresearchstudiesbasedonsigndriveninfer-encesandnodalnetworksleadtoresultsandknowledgethatistaughtinschoolsofhighereducationandtransmittedtothegeneralpublic.UmbertoEcocanbeconsideredasthesignortokenoftheuniversityprofessorinthehumanities.Anaudienceofreaders,film-watchers,andinternetusersbecomeacquaint-edwiththeacquiredinsightsandarethuschallengedtoelaborateontheirownnetworksofmeaning.Ourtaskasscholarsinthehumanitiesisdataminingandtoformulatenewinferencesandnewinformation,inordertofeedtheunlimitedprocessesofsemiosisofscholars,studentsandthegeneralaudience.

Bibliography

Eco,Umberto(1976),Theory of Semiotics. Bloomington:

IndianaUniversityPress.

Eco,Umberto(1979),The Role of the Reader: Explorations in

the Semiotics of Texts.Bloomington:IndianaUniversity

Press.

Eco,Umberto(1984),Semiotics and the Philosophy of

Language. Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress.

Eco,Umberto(1990),The Limits of Interpretation.

Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress.

Eco,Umberto(2000),Kant and the Platypus. Essays on

Language and Cognition. NewYork:HarcourtBrace.

Hadley,JudthM.(2000),The Cult of Asherah in Ancient Israel

and Judah. Evidence for a Hebrew Goddess,Cambridge

UniversityPress.

Peirce,CharlesSanders(1868),‘SomeConsequencesof

FourIncapacities’.Journal of Speculative Philosophy 2.

140-157.(AlsopublishedinCollected Papers 5: 264-317and

inWritings 2:211-242).

Seealso:http://www.peirce.org/writings.html

31 Sandel,MichaelJ.(2009),Justice. What is the right thing to

do?NewYork:FarrasStrausandGiroux.

Stavrakopoulou,Francesca(withBarton,John)(eds.)

(2010),Religious Diversity in Ancient Israel and Judah.

London/NewYork,T&TClark.

Stavrakopoulou,Francesca(withBarton,John)(eds.)

(2010)Land of Our Fathers: The Roles of Ancestor Veneration in

Biblical Land Claims. NewYork/London,T&TClark.

Stavrakopoulou,Francesca(2011),BBCdocumentaryThe

Bible’s Buried Secrets.Episode2:DidGodhaveaWife?

http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00zw3fl

Stavrakopoulou,Francesca(2013),Baal and Asherah: Image,

Sex, Power, and the Other. Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

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35

Eccellenze, signore e signori,

ThehistoryofEmperorFrederickBarbarossarunslikearedlinethroughtherelationshipbetweenAlessandria,Nijmegenandyou,MrEco.InNijmegen,theemperorwasthearchitectoftheimposingValkhofcastlethatstoodhereuntil1797,butinyourbirthplace,Alessandria,hewastheaggressorwhowantedtobesiegethecity.ThoseofuswhoarefamiliarwithEco’snovelBaudolinowillknowtherusethatpathologicalschemerusedtodeterhisstepfatherfrommakingafurthersiegeonAlessandria.

Withyourconsent,MrEco,Iwouldliketotakeamomenttodiscussyourfascinationwith‘liesanddeceit’,acentralthemeinmanyofyournovels.Inyourlatestnovel,The Prague Cemetery,andinBaudolino,thisthemeisexploredtoitsfullestextent.

Fromayoungage,theprotagonist,Baudolino,elevatesthelie,turningitintotruth.Heappliesthis‘truth’toeveryonearoundhim,includingEmperorFrederickBarbarossa,withwhomyouaresofascinated.Baudolino‘stutor,bishopOtto,hadraisedhimonlies.Iquote:“Setuvuoidiventareuomodilettere,escriveremagariungiornodelleIstorie,devianchementire,einventaredellestorie,

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36 altrimentilatuaIstoriadiventerebbemonoto-na.Madovraifarloconmoderazione.Ilmondocondannaibugiardichenonfannoaltrochementire,anchesullecoseinfime,epremiaipoeti,chementonosoltantosullecosegrandissime.”

Itisnolie,however,thatFrederickBarbarossahadhisfamouscastlebuiltattheValkhof.Hedidhaveanuntruth–alie,ifyouwish−carvedonacommemorativestone,namingJuliusCaesarasthefounderoftheoriginalcastle.ThetextthatwefindherecouldjustaswellhavebeenwhisperedintohisearbyyourBaudolino,MrEco.ItwasBaudolino’swishtosecureaplaceinhistoryfortheemperorasimportantasthatofJuliusCaesar.Inyournovel,Baudolinosaysthefollowingtotheemperor:“...l’imperatoreesisteproprioperquesto,luinonèimperatoreperchéglivengonoleideegiuste,maleideesonogiusteperchévengonoalui,ebasta.”

Baudolinowasapathologicalliarwhohadneverknowntruehappinessapartfromtheall-consumingliewhichbroughthimgreatpleasure.Hehadknownlove,however.Hisfifteen-year-oldwifeColandrina,forwhomhecareddeeply,diedayearaftertheirmarriage

withtheirunbornchild.Inyournovel,Baudolinoexpressestheessenceofhislifeandyourbookwiththefollowingwords:“...erobugiardoeavevovissutodabugiardoatalpuntocheancheilmiosemeavevaprodottounabugia.Unabugiamorta.”

