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1: Harv Bus Rev. 2005 Jul-Aug;83(7):106-14, 192.

a!age "#ur $u%a! s&g%a.

'le%&!g JH, #%a! , Har*er J+.

allu rga!&/a*!, r&!e*#!, J, A. le%&!g$sgallu.#%

sales a! serv&e #rga!&/a*!s are *# &%r#ve, *$e" %us* lear! *# %easurea! %a!age *$e ual&*" # *$e e%l#"ee-us*#%er e!#u!*er. ual&*" &%r#ve%e!*%e*$##l#g&es su$ as & &g%a are e*re%el" useul &! %a!ua*ur&!g #!*e*s,$#se >#r@ gr#u s$#>s su$#le. G&*$&! *$&s ra%e>#r@, &* &s als# $"#*$es&/e *$a*leaers$& (&.e., *ra!s#r%a*!al, *ra!sa*!al, a! ass&ve) >#ul re&*#lle*&ve ers#!al&*" a! *$a* #lle*&ve ers#!al&*" >#ul


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!a%el" e%a*$& #!er! (), erse*&ve *a@&!g (?), ers#!al &s*ress (C)a! e%a*$& %a*$&!g (). Resul*s s$#>e *$ree e%a*$" sales (, ? a! )>ere, as #s*ula*e, #s&*&vel" rela*e *# *ra!s#r%a*!al ers *# a$&eve %#re *$a! ee*e). ?$e sa%e *$ree %easures, als# asee*e, s$#>e !# rela*!s$& *# *ra!sa*!al ers *# a$&eve ee*e resul*s) a! >ere !ega*&vel" ass#&a*e >&*$la&sse/-a&re leaers$& (a! aere sele*&ve a! %#era*e &! s&/e.*r#!ges* e%a*$" ass#&a*! >as ev&e!* ee! *$e ? sale a! %#s* #u*#%e%easures. #!versel", *$e e*ra e#r* #u*#%e aeare %#s* se!s&*&ve *# *$era!ge # e%a*$" sales. G$ere s&g!&&a!* rela*!s$&s & e&s* ee!e%a*$" a! #u*#%e, leaers$& as &! all ases a ere* %e&a*#r.G$&ls* !#* e!"&!g *$e s%aller &s#s&*!al ee*s #! leaers$& #u*#%es,leaers$& #r@ 14208,A. >a!/er%a!&s&us.eu

'#l@%a! a! Ea/arus=s *ra!sa*!al *$e#r" # e%#*! a! #&!g >as use *#ela&! $#> $u%#r &!lue!es #< sa*&sa*! a%#!g $eal*$ are r#v&ers. !e$u!re #r*"-*># !urses #%le*e %easures # $u%#r #r&e!*a*! (H), #&!ge&a", #< sa*&sa*!, a! #e!-e!e ues*!s a.

J#!es ?E, r&!/ RJ.


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Cear*%e!* # s"$#l#g", !&vers&*" # #u*$ ar#l&!a, #lu% ea%&!es *$e #*e!*&al r#les # are!*al sel-e&a" () &!are!* a! $&l aus*%e!* a! *$e r#le # are!*al #g!&*!s &! u!ers*a!&!g&*$&! a%&l&es. ?$e areas &! *$&s rev&e> &!lueare!*al #%e*e!e a! s"$#l#g&al u!*!&!g, as >ell as $&l

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urs&!g Cear*%e!*, $##l # Heal*$ r#ess!s, a@ler 'aul*" # e&&!e,?el Av&v !&vers&*", ?el Av&v, srael. *$e!el/a$av.!e*.&l

A: ?# &e!*&" #!l&* %#e $#&es # $ea !urses &! ge!eral $#s&*als a!ea%&!e *$e rela*!s$& ee! leaers$& s*"le, $#&e # s*ra*eg" &!$a!l&!g #!l&*s a! e%#gra$& $ara*er&s*&s. BA+RC: urse %a!agerseal >&*$ #!l&*s a&l". ?$e $#&e # #!l&* %a!age%e!* %#e &s ass#&a*e>&*$ %a!ager&al ee*&ve!ess. ?$e aars #!s*ru*&ve #u*#%es &s eresurve"e, us&!g a 3-ar* ues*!!a&re: ?$e ?$#%as-+&l%a!! #!l&* #e!s*ru%e!*, *$e ul*&-a*#r Eeaers$& ues*!!a&re, '#r% 5N-$#r* (E 5N)a! e%#gra$& a*a. RE?: Hea !urses ere&ve *$e%selves s&g!&&a!*l"%#re as *ra!s#r%a*!al leaers *$a! as *ra!sa*!al leaers. #%r#%&se >as#u! *# ere s*a. G$&ls* *$ere &s &sar&*" a%#!gs* *$e *$e#r&s*s=e&!&*!s # leaers$&, *$ere &s #!se!sus er*a&!&!g *# *$e a**r&er s*a a!e!$a!e a*&e!* are. urse %a!agers *$a* evel# a! #s*er *ra!s#r%a*!alleaers$& a! sur%#u!* #ress&ve *ra&*!s a! #!&e!*l" !av&ga*e a #%lea! ra&l" $a!g&!g $eal*$ are e!v&r#!%e!*.

