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TRANSFER PRICING & DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 10/19/2010 1

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Page 1: TRANSFER PRICING DEVELOPING COUNTRIES · final products and components to appropriate ... Other developing countries are recognising that they need ... • Transfer Pricing and Developing

TRANSFER PRICING & DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

10/19/2010 1

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TRANSFER PRICING FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

• What is Transfer Pricing?• Basic Issues Underlying Transfer Pricing• Evolution of Transfer Pricing• Concepts in Transfer Pricing• Transfer Pricing Methods• Special Issues Related to Transfer Pricing• Transfer Pricing in Treaties• Transfer Pricing in Domestic Law• Global Transfer Pricing Regimes• Transfer Pricing as a Current and Future Issue for 

Developing Countries• Summary and Conclusions

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Page 3: TRANSFER PRICING DEVELOPING COUNTRIES · final products and components to appropriate ... Other developing countries are recognising that they need ... • Transfer Pricing and Developing

• This introductory chapter intends to give a brief outline of the subject of transfer pricing and addresses the practical issues and concerns surrounding it, especially  issues faced by, and approaches taken by, developing countries. Many of the issues discussed in the introduction  will be dealt with in greater detail in later chapters.

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• Significant volume of global trade nowadays consists of international transfers of goods and services, capital (such as money) and intangibles (such as intellectual property) within a MNE group; such transfers are called “intra‐group” transactions.  There is evidence that intra‐group trade is growing steadily and arguably accounts for more than 30 per cent of all international transactions 

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• In such a situation, it becomes important to establish the right price, called the “transfer price”, for intra‐group, cross‐border transfer of goods, intangibles and services. 

• “Transfer pricing” refers to the setting of prices, at which   transactions involving the transfer of property or services between associated enterprises forming part of an MNE group, are made.

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Basic Issues Underlying Transfer Pricing

• The transfer price therefore tends to shape the tax base of the countries involved in cross‐border transactions.  

• When one country’s tax authority taxes a unit of the MNE group, it has an effect on the tax base of the other country. 

• Cross‐border tax situations involve issues related to jurisdiction, allocation and valuation.

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• Transfer pricing manipulation is sometimes used to shift profits into certain countries in order to obtain tax benefits.

• Transfer pricing related issues throw open a host of problems, the complexity and magnitude of the issues often become very daunting.

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• MNEs are global entities which share common resources and overheads & these resources need to be allocated with maximum efficiency in the most optimal manner. 

• From the governments’ perspective, the allocation of costs and income from the MNE resources needs to be addressed to calculate the tax.  There sometimes tends to be a “tug‐of‐war”between nation states in the allocation of costs and resources aimed towards maximising the tax base in their respective nation states.

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• Mere allocation of income and expenses to one or more members of the MNE group is not sufficient; the income and expenses must also be valued. This directly leads  to a key issue of transfer pricing, i.e. valuation of intra‐firm transfers. 

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Evolution of Transfer Pricing

• This section aims to trace the history and the reasons for transfer pricing taxation regimes.

• From a financial perspective, transfer pricing is probably the most important tax issue today globally. This is partly because the term “MNE”not only covers large corporate groups but also smaller companies with one or more subsidiaries or permanent establishments (PEs) in countries other than those where the parent company or head office is located. 

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• There are many reasons why transfer pricing has become such a high profile issue over the last couple of decades:‐

• ‐ the continuous, on‐going relocation of the production of final products and components to appropriate territories. Infrastructure, presence of skilled labour, production costs, a conducive economic climate in the form of tax incentives etc.;

• ‐ concentration of R&D and service activities within MNEs ; and

• ‐ the round‐the‐clock trading in commodities and financial instruments, the rise of e‐commerce and web‐based business models, all of which are made possible by modern means of communication.

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• Some developed countries tightened their transfer pricing legislation to address the issue of foreign enterprises active in their countries paying lower tax than comparable domestic groups. Consequently some developing countries have introduced equally challenging transfer pricing regulations in their countries to keep their tax bases intact.  Other developing countries are recognising that they need to address the challenges of transfer pricing in some way.

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• The usefulness of UN work in this area can be considered from the developing countries prospective where, relative database and comparative analysis are difficult to achieve. The OECD Guidelines have been widely accepted in principle. But developing countriesespecially find it very difficult to implement such guidelines in practice.  Many developed countries also have similar difficulties. 

• As a measure of the complexity, there are generally five different transfer pricing methods, to arrive at an arm's length price.

• All these methods may be able to provide a computation of the arm’s length price (i.e. a “proper” transfer price) within the MNE,  but  in practice may end up with figures of profits between two MNEs being either more than 100% or less than 100% due to adjustments carried out by the tax authorities without corresponding adjustments in transactions within the MNE group. 

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Concepts in Transfer Pricing

• The UN Model Convention Article 9(1) states the following “Wherean enterprise of a Contracting State participates directly or in‐directly in the management, control or capital of an enterprise of the other Contracting State, orthe same persons participate directly or indirectly in the management, control or capital of an enterprise of a Contracting State and an enterprise of the other Contracting State,and in either case conditions are made or imposed between the two enterprises in their commercial or financial relations which differ from those which would have been made between independent enterprises, then any profits which would, but for those conditions, have accrued to one of the enterprises, but, by reason of these conditions, have not so accrued, may be included in the profits of that enterprise and taxed accordingly”

• In other words, the transactions between two related parties must be based on “arm’s length” principles.

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The arm’s length principle  attempt to place transactions, both uncontrolled and controlled, on equal terms in terms of tax advantages (or disadvantages) that they create.  

• An alternative to the arm’s length principle is the global formulary apportionment method which would allocate the global profits of a MNE group amongst the associated enterprises on the basis of a multi‐factor weighted formula (the factors could be property, payroll and sales, for example). 

• The formulary apportionment approach is being currently used by some states of the USA, cantons of Switzerland and provinces of Canada. 

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• The process to arrive at the appropriate arm’s length price typically involves the following processes or steps:

• (a) Comparability Analysis• (b) Functional analysis (Functions, Assets and Risks – F.A.R.)• Market Conditions, Geographical location, Government 

rules and regulations• Level of Market• Business Strategies• Transaction analysis ,i.e. separate and combined, • Use of an arm's length range,• Use of multiple year data,• Use of transfer pricing methods

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Transfer Pricing Methods

• The five major transfer pricing methods are:

• Comparable Uncontrolled Price (CUP) 

• Resale price (RPM)

• Cost plus (C+, CP)

• Profit Comparison Methods (TNMM/CPM)

• Profit‐Split methods (“PSM”)

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Special issues related to Transfer Pricing

• Documentation requirements

• Intangibles

• Intra‐group services

• Cost‐contribution agreements

• Use of secret comparables

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Transfer Pricing in Treaties

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Transfer Pricing in Domestic Law

• Safe harbours :‐ There are countries which have “safe harbour” rules providing that if a taxpayer meets certain criteria, it is exempt from the application of a particular rule, or at least from scrutiny as to whether the rule has been met.

• Controlled foreign corporation provisions• Documentation• Advance Pricing Agreements• Time limitations• Necessity  of domestic transfer pricing rules.

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Global Transfer Pricing RegimesBy the end of 2009, there were around 53 countries with some form of specific transfer pricing legislation as shown by the light blue shading in the diagram below

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Transfer Pricing as a Current and Future Issue for Developing Countries

• Transfer Pricing and Developing Countries

• Lack of comparables 

• Lack of knowledge and requisite skill‐sets

• Complexity

• Growth of the “Intangible economy”

• Location savings

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