MrEco,inyournovelThe Prague Cemetery,whichissetinthenineteenthcentury,yourprotagonist,SimoneSimonini,seemsrelatedtoBaudolino.Iwouldliketotakeamomenttolookatthisbook,becauseheretoowefindalinktoNijmegen. LiesanddeceitareagainamajorthemeinThe Prague Cemetery.Intheepilogue,yousuggestthatSimoniniis–andIquote–‘stillamongus’.Itisuptothereadertodrawtheirownconclusionshereaboutmoderntimesandsociety.Inaninterview,youoncesaidthatfraudandliesweremuchbetterorganisedinthepast,whereastodaythefabricationofliesonlytakesamatterofdays.Youalsosaidthattheeffectoflieslastedlongerinthepastthanitdoestoday,andthatmodernliesfollowoneanotheratafasterpace.ItisallegedthatSimoninidid,ordoes,exist.Whateverthecasemaybe,Italianshaveabeautifulexpression:‘Senonèvero,èbentrovato’;‘Evenifitisn’ttrue,itmakesagoodstory’.

37 IwouldliketoreturntoyourbookThe Prague Cemetery.InaninterviewyougavetotheDutchmagazineHP De TijdontheninthofMarchlastyear,yousaidthatmostreadersarenotcarefulreaders.Well,anyonewhohascarefullyreadThe Prague CemeterywillknowthatNijmegenismentionedonpage230.Iquote:“Fracastorocidicechesologliebreisisonosalvatidall’epidemiaditifodel1505,Degnercidimostracomegliebreisianostatiisoliasopravvivereall’epidemiadissentericaaNimeganel1736...”

Thesefew,almostinconspicuous,linescontainawholehistoryinthemselves.Therewas,infact,anoutbreakofdysenteryinNijmegenin1736.AlsoitiswrittenthatNijmegenJewswereleastaffectedbythisepidemic–aswasalsothecaseduringotherepidemics.In1925,anexplanationwasfoundinthefactthattheJewsgenerallylivedinthesamepartofthecityanddysenterycouldn’tspreadwithoutcontagion.Itwasalsoassumedthattheydidnotfallvictimtodysenterybecauseoftheirkosherhouseholdsandbetterpersonalhygiene.AndsoMrEco,factandfictionaremergedinyourwork,anditisuptothecarefulreadertodecidewhatis‘Truth’,whatis‘Poetry’andtherelationshiptheyhavewithoneanother.

ItwasnotmyintentiontogivealiteraryaccountofMrEco’sworkthisafternoon,buttheredlinebetweenyou,MrEco,yourworkandthecityofNijmegenwastoogoodathemetoignore.Didyouknow,bytheway,thatKarlMarx,whoisofJewishdescentandwhoisblamedinThe Prague Cemeteryfortheuprisingagainsttheauthorities,hasrootshereinNijmegen?HismotherwasborninNijmegen,thedaughterofarabbi,andhisparentsweremarriedhere.

MrEco,formermayorThomdeGraafinitiatedtheTreatiesofNijmegenMedalincollabora-tionwithRadboudUniversityNijmegen,RoyalHaskoningandtheMinistryofForeignAffairs.In2010,themedalwasawardedforthefirsttimetoJacquesDelors,whoneedsnofurtherintroductionhere.TheoriginsoftheprizelieintheTreatiesofNijmegen,whichwerenegotiatedinourcitybetween1678and1679.YoucouldsaythattheTreatiesofNijmegenwereoneofthefirstformsofEuropeanagreementandcooperation.Afteryearsofnegotiations,Spain,Sweden,France,theRepublicoftheSevenUnitedNetherlandsandtheHolyRomanEmpire,amongothers,signedthepeaceagreementsthatbecameknownastheTreatiesofNijmegen.

38 InmanyEuropeancountries,thesetreatiesearnedaplaceinthehistorybooks.However,althoughitwasacrucialmomentinEuropeanhistory,thetreatiesarelargelyunknowntothegeneralpublicintheNetherlands.IntheNetherlands,andevenmoresoabroad,Nijmegenandthetreatiesareirreversiblylinked. TheTreatiesofNijmegenmarkedanimportantmomentinEuropeanhistory.AlongwiththeRomanperiodandtheMiddleAges,thepeacetreatynegotiationswereanessentialelementinourcity’sinternational,culturalandhistoricalprofile.TheTreatiesofNijmegenMedal,whichisawardedonceeverytwoyears,fitsseamlesslyintothisprofile.

MrEco,youareatrueEuropean.YourworkhasbeentranslatedintopracticallyeveryEuropeanlanguageandhasawideandvariedreadership.YouareconsideredtobethecontemporaryItalianauthorwhohashadthemostinfluenceonEuropeanliterature.

YournovelsaddresscrucialmomentsinEuropeanhistory:The Name of the Rose issetinamedievalmonastery;BaudolinoissetintheMiddleAges,whenEuropefirstbegantotakeshape;andThe Prague Cemeterytakesplace

duringtheturbulentdawnofnineteenth-cen-turyEurope.

Europefeaturesheavilyinyouracademicworkaswell.Thisishighlightedbyyour1993studyentitled‘Thesearchfortheperfectlanguage’,inwhichyouexaminethequestthroughoutthecenturiesforonesingle,artificial,Euro-peanlanguage.

PerhapstheclearestexampleofyourinterestinEurope,MrEco,isyourinvolvementintheproject‘OldEurope,newEurope,coreEurope’,the2005initiativebyJürgenHabermasandJacquesDerrida.TheprojectinvitedprominentEuropeanintellectualstoreflecttogetherontheglobalpositionoftheEuropeanUnion.Yourcontribution,‘AnuncertainEurope:betweenrebirthanddecline’,discussedEuropeanunification.Youarguedthatthisunificationisnotsomuchawishasaninevitability.Itisneitherthepast,northecollectiveEuropeanawareness,butrathertheshiftingglobalbalanceofpowerintheworldtodaythatwilldeterminewhether‘Europewill[…]becomeEuropean,or[…]willfallapart’.