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$a!a$a! J, Bauer CJ.

Cear*%e!* # #l#g", !&vers&*" # #r*$ ar#l&!a a* $ael H&ll, $aelH&ll, 27599, A. %s$a!u!.eu

?$a* e ea%&!e a ser&es # gr#>*$ urve %#els *$a*&!*errela*e %as*er" a! l&e eve!*s. Resul*s #r e%ales reveal *$a* %as*er"ur&!g *$e se!r "ear # $&g$ s$##l re&*s l&e eve!*s #r *$e #ll#>&!g4-"ear er, >$&$ &! *ur! re&*s %as*er" #ver *$e 5-"ear er sa!!&!gages 21-22 *# 26-27. '#r %ales, %as*er" ur&!g *$e se!r "ear (a! er$as *$es#$#%#re "ear) re&*s su$&$ &! *ur! $ave s$#r*-*er%&%l&a*!s #r %as*er". ?$us, *ra!sa*!s ee! l&e eve!*s a! %as*er" are

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12: s"$#l A&* Be$av. 2004 Ce;18(4):350-61.

A *ra!sa*!al %#el # are!*-&!a!* &!*era*!s &! al#$#l& a%&l&es.

&e! RC, Ee#!ar +, H#"le RH, $ave/ '.

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e%#!s*ra*e a v&s&all", +u>a&*. r.a*e!$a&l&!&.#%

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l&@el" *# ere&ve *$e&r leaers as *ra!s#r%a*!al *$a! are e%l#"ees &!u#r@&!g a* 4 $#s&*als (r&va*e a! ua&*; 266 res#!e!*s &!lue.RE?: A!al"s&s # var&e!e a! regress! a!al"s&s s$#>e *$a* *$e*ra!s#r%a*!al s*"le # leaers$& >as l&!@e *# $&g$ level # e%l#"eeere*! # leaers$& e&a". Als#, *$e e%l#"ees &! r&va*e $#s&*als >ere%#re l&@el" *# ere&ve *$e&r leaers as *ra!s#r%a*!al *$a! >ere e%l#"ees &!ua&* %a"


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B#!# J, Juge ?A.

Cear*%e!* # s"$#l#g", !&vers&*" # &!!es#*a, &!!ea#l&s 55455, A.#r@, *$e au*$#rsau%ula*e 384 #rrela*!s r#% 26 &!ee!e!* s*u&es. ers#!al&*" *ra&*s>ere rela*e *# 3 &%e!s!s # *ra!s#r%a*!al leaers$&--&eal&/e&!lue!e-&!s&ra*!al %#*&va*! ($ar&s%a), &!*elle*ual s*&%ula*!, a!&!&v&ual&/e #!s&era*!--a! 3 &%e!s!s # *ra!sa*!alleaers$&--#!*&!ge!* re>ar, %a!age%e!* &*$ rese* *#*$e $ar&s%a &%e!s!--ge!erall", >ea@ ass#&a*!s sugges*e *$e &%#r*a!e #u*ure resear$ *# #us #! er ers#!al&*" *ra&*s a!!#!&s#s&*!al e*er%&!a!*s # *ra!s#r%a*!al a! *ra!sa*!al leaers$&.() 2004 AA, all r&g$*s reserve

uas s*r#!gl" #rrela*e >&*$ #!*&!ge!* re>ar (.80) a! la&sse/-a&re (-.65)

leaers$&. ?ra!s#r%a*!al a! #!*&!ge!* re>ar leaers$& ge!erall"re&*e r&*er&a #!*r#ll&!g #r *$e #*$er leaers$& &%e!s!s, al*$#ug$*ra!s#r%a*!al leaers$& a&le *# re&* leaer #< er#r%a!e. () 2004

AA, all r&g$*s reserve

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22: J Cev Be$av e&a*r. 2004 *;25(5):311-7.

Ea*&!a %#*$ers= s*a!es #! s*&%ula!* %e&a*!: #%le&*", #!l&*, a!#%r#%&se.

Ar&a , 'er!a!e/ , Jaue/ .

Cear*%e!* # Resear$, *. &!a& e&al e!*er, &a%& Bea$, 'l#r&a, A.ear&ase$g%.e

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DAr*&le &! 're!$F

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BJ?: ?# ea%&!e *$e r#le # $&lre!=s &ll!ess-rela*e #g!&*&veara&sals &! *$e are!*-$&l aus*%e!* rela*!s$& &! a sa%le # $&lre!a! a#lese!*s >&*$ uve!&le r$eu%a*& &sease (JRC). e&&all", >e *es*e*$e %#era*&!g ee* # $&lre!=s ere&ve &ll!ess-&!ue


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&ag!#se >&*$ JRC. $&lre! #%le*e %easures # eress&ve s"%*#%s($&lre!=s Ceress! !ve!*#r"), u!*!al &sa&!g a r#u*&!e $"s&al ea%. RE?: B#*$&!rease are!*al &s*ress a! $&l &ll!ess &!*rus&ve!ess >ere ass#&a*e >&*$grea*er $&l eress&ve s"%*#%s. C&re* ee*s >ere ual&&e as e!$a!e u!er#!&*!s # &!rease $&l-re#r*e &ll!ess &!*rus&ve!ess. E:Resul*s su#r* *ra!sa*!al #!e*ual&/a*!s # $&l aus*%e!* *# $r#!&&ll!ess. '&!&!gs als# e%$as&/e *$e !ee *# ea%&!e *$e &!*era*! # are!*a! $&l var&as , a%


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Be#%&!g Ia* $#%eI &! ass&s*e l&v&!g res&e!es: el#r&!g lae &!*egra*!r#esses.

u*$&! , >e! , $a!g '.

$##l # All&e Heal*$ &e!es, !&vers&*" # ?eas e&al Bra!$, alves*#!,77551-1142, A. %u*$&u*%# gr#us. ?$ere >as *$e sa%e !u%# gr#us >e!**$r#ug$ *># $ases. ! $ase , #l#, #!e ar*&&a!* >as assesse us&!g a*$ree-s*age assess%e!* &!s&re # &ere!* #!&*!s a! a#!*r#l gr#u. ! #!&*! A, *$e ar*&&a!* >as g&ve! a v&r*ual s*ressassess%e!* se!ar rela*&ve *# a &rs*-ers#! erse*&ve (R'). ! #!&*!B, *$e ar*&&a!* >as g&ve! a v&r*ual s*ress assess%e!* se!ar rela*&ve *# a


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#!&*! , *$e # ?rea*%e!* #!&*! (?), *$e ar*&&a!* ree&ve us* a!&!*erv&e>. ! $ase , all *$ree gr#us >ere %&e a! eer&se *$e sa%e *as@s&*$ *># ar*&&a!*s &! a&rs. ?$e resul*s s$#>e *$a* *$e RA gr#uer#r%e !#*aas r#gra%%e &!UU a! Rae %%ers&ve lus*er r#% R, >$&$ rea*e a! ar*&&&ale!v&r#!%e!* *$a* e!#es *$e user=s %#*! r#% a v&e# a%era, *arge*e a* *$e

ae # *$e users a! $"sl#g&al se!s#rs a**a$e *# *$e #%e! a! %e!.

agl" AH, J#$a!!ese!-$%&* , va! !ge! E.

Cear*%e!* # s"$#l#g", #r*$>es*er! !&vers&*", va!s*#!, ll&!#&s 60208,A. eagl"!#r*$>es*er!.eu

A %e*a-a!al"s&s # 45 s*u&es # *ra!s#r%a*!al, *ra!sa*!al, a!la&sse/-a&re leaers$& s*"les #u! *$a* e%ale leaers >ere %#re*ra!s#r%a*!al *$a! %ale leaers a! als# e!gage &! %#re # *$e #!*&!ge!*re>ar ere ge!erall" %#re l&@el" *# %a!&es* *$e #*$er ase*s # *ra!sa*!alleaers$& (a*&ve a! ass&ve %a!age%e!* $&$ >#%e! eeee %e! rela*e #s&*&vel" *# leaers= ee*&ve!ess>$ereas all # *$e ase*s #! >$&$ %e! eeee >#%e! $ave !ega*&ve #r !ullrela*!s *# ee*&ve!ess.

u


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ree!e RG, A Rev&e>, ?u*#r&al

C: 12842233 Duare$#use #r $#s&*al &!e*! #!*r#l.

G&s!&e>s@& ', +&es/@#>s@& , Qag#rs@& B, ?r&@ G, #%%ers , Ge&!s*e&! RA.

, C&v&s! # !e*us C&seases, ##@ #u!*" H#s&*al, 1901 Ges* Harr&s#!*ree*, u&*e 124 Cura!, $&ag#, E 60612, A. >&sea#l.#%

&s*&!g a*a s*#re &! a $#s&*al=s *ra!sa*!al servers $ave e!#r%#us#*e!*&al *# &%r#ve er#r%a!e %easure%e!* a! $eal*$ are ual&*". Aess&!g,#rga!&/&!g, a! us&!g *$ese a*a *# su#r* resear$ a! ual&*" &%r#ve%e!*r#e*s are ev#lv&!g $alle!ges #r $#s&*al s"s*e%s. ?$e au*$#rs re#r*evel#%e!* # a l&!&al a*a >are$#use *$a* *$e" rea*e


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C: 12807807 Duas use &! *$esu#r* gr#u &! *$ree &s*&!* >a"s. *s u!*! #r *$e su#r* re&&e!* &s*# &!&*&a*e a *ra!sa*!al rela*!s$& >&*$ a!#*$er %e%as *# s$are re&r#al s#&al #%a!!s$&rela*!s$&s.