39 MrEco,itgivesmegreatpleasureandgreathonourtopresentyouwiththeTreatiesofNijmegenMedalforyourcontributionstoEurope,whereweallbelong.MayIinviteyoutocomeforwardsothatIcanpresentittoyou.

Addressby Ben Knapen

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45

ProfessorEco,MrMayor,YourExcellencies,LadiesandGentlemen,

WhenIheardthatUmbertoEcohadbeenawardedtheTreatiesofNijmegenMedal,IimmediatelythoughtofalittlestorythatIreadonceinanewspaper.TheRussianwriterVladimirMakanin,ontourinSpain,goestotheseashorewithhispublisher.Onthefirstbeachhecomesto,everybodyisnaked,everybodyiswearingsunglasses,andevery-bodyisreadingthesamebookinadifferentlanguage:UmbertoEco’sIn the Name of the Rose.Onthesecondbeach,everyoneiswearingbathingsuits,butheretoothey’reallreadinga

bookbyUmbertoEco.Onlythistimeit’sFoucault’s Pendulum.

ThislittlestoryinanewspapernotonlyshowswhatahighreputationMrEcohasinEurope.ThefactthatthetouristsonthoseSpanishbeachesareallreadinghisbooksintheirownlanguagesalsohighlightsthefocusinhisthinkingontiesamongEuropeannations.SinceEurope’sproblemistofindpoliticalunityacrossamultilingualculture,MrEcohasarguedthattranslationsortranslators─symbolisethefutureofEurope.Inhisview,atranslatorissomeonewhohasaprofoundrespectfortheoriginaltextandadeeploveforhismothertongue.‘Nowthereismyideaof

SpeechSecretary of State Ben Knapen

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46 Europe,’MrEcohassaid.‘Throughtranslationourownlanguagebecomesricherandgainsabetterunderstandingofitself.’HisfutureofEuropeisacommunityofpeoplewhocanrelatetothespirit,theflavourandtheatmosphereofdifferentlanguages.Becausewhentheyunderstandthelanguages,theyunderstandtheculturaluniversebehindthemaswell.

AndMrEcopractiseswhathepreaches.Forexample,hewrotetheprefacetotheItalianeditionofHomoLudensbytheDutchhistorianJohanHuizinga,whomhedelicatelydescribedassomeonewho‘affrescava,enonscavava’:whopaintedfrescoesratherthanwritingin-depthhistory.Asitturnsout,MrEcoandJohanHuizingahaveacommonviewoflanguage.Huizingaoncewrotethatanationallanguageprovidesuswithamirrortoabsorbforeigninfluences.

InMrEco’sview,therealunityofEuropeisamultilingualunity.Or,inmorepoliticalterms:Europeisindivisible,butitwillneverbeaUnitedStatesofEurope.Simplybecauseourcontinenthastoomanylanguagesandcultures.Andbecausenationalityremainsanextremelydeep-rootedpartofpeople’ssenseof

identity.ThismessagemaybemoreimportantnowthanatanytimesincetheearlyyearsofEuropeanintegration.Theeurocrisishascausedfrictionbetween–ontheonehand–agrowingarmyofpoliticiansandpunditswhoareannouncingthedeathofthenation-stateand–ontheotherhand–alargenumberofcitizenswhowon’tsignthedeathcertificate.

Ifeelthatthisantagonismismostlyartificial.Everyday,wemovebackandforthbetweenidentities.You’repartofasmallfamilyandanextendedfamily;youhavecolleaguesandfriends;you’repartofaneighbourhood,atown,aregionandacountry.Thesedifferentidentitiesarenotinconflict;theyflowsmooth-lyintooneanother.MrEcoalreadyunderlinedthistwentyyearsago.Iquote:‘RichelieushapedtheFrenchnation,buthedidnotpreventaMarseillaisbeingawareofthefactthathecomesfromMarseillewithallitssoutherntraditionsandculture,andevenhisaccentanddialect,noraBretonfrombeingdeeplyawareofbeingBreton.’So,MrEcoremindedusthatthereisnoreasonwhywecan’tbeDutchinaunitedEurope.OrGerman,orItalian.Forthisreason–andmany,manyothers–MrEcoismorethanworthyofthemedalhejustreceived.

47 Ladiesandgentlemen,today’smedalisnamedaftertheTreatiesofNijmegen,whichareseenasoneofthefirstexamplesofEuropeancooperation.OneinterestingfeatureoftheTreatieswastheencounterbetweenCatholicsandProtestantsatthenegotiatingtable.IreadsomewherethatDutchCalvinistscametoNijmegenastouristsduringthetalks,eagertoseewhatthePope’srepresentativelookedlike.AlthoughtheyregardedthePopeastheAntichrist,thetouristswereimpressedbytheenvoy’snoblebearing,hissplendidattireandhispleasantmanners.