C: 12804028 Duere *$ree *&%es as l&@el" *# s#re &! *$e l&!&alra!ge. #*$ers a! a*$ers s$#>e $&g$ agree%e!* &! *$e&r ra*&!g # $&lr#as als# $&g$er &!

*$e ela"e gr#u, as rela*e *# *$e e*e!* #


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#! use # $eal*$ &!#r%a*! @s@s ea%&!e &! a! &!#r%a*! !ees #!*e*.

G&ll&a%s , &$#las C, Hu!*&!g*#! .

!*er!e* *u&es Resear$ r#u, &*" !&vers&*", E#!#!, +. >s#&.&*".a.u@

G$&ls* grea* e%$as&s $as r&g$*l" e *$a* e%ales &! *$e 55-74 age gr#u >ere ar*&ularl"u!er-rerese!*e as users. ?# el#re reas#!s #r *$&s, &!-e*$ &!*erv&e>s>ere arr&e #u* >&*$ 13 !#!-@s@-us&!g, r&%ar"-are #u*-a*&e!*s &**&!g *$&sr#&le, a* a surger" >$&$ $a a @s@ *$a* >as e a* le!g*$ a


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su#r*, a! &s*ress, a! &!&a*e *$e !ee *# v&e> s$##l-rela*e s*ress,su#r*, a! &s*ress as %u*uall" ee!e!* a*#rs.

C: 12778983 Duer%e!* as #s*er&!g #s&*&ve "#u*$ evel#%e!* a! &*&/e!s$&.

arg# , ra%s C, **#s#! J, Gar , ree! EG.

argare* arg#, e!*re $#s&*al&er e l=!&vers&*e e #!*real P ul*ure, a!e!*al Heal*$ Resear$ !&*, &ll !&vers&*", #!*real, ue#r@ # "#u*$ e%#>er%e!* &! *$e#!*e* # a ar*&&a*#r" #%%u!&*" $eal*$ r#%#*! &!*erve!*!, al#!g&*u&!al ual&*a*&ve s*u" >as #!u*e. ?HC: !&v&ual a! gr#u&!*erv&e>s, #u%e!*s, a! #ere a!al"/e us&!g *$e #!s*a!*#%ara*&ve %e*$# a! *$e#re*&al sa%l&!g. RE?: ra*&*!ers rea*e a!

e!v&r#!%e!* #!u&ve *# a#lese!*s= *a@&!g res#!s&er >as *ra!serre *#"#u*$ as res#!sr@ 10017, A. sa%esasa#lu%&*$ a #us #! s*ru*ural vle!e >&*$&! a! #ress! ara&g%. s&!gual&*a*&ve a! ua!*&*a*&ve a*a r#% 27 >#%e! (70K Ar&a! A%er&a! a! 30Kur#ea! A%er&a!) >$# ar*&&a*e &! a !a*!al su&*$&! a *ra!sa*!al rela*!s$& >&*$ &!*erers#!al,a! &!*raers#!al vle!e. Ge sugges* *$a* *$e ee*s # s*ru*ural,

&!*erers#!al, a! &!*raers#!al vle!e are %ag!&&e >$e! rae a! #ver*"are #!s&ere. ?$e se#! g#al # *$e aer &s *# rese!* a rel&%&!ar" *es* #*$e !e> %#el # vle!e. Resul*s &!&a*e *$a* &ere!* levels a! *"es #vle!e are &!*errela*e. %l&a*!s # *$ese &!&!gs #r e%#>er&!gs#lu*!s are sugges*e.

C: 12741695 Du


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re&*&!g u!&* er#r%a!e # leaers$& ra*&!gs #lle*e r#% u!&*s #era*&!g u!er s*a! u!#!sus s"$& r#esses. * $els *$ea!al"sa! *# rela&% #r $&s #r $er >#rs *$e s"$& &!*egr&*" *$a* >as l#s* #r!ever a$&eve ue *# *$e #>er # ee!s&ve &ss#&a*! a! reress!. ?$e

s"$#a!al"*& &al#gue a! *$e >#r@&!g *$r#ug$ %e&a*e


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ul*ure, a! *ra!s#r%a*!al leaers$&*# &*$ as #!u*e *# a!al"see%#gra$&, s#e#!#%& $ara*er&s*&s, a! &!#r%a*! @!#>! a! #&!!s$el a&*$ @e"&!#r%a!*s, #%%u!&*" %e%lege a&se, a!e*$!#gra$& s*u" >as u!er*a@e! *# &e!*&" &!*era*!s ee! l#al a!%# eua*!al levelsa%#!g *$e l#al #ula*!, e> u


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=# su&&e #!*ra*s= are #%%#!l" use &! #%%u!&*" r&s&s s&*ua*!s >&*$su&&al e#le &! e> Qeala!. ?$ese *a@e *$e #r% # a =guara!*ee # sae*"=,al#!g >&*$ a =r#%&se= *# all se&&e ers#!s & *$e su&&al &ea*!$# !ee&!*erve!*!s a*uall" ree&ve *$e%, a! () &ere!es &! levels # a!*&s#&al


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er*a&! $&lre! a* r&s@ &! earl" l&e &*$ are!*s,eers. a! s#&al &!s*&*u*!s &!re%e!* a! %e&a*e *$&s r&s@. A *ra!sa*!alevel#%e!*al %#el &s !.

ule" , '#r


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#&al a&*al $as # eaes a%#!gs*resear$ers, #l&" %a@ers a! ra*&*!ers r#% var&e &s&l&!es. ?$&s#ular&*", $#>ever, $as resul*e &! a grea* eal # #!us! #ver *$e !a*urea! al&a*! # s#&al a&*al &! &ere!* #!*e*s. ?$&s #!us! $as %ae&* &&ul* *# &e!*&" a! %easure s#&al a&*al >&*$&! *$e evalua*! #se&& s#&al a! $eal*$ r#gra%%es, #!e # *$e a&%s # >$&$ %a" &*$ *$e a&% # av#&&!g *$e&*all # a**r&$&$ %a"resul* &! !e* ga&!s #r l#sses. ?$&s r#ess &s esrr@s are el#re.

C: 12593878 Du&*$ !urs&!g values &! a $a!g&!g e#!#%&e!v&r#!%e!*. ?$ere &s #!er! *$a* !urse eeu*&ves &! &* &!reas&!gl"

&&ul* *# re#!&le *$e &ere!es ee! #rga!&/a*!al e#!#%&s a!*$e&r ers#!al a! r#ess!al &e!*&*&es. ?$e ur#se # *$&s s*u" >as *#ea%&!e *$e rela*!s$& ee! !urse eeu*&ves= ere&ve ers#!al a!#rga!&/a*!al value #!grue!e a! *$e&r leaers$&


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a %#era*e egree # value #!grue!e ee! !urse eeu*&ves= ers#!al a!#rga!&/a*!al values; $#>ever, *$e egree *# >$&$ se&& values are&%#r*a!* &s s&g!&&a!*l" &ere!*. urse eeu*&ves re#r* *$a* *$e" %#s*#*e! e!gage &! *ra!s#r%a*!al leaers$& &*$*$e&r leav&!g &!*e!*!s. C AC ?HC: A &l#* s*u" &!v#lv&!g 21 H!urses, us&!g *$e reer*#r" gr& *e$!&ue >as #!u*e *# el&&* #!*ra*ee*a*!s. ?>e!*"-!&!e a*eg#r&es # ee*a*! >ere &e!*&&e *$r#ug$#!*e!* a!al"s&s. ?$e s*u" r#er, e%l#"e a surve" evel#e #! *$e ere

ass#&a*e >&*$ a !ee #r ers#!al au*#!#%" a! evel#%e!*, a! *$e vla*!# ee*a*!s #r are #re#r*, l#"al*", $ar->#r@ a! a$&eve%e!*, !ega*&ve e!#rse%e!* # a rela*!al#!*ra*, #s&*&ve e!#rse%e!* # a *ra!sa*!al #!*ra*, a! #< a!#rga!&/a*!al &ssa*&sa*!. E: '&!&!gs &llus*ra*e *$e &ag!#s*&u*&l&*" # *$e *er% s"$#l#g&al #!*ra* #r u!ers*a!&!g *$e ee*a*!s #H !urses. ?$e #*e!*&al s&g!&&a!e # *$ese &!&!gs #r %a!ag&!g !ursere*e!*! &s $&g$l&g$*e.

C: 12581399 Du


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r#ess! er$as &*$ *$e s"s*e% &! >$&$*$e" >#r@. H#>ever, !urses %a" $#l *$e @e" *# *ra!s#r%&!g $eal*$ are a!ragg&!g &* &!*# *$e 21s* e!*ur" &! *er%s # >#r@ ra*&es a! re#r%. ?$&s &s


42/260

C: 12520893 Du&*$ s&@le ell.

Burle> A+.

a&l E#a*! T0376, !&vers&*" # &!&!!a*&, &!&!!a*&, H 45221, A.r@u!#.#%

?$&s aer &!*r#ues a! e%&r&all" er&ve s"$#s#&al assess%e!* #r% *$a*%a" a&l&*a*e *$e &!#r#ra*! # *$e gr#>&!g # *$e#re*&al %#els *$a* ela&! *$e var&aas *$e %#s* reue!*l" re#r*e s"%*#% &!%a!agers >&*$ $&g$ levels # s*ress. Regress! a!al"s&s s$#>e *$a*, *#ge*$er,>#r@ s*ress#rs a! s"$#l#g&al $ara*er&s*&s s&g!&&a!*l" ela&!esel-ere&ve %e!*al (27.6K) a! $"s&al (22.9K) $eal*$ var&a!e.Res#!s&ere *$e s*ress#rs %#s* $&g$l" ass#&a*e>&*$ ##r s*ress #u*#%es. ?$e s"$#l#g&al var&aere r#