ThecontrastbetweenCatholicandProtestantEurope,ormoregenerallybetweenNorthernandSouthernEurope,hasalonghistory.InhisfamousworkL’esprit des lois,MontesquieuarguedthatthelawsofdifferentEuropeancountriesreflecttheirclimates.TheFrenchphilosopherdrewsomeradicalconclusionsfromhistheory.‘Ifwetraveltowardsthenorth,’hewrote,‘wemeetwithpeoplewhohavefewvices,manyvirtues,andagreatshareoffranknessandsincerity.Ifwedrawnearthesouth,wefancyourselvesentirelyremovedfromthevergeofmorality.’SomuchforMontesquieu.Allowmetogiveyouanotherexample.JohanHuizingaoncepublisheda

nationallyfamousbookontheDutchmental-ity.Hewrotethat‘ourstrengthandraison d’êtrelieinbeingWestern.(…)TheWesternpeoplesformourcircle.’Toputitabitsimplistically:HuizingafacedtheAtlanticandturnedhisbacktowardstheEastandtheSouthofEurope.

Today’sEuropeisstillinfluencedbynorthernandsouthernstereotypes.NorthernEuropeancountriesareoftendepictedasstolid,andfrugalandboring–Huizinga,forexample,calledfrugalityoneofmycompatriots’worstvices.SouthernEurope,bycontrast,iscom-monlydescribedassanguine,pleasure-lovingandprodigal.Inmanycases,theseimagesareinnocentenough.Theeurocrisis,however,hasshownustheuglysideofclassicEuropeanstereotypes,supplementedwithvulgarimagesofrecenthistory.InGermannewspaperstheGreekshavebeendepictedaslazyslackers;inGreeknewspaperstheGermanshavebeendepictedasforeignoccupiers.

Europeneedstomovebeyondtheseandotherstereotypes.MrEcogivesusfoodforthought.Inarecentinterview,hesaidthatoneofthegreatadvantagesoflivinginEuropeisthathegetsbirthdaygreetingsfromtheGermanpresidentaswellasfromtheSpanishprime

48 minister,neitherofwhomheknows.‘Afterbeingateachother’sthroatsforyearsinfratricidalwars,we’renowallculturallyEuropean’,MrEcosays.Unfortunately,hecontinues,ourEuropeanidentitytodayis‘shallow’.EarlierEuropeanleadersacknowl-edgedthisproblem,ofcourse,andtriedtofindcommongroundinhistory.Theeu’ssixfoundingcountriestriedforexampletofoundtheirunityonthehistoricalfigureofCharle-magne–ahouseholdnameofcoursehereinNijmegen–sinceCharlemagnewascalledthe‘fatherofEurope’insomeoldmanuscripts.Later,in1990,theEuropeanCommissionsupportedthepublicationofabookbyJeanBaptisteDuroselle,whichgaveCharlemagneaprominentplacein‘European’history.Obviously,Charlemagne’ssupportersdidn’tsucceed,mainlybecausetheideaofhimasaEuropeanfoundingfatheriswaytoartificial.

MrEcoknowstoomuchaboutEuropeanhistorytomakethesamemistake.Heputsforwardtwosurprisinglypractical,onecouldalmostsaytrivial,proposalsforadeeperEuropeanidentity.First,theErasmusexchangeprogrammeshouldinhisviewbecompulsory–notjustforstudents,butalsoforcabdrivers,plumbersandotherworkers.Second,menof

culturewhohaveunitedEurope–fromDantetoShakespeare,fromBalzactoRossellini–shouldperhapsbeprintedonourbanknotes.Signsandsymbolsdomatter.ButthisofcourseisnothingnewforanyonewhoisfamiliartotheworkofUmbertoEco.Forme,MrEcoisasourceofhope,hopeforthefutureofaunitedandprosperousEurope.

Therefore,MrEco,itisanhonourtostandbeforeyoutoday.IcongratulateyouverymuchonbehalfoftheDutchgovernmentonyourTreatiesofNijmegenMedal,whichyourichlydeserve.

Thankyou.

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53 Address Professor Umberto Eco

WLadiesandGentlemen,

IfeelobviouslyhighlyhonoredanddeeplygratefulforbeingheretoreceivesuchaprestigiousawardandtocelebratesuchacrucialhistoricaleventliketheNijmegenTreaties,butletmeaddthatIalsofeeltouchedtobeinthecityoftheLimbourgBrothers,thatis,ofartiststhathavebelongedsincealongtimetomyimaginarymuseum,andtowhomIhavedevotedsomeofmywritings.In2015aseriesofeventsdedicatedtothosegreatbrotherswillbeorganizedinthiscountryandIhaveproudlyacceptedtobecomeamemberoftheRecommendationCommittee.

Butletmecomebacktotheeventthattodayinspiredourmeeting.

In1678and1679,NijmegenhosteddelegatesfromdozensofEuropeancountriesandcity-statesinordertobringtoanendaseriesofwarsthatdevastatedourcontinent.TheTreatiesofPeaceofNijmegenendedvariousinterconnectedwarsamongFrance,theDutchRepublic,Spain,Brandenburg,Sweden,Denmark,thePrince-BishopricofMünster,andtheHolyRomanEmpire.ThusthistownwasthemeetingplaceformediatorsfromacrossEuropewhocooperatedinordertoterminatethewarsravagingourcontinentinthe17thcentury.Eventhoughthesetreatieswerelater

54 disregarded,thiseffortwas(afterthehorrorsoftheThirtyYearsWar)thefirstexampleofanefforttoestablishpeacethroughdialogueandnegotiations.ThiseventcouldbeseenasoneofthefirstexamplesofEuropeancooperationandaccordandcanbeconsideredasakeyeventinEuropeanhistory. Morethan250yearspassedfromtheTreatiesand1945,butwecansaythattheutopiaborninNijmegenwasrealizedattheendoftheSecondWorldWar.

Itisamatterofcontinuousexcitementforpeopleofmygenerationtorealize(aswellasforoursonsandgrandchildrentoacceptasanobviousidea)thatitistodayunconceivable(ifnotridiculous)tothinkofapossiblewarbetweenFranceandGermany,ItalyandGreatBritain,SpainandtheLowCountries.Ayoungperson–ifheorsheisnotastudentinhistory–cannotthinkthatsuchakindofconflictwasthenorminthecourseofthelasttwothousandyears.Sometimesevenoldpeopleareunabletoconsciouslyrealizeit,exceptperhapswhentheyfeelathrillatthemomenttheycrossEuropeanborderswithoutpassport,andmoreandmorefrequentlywithoutbeingobligedtochangetheirmoney–whilenotonlyourremoteancestorsbutevenourfatherswere

usedtocrossthesamefrontierswithagunintheirhands.

Slightly,from1945onward,everyEuropeanfelttobelongnotonlytothesamecontinentbuttothesamecommunity,inspiteofmanyunavoidablelinguisticandculturaldifferences.

IamnotacandididealistandIknowverywellthatwhileEuropeansarenomoreshootingoneagainsttheothertherearemanyformsofnolessviolentcompetitionthatarefrequentlydividingourcountries–andthepresenteconomiccrisisisnotproducinganewsenseoffraternitybutratheranatmosphereofmutualdistrust.PerhapsthesenseofaEuropeanidentityhasnotthesameformatandthesameevidenceforallthecitizensofthevariousnations,butatleastamongthemoreresponsiblecitizens,andparticularlyamongcultivatedyoungpeople(forexampleamongthenewcommunityofstudentsthatthroughtheErasmusProgramarelivingwithmatesofothercountriesandfrequentlymarryeachotherthuspreparingafuturebilingualgeneration)theideaofbeingaEuropeanbecomesmoreandmorewidespread.

55 MaybewedonotfeelEuropeanenoughwhentravellinginsideEuropeandarestilldisturbedbythedifferenthabitsofourneighbors,butitissufficienttovisitanothercontinenttorealizethat,evenwhenwelikethesedistantcountries,whenwemeetanotherEuropeanwehavethesuddensensationofreturninghomeandtospeakwithsomebodythatweunder-standbetterthanourhosts.SuddenlywesmellsomethingfamiliarandanItaliancanfeelmoreatease,letmesay,withaNorwegianthanwithanAmerican.

InfinitearethereasonswhyaFrenchmancanthinkdifferentlyfromaGermanbutbothhavebeenshapedbyaseriesofcommonex-periences,fromaffluenceconqueredthroughlabordisputesratherthanbyanindividualistethicsofsuccess,totheoldprideandthenthefailureofcolonialism,nottospeakofthephenomenonofdreadfuldictatorships(andnotonlydidweknowthembutbynowwearealsoabletorecognizetheirpremonitorysymptoms).Wewerevaccinatedbytheexperienceofmanywarsonourterritories:IsometimesthinkthatiftwoairplaneshadcrashedagainstNotreDameoragainsttheBigBenwewouldhavebeencertainlydevastated,butwithoutthesenseofinexplicableastonish-

ment,desperateincredulityandthedepressivesyndromethattooktheAmericansabackforbeingattackedbyanenemyathome,forthefirsttimeintheirhistory.Ourtragedieshavemadeuswiseandruthless,morepreparedtofacethehorror.Welookforpeacebecausewehaveknowntoomanywars.

Butwemustberealisticandrecognizethat,inspiteofallthis,Europeisstillexperiencingwar,hatredandintoleranceinsideitsownborders.Wemustbeawareofthefactthatnewformsofconflictareobsessingus,evenwhenwedonotperceivetheminalltheirmagnitudeandsignificance. Westillare,insideourfrontiers,involvedinaformofwarfare(sometimesasubterraneanone)withpeoplewhoarelivinginEuropebutwhomwe(oratleastmanyofourcountrymen)areconsideringasnonEuropean(or,asinsomecountrytheyusetosay,asextracommu-nitarians). WemusthavethehonestytoadmitthatmanyEuropeansarestillunabletostandthegrowingpresenceofforeignersnotonlyofdifferentcolorbutinanycasecomingfromlessdevelopedcountries.

56 WearenotyetpreparedtoaccepttheideathatintheforthcomingyearseveryEuropeancitywillbelikeNewYorkorlikesomeLatinAmericancountries.InNewYorkwewitnessthenegationofthe‘meltingpot’utopia:insteadofmergingtogether,differentculturescoexist,fromPortoricanstoChinese,fromKoreanstoPakistanis:somegroupshavepartiallyamalgamatedwiththedescendantsofthePilgrimFather(likeItaliansandIrish,JewsandPoles),othershavekeptthemselvesseparate(livingindifferentdistricts,speakingdifferentlanguagesandfollowingdifferenttraditions),andallsucceedincohabitingonthebasisofsomecommonlawsandacommonlinguafranca,whicheachgroupspeaksinsufficiently.IaskyoutobearinmindthatinNewYork,wheretheso-called‘white’popula-tionisonthewaytobecomeaminority,42%ofthewhitesareJews,theother58%areofthemostdisparateorigins,andthenumberofAnglo-SaxonProtestantsarebythistimetheminorityinanycase.

InLatinAmerica,dependingonthecountry,sometimestheSpanishcolonizersinterbredwiththeIndians,sometimes(asinBrazil)withtheAfricans,anditisverydifficult,ifwethinkinracisttermsof“blood”,tosaywhethera

MexicanoraPeruvianareofEuropeanorAmerindianorigins.