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>#r@ s*ress >as #!&r%e &! a sa%le # $&lea! %a!agers evalua*e >&*$ *$ea!&s$ vers! # *$e -2.

u" P Ce!&ll &suss s#%e # *$e %#re #%%#! &*alls &!$ere!* &!a**e%*s *# &!*r#ue l&!&al suerv&s! *# $#s&*al >ars #r #%%u!&*" *ea%s. >&ll #!s&er re-e&s*&!g rela*!s$&s a! $#> *$ese %a", & u!ea%&!e a!

u!a#u!*e #r, resul* &! l&!&al suerv&s! a"s&! >$&$ *$e a#re%e!*!e r# Rev&e>, ?u*#r&al

C: 12472819 Duer # serva!* leaers$& *# *ra!s#r% $eal*$ are #rga!&/a*!s #r *$e21s*-e!*ur" e#!#%".

$>ar*/ RG, ?u%


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*$a* *ra!s#r%a*!al, s&*ua*!al, a! serva!* leaers$& s*"les are %#s*suessul &! e!erg&/&!g $u%a! res#ures >&*$&! #rga!&/a*!s. ?$&s #*&%&/a*!# &!*elle*ual a&*al &s ur*$er e!$a!e &*$ e%e!*&a: a r&*&al rev&e>.

#**l&e< BH, G#le J.

Cear*%e!* # s"$#l#g", !&vers&*" # uel$, uel$, !*ar, a!aa.a"s # #&!g e%l#"e e #r *$e ur#ses # e*er%&!&!g >$e*$er *$ere &s a!"#!se!sus regar&!g >a"s # #&!g *$a* serve $eal*$-r#*e*&ve u!*!s, a!>$e*$er *$e s*u&es= es&g!s a! %easure%e!* s*ra*eg&es are a&*$ul *# *$e*ra!sa*!al *$e#r" # #&!g u#! >$&$ *$e" are #u!e. Cue *# *$e use #r#ss-se*!al es&g!s, *$e a#*! # &ere!* #&!g a! #u*#%e %easures,*$e la@ # se&&&*" a! *$e &!#%ara Rev&e>, ?u*#r&al

C: 12425767 Du$&$ *$e #*e!*&se %e&&!e, *$ea*&e!*, a! *$e ra*&*!er are see! as #r%&!g a !#!-l#al *$eraeu*&all"=e!*a!gle= *r&a, ual&*a*&vel" esr&


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u

r#ess, %e$a!&s%, a! ela!a*! rela*e *# e*er!al&/&!g .

Cear*%e!* # s"$#l#g", !&vers&*" # alr!&a, Ber@ele" 94720-1650, A.$&!s$a>s#ra*es.ellas #u*#%e. ! all, &ll #ur #!l" >&*$ ava!es &! *ra!sla*!alresear$-l&!@&!g &*$ *$e ur*$er evel#%e!* #*ra!sa*!al, s"s*e%& ar#a$es *# ela!a*!.

us #! #!e*s r#% s#l#g" a!ge#gra$" *$a* a! $&$ &*s &ere!* &%e!s!s %a" &!lue!e &!&v&uals= eer&e!es #


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&sa&*$ Blar Ae*&ve C&s#rer, a %a! >&*$ HLAC, a!a are!* # a $&l >&*$ a severe &sa$&$ &*$ %a*er!al areg&vers >ere &!ves*&ga*e &! a sa%le # 127uras ee*e *$a* e#sure *##%%u!&*" vle!e >#ul &*$ eel&!g less seure >&*$ areg&vers.#!s&s*e!* >&*$ re&*!s r#% e#l#g&al-*ra!sa*!al *$e#r", a*a su#r*e*$&s $"#*$es&s. $&lre! >$# re#r*e *$a* *$e" $a $e!>&*$ *$e&r areg&ver, >ere &ssa*&s&e >&*$ $#> l#se *$e" el* *# $er, el*%#re seara*! a!&e*", a! re#r*e %#re !ega*&ve %a*er!al


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&g$*" &!a!*s= !&g$**&%e slee->a@e a**er!s a! ass#&a*e var&aeres*u&e a* 5 *&%es ar#ss *$e &rs* "ear # l&e us&!g v&e#s#%!#gra$" a!ues*!!a&res. RE?: lee->a@e s*a*e evel#%e!*al $a!ges, as re#r*e &!&!ves*&ga*!s # &!a!* slee, >ere rel&a*e, al*$#ug$ a grea* eal #&!&v&ual var&a&*$ *$e s*ressule%a!s a* *$e #re # ar&!g #r a e%e!*e ers#!, ra*$er *$a! *# #us #!&!#r%a*! a! *$e *as@-#r&e!*e ase*s # ar&!g. ?$e *># #%#!e!*s # *$e&!*erve!*! eal >&*$ *$e #g!&*&ve ara&sal # s*ress#rs a! #&!gs*ra*eg&es, >&*$ a v&e> *# e*er%&!&!g >$&$ s*ra*eg&es are %#s* ar#r&a*e #!*$e $&$ r#v&e #!re*e reere!e #&!*s #r *$e &suss! ##!e*ual !#*!s.