So,thefutureofEuropeholdsaphenomenonofthiskind,andnoracistorbackward-lookingreactionarywillbeabletopreventit.

Therealproblemisthatadistinctionmustbedrawnbetweentheconceptofimmigrationandthatofmigration.Immigrationoccurswhensomeindividuals(evenmanyindividuals,butinnumbersthatarestatisticallyirrelevantwithrespecttotheoriginalstock)movefromonecountrytoanother(liketheItaliansandtheIrishinAmerica,ortheTurkstodayinGer-many).Thephenomenonofimmigrationmaybecontrolledpolitically,planned,encouragedorrestricted.

Thisisnotthecasewithmigration.Violentorpacificasitmaybe,itislikeanaturalphenom-enon:ithappensandnoonecancontrolit.Migrationoccurswhenanentirepeople,littlebylittle,movefromoneterritorytoanother(andthenumberremainingintheoriginalterritoryisofnoimportance;whatcountsistheextenttowhichthemigrantschangethecultureoftheterritorytowhichtheyhavemigrated).Therehavebeengreatmigrations

57 fromEasttoWest,inthecourseofwhichthepeoplesoftheCaucasuschangedthecultureandthebiologicalheredityofthenatives.Therewerethemigrationsoftheso-called‘barbarian’peoplesthatinvadedtheRomanEmpireandcreatednewculturesandthenew‘Romano-Germanic’kingdoms.TherewasEuropeanmigrationtowardstheAmericancontinent,ontheonesidefromtheEastcoastandgraduallyacrosstoCalifornia,andontheotherfromtheCaribbeanislandsandMexicoallthewaytoConoSur.Eventhoughthiswasinpartpoliticallyplanned,IusethetermmigrationbecausetheEuropeanwhitesdidnotadoptthecustomsandthecultureofthenativesbutfoundedanewcivilizationtowhicheventhenatives(thosewhosurvived)adapted.

Therehavebeeninterruptedmigrations,likethoseoftheArabpeopleswhogotasfarastheIberianPeninsula.Therehavebeenformsofmigrationthatwereplannedandpartial,butnolessinfluential,likethatofEuropeancolonialiststowardtheEastandtheSouth,wherethemigrantsnonethelesschangedthecultureoftheautochthonouspeoples–hencethebirthoftheso-called‘post-colonial’cultures.

Idon’tthinkthatanyonehassofardescribedaphenomenologyofthedifferenttypesofmigration,butmigrationiscertainlydifferentfromimmigration.Wehaveonlyimmigrationwhentheimmigrants(admittedaccordingtoapoliticaldecision)acceptmostofthecustomsofthecountryintowhichtheyhaveimmigrat-ed,whilemigrationoccurswhenthemigrants(whichnoonecanstopatthefrontiers)radicallytransformthecultureoftheterritorytheyhaveinvaded.

Today,afteranineteenthcenturyfullofimmigrants,inaclimatemarkedbypro-nouncedmobility,itisverydifficulttosayifcertainphenomenaareofimmigrationorofmigration.ThereiscertainlyanunstoppableflowfromtheSouthtowardtheNorth(withAfricansandMid-EasternerscomingtoEurope);theIndianshaveinvadedAfricaandthePacificislands,theChineseareevery-where,andtheJapanesearepresentwiththeirindustrialandeconomicorganizationseventhoughtheyhavenotmovedphysicallyinanysignificantnumbers.

Isitpossibletodistinguishimmigrationfrommigrationwhentheentireplanetisbecomingtheterritoryofintersectingmovementsof

58 people?Ithinkitispossible:asIhavesaid,immigrationcanbecontrolledpolitically,while,justlikenaturalphenomena,migrationcannot.Aslongasthereisimmigration,peoplecanhopetokeeptheimmigrantsinaghetto,sothattheydonotmixwiththenatives.Whenmigrationoccurstherearenomoreghettos,andcross-breedingisuncontrollable.

ThephenomenathatEuropeisstilltryingtotackleascasesofimmigrationareinsteadcasesofmigration.TheThirdWorldisknockingatthedoorsofEurope,anditwillcomeinevenifEuropeisnotinagreement.Theproblemisnolongertodecide(aspoliticianspretenditis)whetherstudentsatParisuniversitycanwearthechadororhowmanymosquesrequiretobebuiltinRome.Theproblemisthatinthenextdecades(andsinceIamnotaprophetIcannotsayexactlywhen)Europewilldefinitelybecomeamultiracialcontinentora‘colored’one,ifyouprefer.Ifyoulike,that’showit’sgoingtobe;andevenifyoudon’tlikeit,that’showit’sgoingtobejustthesame.

Thismeeting(orclash)ofculturescouldleadtobloodshed,andIampersuadedthattoacertainextentitwill–andsomewhereitisalreadyareality.Suchanoutcomecannotbe

eliminatedandwilllastalongtime.However,racistsoughttobearaceonthewaytoextinction.WasthereapatricianclassinancientRomethatcouldnottoleratetheideaofGauls,orSarmatians,orJewslikeStPaulbecomingRomancitizens,orofanAfricanascendingtheimperialthrone,asindeedhappenedintheend?Thepatricianshavebeenforgotten,defeatedbyhistory.Romanciviliza-tionwasahybridculture.Racistswillsaythatthisiswhyitfell,butthattookfivehundredyears–andthefinalresultwasnotthecollapseofeverycivilizedsocietybutratherthebirthofEurope,withitslanguagesanditsnewbornnations.

InthecourseofsuchaprocessofmigrationEuropeansmustfacenewformsoffundamen-talism,expressedbydifferentculturesandreligions.Butwemustpayattentionnottoopposetoforeignfundamentalismourownformsoffundamentalism.Anevilcannotbedefeatedbyanothersymmetricalevil.

ThepresentproblemofapeacefulEurope,whichcanoptimisticallycelebratethetriumphofthespiritofNijmegenTreaties,istobeabletosignanewvirtualtreatyagainstintolerance.

59 Thefightagainstourintolerancedoesnotonlyconcernthesocalledextracommunitarians:itisaformofwishfulthinkingtotakethenewphenomenaofanti-Semitismasamarginaldiseasethatconcernsonlyalunaticfringe.Recentepisodestellusthattheghostofthismillenaryobsessionisstillamongus.

TodayinNijmegen,whilecelebratingthefirstutopiaofaEuropeanpeace,wemustdeclarewartoracism.Ifwewillnotbeabletodefeatthiseternaladversarywewillbealwaysatwar,eventhoughwehaveputourgunsinourattics–andmanygunsarestillaroundasitwasshownrecentlybytheUtoyaIslandbutcheryorthemassacreintheFrenchJewishschool.

Intoleranceisaperpetualmenaceforourstateofpresumedpeace,anditisdifficulttoeliminateit.Intolerancehasbiologicalroots,itmanifestsitselfamonganimalsasterritoriality,itisbasedonemotionalreactionsthatareoftensuperficial–wecannotbearthosewhoaredifferentfromus,becausetheirskinhasadifferentcolor,becausetheyspeakalanguagewedonotunderstand,becausetheyeatfrogs,dogs,monkeys,pigs,orgarlic,becausetheytattoothemselves…

Intoleranceforwhatisdifferentorunknownisasnaturalinchildrenastheirinstincttopossessalltheydesire.Childrenareeducatedgraduallytotolerance,justastheyaretaughttorespectthepropertyofothers,and,evenbeforethat,tolearntocontroltheirownsphincters.Unfortunately,whileeveryonelearnstocontrolhisownbody,toleranceisapermanenteducationalproblemwithadults,becauseineverydaylifeweareforeverexposedtothetraumaofdifference.Culturalanthro-pologistsoftendealwiththeproblemofacknowledgingandrespectingthedifferences,butdevoteinsufficientattentiontouncon-trolledintolerance,becauseiteludesalldefinitionandcriticalconsideration.

Yetitisherethatthechallengelies.Toinculcatetoleranceinadultsthatshootatoneanotherforethnicandreligiousreasonscanbeawasteoftime.Toolate.Thereforeuncontrolledintolerancehastobebeatenattheroots,throughconstanteducationthatstartsfromearliestinfancy,beforeitiswrittendowninabook,andbeforeitbecomesabehavioral‘skin’thatistoothickandtootough. However,thefightagainstintolerancehasitsownlimits.Tofightagainstourintolerancedoesnotmeanthatwemustacceptevery

60 worldviewandmakeofethicalrelativismthenewEuropeanreligion.Whileeducatingourpeopleandespeciallyourchildrentoanopenmindedtolerance,wemustatthesametimerecognizethattherearehabits,ideasandbehav-iorsthatareandmustbeforusintolerable.Therearevalues,typicaloftheEuropeanworldviewwhichrepresentapatrimonywecannotgetridof.Todecideandrecognizewhat,inatolerantvision,wouldremainintolerableforus,isthekindorborderlinethatEuropeansarecalledtotraceeveryday,withasenseofequityandwiththeconstantexerciseofthatvirtuethat,sinceAristotle,philosophershavecalledPrudence.

Inthisphilosophicalsense,prudencedoesnotmeanreluctancetotakerisks,anddoesnotcoincidewithcowardice.Intheclassicalsenseofphronesis,prudenceistheabilitytogovernanddisciplineoneselfbytheuseofreason,andassuchitwasconsideredoneofthefourCardinalvirtuesanditisoftenassociatedwithwisdomandinsight,withtheabilitytojudgebetweenvirtuousandviciousactions,notonlyinageneralsense,butwithregardtoappropri-ateactionsatagiventimeandplace.

Itmustbepossible,inthecourseofourcommonwaragainstintolerance,tobealwaysabletodistinguishbetweenthetolerableandtheintolerable.ItmustbepossibletodecidehowtoacceptanewpluralityofvaluesandhabitswithoutrenouncingthebestofourEuropeanheritage.IamnotheretodaytoproposesolutionsforthemainproblemofanewEuropeanpeace,buttoassertthatonlybyfacingthechallengeofthisubiquitouswarweshallreallyhaveapeacefulfuture.

WemustsigntodayanewNijmegenTreaty.

W

Henri Gascar(d) The signing of the peace treaty between France and Spain on 17 September 1678/1679

WOn17September1678,intheillustriousDoddendaalresidenceoftheVanBijlandt-Pal-stercampfamilyinthewesternpartofNijmegen,thepeacetreatywassignedbythekingsofFranceandSpain.Aftermonthsofnegotiation,thedefinitivepeacetermsweredrawnupandsignedbytheambassadorsoftheRepublicoftheSevenUnitedProvincesintheirvastandtemporaryresidenceontheDoddendaal.ThiseventwasimmortalisedoncanvasbyGascar.TheshrewdDutchnegotiatorsusedtheroyalreceptionhalloftheirpalatialestateasneutralnegotiationgrounds,drapingdistinctiveelementssuchasmantelpiecesandpodiumsin

61

Henri Gascar(d) Paris1635-Rome1701|The signing of the peace treaty between France and Spain on17September1678/1679

Oiloncanvas,161 x 274.5cm,MuseumHetValkhofNijmegen,acquiredwiththesupportoftheRembrandtAssociation.