C: 12217092 Du


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88: !* J Aul. 2002 Jul;41(5):308-20.

Be$avural a>are!ess, &!*era*! a! #u!sell&!g eua*! &! aul#g&alre$aee!.a!&*a.a!e!ell#re&*$ s&g!&&a!* #*$ers. ! #rer *#s*re!g*$e! *$e ers#!al&*" a! sel-#!&e!e # *$e $ear&!g-&%a&re&!&v&ual, a &ere!* s*ra*eg" >as es&g!e a! &%le%e!*e >$erears *$e $ear&!g-&%a&re &!&v&ual,>$# &! *ur! >#r@e as a *u*#rLa&L#u!sell#r *# *$e #%%u!&a*! ar*!er. !*$e %e*$#s #r re$aere evel#e a! evalua*e &! a&l#* s*u" #! 13 %e! >&*$ !#&se-&!ue $ear&!g l#ss. A #urse r#gra%%e >asevel#e >&*$ *$ree %a&! a*&ve #%#!e!*s: (1) &!rease &!s&g$* a!

@!#>lege; (2) eua*! as #u!sell#rs >&*$ *$e aere evalua*e #r *$e $ear&!g-&%a&re a! *$e ar*!er a! &!re#r&!gs # #!versa*!s &! *$e $#%e e!v&r#!%e!*. ?$ere >ere learl" #s&*&ve#g!&*&ve a! e%#*!al ee*s see! &! *$e &!u&r&es a! &!*erv&e>s. ?$e#&*$ *$e

ee*! # *$e *># &!&v&uals >&*$ *$e %#s* r#!#u!e u!*!al &%a&r%e!*,#r >$#% &al#gue >as &%r#ve a*er *$e #urse. * >as #!lue *$a* *$ese !e>%e*$#s #ul #!*r& #ss&


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Rev&e> Rev&e>, ?u*#r&al

C: 12166148 Duar ##r&!a*#r s$#ul #>! !#* #!l" *e$!&al @!#>lege ell. #%%u!&a*! &s a! &%#r*a!* *##l #r #rga!&/&!g>#r@ *ea%. ?$e ers#!s are #re #*$er>&se # *$e s*ru*ure *$a* #ul &se u!useul &! ase #


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Cear*e%e!* ur u*/*&ere, !&vers&*a* Qur&$. $ass&gve*geas evel#e &! s#&al s"$#l#g" >as al&e #! *$e a!&%al@eeer a! s$#>s, $#> $e ere&ves *$e &!lue!e # a!&%al are. ve*er&!ar"$el &s #!s&ere releva!*, &* %a" lea *# a! &%r#ve #&!g, >$&$ ae*s*$e $eal*$ # *$e a!&%al @eeer a! *$e a!&%al as >ell. ?$&s v&e>#&!* leas *#a "le, &! >$&$ ause, suess, #&!g a! u*&l&*" are l#sel" l&!@e*#ge*$er.

C: 12038217 Du


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?er%s su$ as %#ral a! e*$&al leaers$& are use >&el" &! *$e#r", "e* l&**les"s*e%a*& resear$ $as rela*e a s#%#ral &%e!s! *# leaers$& &!#rga!&/a*!s. ?$&s s*u" &!ves*&ga*e >$e*$er %a!agers= %#ral reas#!&!g (! M132) >as ass#&a*e >&*$ *$e *ra!s#r%a*!al a! *ra!sa*!al leaers$&a%#*# J, %e$ara .

Cear*%e!* # arvasular urger", 'u@u"a%a arvasular H#s&*al,'u@u"a%a, Jaa!.

A 42-"ear-#l e%ale $a suere r#% $es* a&! #r ar#&%a*el" 1 %#!*$, a!>as a%&**e >&*$ u!s*aea! &s#la*e 75K s*e!#s&s # *$e le* #r#!ar" #s*&u%. Rea&r # #s*&al s*e!#s&sas #!e as &s$arge >&*$#u* a!" #%l&a*!s. Ge $ave eer&e!e 2 #*$er

a*&e!*s # &s#la*e le* #r#!ar" #s*&al s*e!#s&s, >$# $a u!erg#!e #u


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*$e #!ess!al !a*ure # l&!&al suerv&s! rele*s #!*e%#rar" ra*&ea! *$e &%l&a*!s # suerv&s! reall" aear *# &el", #%re$e!s&ve *$e#r" # e%#*! *$a* &s urre!*l" %&ss&!g r#% *$es"$#l#g" l&*era*ure. A#r&!g *# reversal *$e#r&s*s, *$ere are 16 r&%ar"e%#*!s #rres#!&!g &re*l" *# #!e=s reerre a! !#! reerre$e!#%e!#l#g&al eer&e!es. ?$ese &!lue 4 leasa!*Ls#%a*& e%#*!s(relaa*!, e&*e%e!*, la&&*", r#v#a*&ve!ess), 4 u!leasa!*Ls#%a*&e%#*!s (a!&e*", a!ger, &*$ *$e 3r se*! #!*a&!&!g *$&s16 r&%ar" e%#*!s l&s*. ?$e a&% # #ur s*u" eals >&*$ re!$ *ra!sla*! a!