63 tapestriestoensurethatbothpartieshadanidenticalspaceattheirdisposal.InthemiddleoftheroomstoodalongtablewiththeDutchambassadorsandmediatorsHieronymusvanBeveringk(seenfrombehind)andWillemvanHarenseatedateitherend.TheFrenchwereseatedtotheleft,headedbytheMarshalofFranceCountd’Estrades,MarquisColbert(brotheroftheesteemedministertoLouisxiv)andCountd’Avaux.TotherighttheSpaniardsDonSpinola,MarquisdelaFuentaandtheDutchmanJ.B.Christyn.Themenwereflankedoneithersidebyalargegroupofdiplomatsandcourtiers,pagesandcourtchaplains.Itisclearthattheartiststruggledtocapturethelikenessofeachindividual.Intermsofportraiture,thesimilaritieswithotherwell-knownrepresentationsofthesemaincharactersareratherstriking.ThisisalsotrueoftheslightlymarginalfigureofJohanHulft,secretarytotheambassadors,whostandsbehindVanHarennearthewindow.

Thestiffandsomewhatlistlessnatureofthisimmensegroupportraitisunderstandablewhenoneconsiderstheoriginsofthepainting.HenriGascarbeganpaintingportraitsatanearlyageinhisnativeFrance,latermovingontoItalyandEngland.Heacquiredfameasa

skilledportraitpainteroffashionablecourte-sansindecadentcostumes.InAprilof1679,morethansixmonthsafterthetreatywasratified,hewassenttoNijmegenatthebehestofKingLouisxivtopaintthepeaceconfer-ence.Heneverwitnessedthesigningofthetreaty.Tovisualisetheevents,hewasgivenafairlydetaileddescriptionandpaidseveralvisitstoboththehallandalloftheindividualspresentthatday.Healsotookthisopportunitytopaintindividualportraitsofseveralambas-sadors.UponhisreturninNovemberof1679,hewasgivenpermissiontotravelbyseafromRotterdamtoFranceviaAntwerpwithtwolargechests:onewiththegroupportraitoftheambassadors(‘our’portrait)andonewiththeindividualportraits.

GerardLemmens,formerdirectoratMuseumCommanderie

vanSt.Jan,Nijmegen,andresponsiblefortheacquisitionof

thepainting.

ThecityofNijmegenhasstrong

networksinBrusselsandlinkswith

ourGermanneighbours.The

municipalityisinvolvedinvarious

projectsandnetworkswith

Europeancities.Roads,parksand

squaresaregivenafaceliftusing

Europeanfunds.Weareworking

closelywithourGermanneigh-

boursonprojectswhichinclude

improvingtheaccessibilityofour

city.Twinninghasbeenarranged

withtownsinEuropetostimulate

economic,socialandcultural

exchange.

RoyalHaskoningwasestablishedin

Nijmegenin1881.Followingthe

mergerwithDHVin2012,Royal

HaskoningDHVnowhas8,000

staff,workingfrom100officesin

35countriesaroundtheworld.

RoyalHaskoningDHVhasstrong

rootsinTheNetherlands,the

UnitedKingdomandSouthAfrica.

Thecompanyisover200yearsold

andisfullyawareofthefactthat

thiswouldnotbepossiblewithout

theopportunitiesofferedinthe

pastbyastrongEurope.Collabora-

tionwithclientsandpartners,

sharingknowledgewithstudents

andknowledgeinstituteshaveall

contributedtoitsleadingposition

withinthevariousareasofits

expertiseinandoutsideEurope.

Thiswouldnothavebeenpossible

withoutahealthyEuropeanhome

marketandbase.

RadboudUniversity’sgoalisto

becomeoneofthetopuniversities

inEurope.Ithasalreadygonea

longwaytowardsachievingthis,as

wecanseefromthenumerous

Europeangrantswhichhavebeen

awardedtoitsresearchers.The

Heyendaalcampusisbecoming

increasinglyinternational:almost

20%oftheacademicstaffat

radboudUniversitynowcomefrom

abroad.Inaddition,moreandmore

foreignstudentsarecomingto

studyinNijmegen.Radboud

Universityalsoencouragesitsown

studentstogainexperiencewithin

Europe.Theuniversity’saimisfor

onethirdofitsstudentstospend

sometimeinanothercountry.In

ordertpomakethatpossible,ithas

establishedtheIRUNinternational

networkwhichbringstogether

nineEuropeanuniversities.

TheTreatiesofNijmegenMedalhas

beeninitiatedinclosecollabora-

tionwiththeMinistryofForeign

AffairsofTheNetherlands.

colophon

Design:NiesenPartnersbno

Nijmegen|www.nies-partners.nl

Photography:BobWalker,

GerardVerschooten(pages12,

42-43, 50-51)

Print:VanEck&Oosterink

Translation:Radboudin’to

Languages

OurpastandourpresentmaketheTreatiesofNijmegenMedalpartofthednaofourcity.InordertoensurelastingpeacewithinEuropeandtolerancebetweencountries,wewillneedtokeepthedevelopmentofEuropeasatopicofdiscussion.ByawardingtheTreatiesofNijmegenMedal,wewanttomakeourowncontributiontowardsthatdebate.