a*#r&al val&a*! # *$&s l&s*. e*$# a! r#eure - ar*&&a!*s (!M46)>ere v#lu!*ar" re!$ sea@&!g &!&v&uals >$# reare *# *#ur&s* a**ra*! es*a&!*er s#r* res#r*. ?$&s a**ra*!&s %ae u # a 950 %e*ers-l#!g arr"&!g a&*$ a 18-59 ra!ge a! 7,7 as s*a!ar ev&a*!value. a$ su


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Assess%e!* # C&&ul*&es !e (AC) (#la! e* al, 1998) el&vere &! aall&a*&ve are #!*e*. * a!al"ses *$e &%l&a*!s # *$ese &!&!gs #rra*&*!ers #!er!e >&*$ *$e el&ver" # all&a*&ve are *# su$ arers a!*$e&r a%&l&es. ?$e evel#%e!* # su#r* s*ra*eg&es a! serv&es aress&!g*$e&r !ees are als# rese!*e aga&!s* a


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DAr*&le &! 're!$F

&rg&l&-re**a/ .

C: 11944496 Du , G&ll&a% Jr, H#/a B.

Cear*%e!* # s"$#l#g", !&vers&*" # Br&*&s$ #lu%&*$

ACHC. !ee!e!* #ers ra*e s*"l&s*& ase*s # %a*er!al ar%*$ a! ae*a!e, a! ar#r&a*e #!*r#l. Geea%&!e rela*!s ee! %a*er!al res#!s&ve!ess a! (a) %a*er!al eress&ve

s"%*#%s a! %a*er!al $&l$## ACHC s"%*#%s, a! (as !ega*&vel" rela*e *#%a*er!al eress&ve s"%*#%s. Ge &suss *$e u!&ue ass#&a*! ee!%#*$er-re#r*e $&l #!u* r#


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#! l#!g-*er% $&l evel#%e!*. H#>ever, *$e lus*er&!g # #!#u!&!g var&a$ere *$e%a&! g#al &s *$e sear$ #r u!&ue ee*s # a se&& rug #r su &* &s sugges*e *$a* a! ar#r&a*e %#el #r u!ers*a!&!g*$e evel#%e!* # rug-e#se $&lre! a!!#* as *# el#re !urses= eer&e!es # s*ress >&*$&! *$e#!*e* # &!*e!s&ve are. ?$e *$e#re*&al erse*&ve #r *$e s*u" ere 36 reg&s*ere !urses reru&*er#% 10 &!*e!s&ve are u!&*s (ge!eral, !e#!a*al a! *$#ra& u!&*s). ?$e&reer&e!e as !urses ra!ge r#% #!e *# 32 "ears. ?$ese &!*e!s&ve are u!&*s $as&%&lar s*ru*ural $ara*er&s*&s, !a%el" a $&g$ >#r@&!g ae, ava!e

*e$!#l#g", #!s*ra&!e &!a!es, reue!* re#rga!&/a*!s, a s$#r*age #reg&s*ere !urses a! all >ere &lle *# #veraa&*". Ca*a >ere #lle*e &!#e!-e!e &!*erv&e>s *$a* >ere au-*ae a! *ra!sr&a!*&!g*# # %#re; (3) la@&!g *$e au*$#r&*" *# a*--@!#>&!g *$a* s#%e*$&!g s$#ul ere s"!*$es&/e a* a $&g$er level # a


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R&$%#!, &rg&!&a 23284, A.

Ces&re #r $eal*$are #!*r#l, $eal*$ l#us # #!*r#l, ere&ve #!*r#l #ver&a&*$ &aas use *# ea%&!e *$ese rela*!s$&s us&!g H&!@&! a! $r&es$e&%=s1989 %easure # #>er, Barar #>er a! *$e&r use # !&v&ual&/e#!s&era*!.

C: 11824734 Du


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#&!g a! s"$#l#g&al #u*#%e, rese*&vel" >ere ge!era*e. r&!&al#%#!e!*s a*#r a!al"s&s, %ul*&-*ra&* a!al"s&s, a! s*ru*ural eua*!%#ell&!g >ere use. RE?: ?$e #&!g sale #%r&se *$ree a*#rs:

Ae*a!e (&.e. revalua*! # l&e values); '&g$*&!g s&r&* (&.e. e#r*s *#ars ee!e!* sel-es*ee%); !*rus! (&.e. e a #s&*&ve rela*! *# ers#!al gr#>*$ a! >as &!versel" rela*e *#


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Cear*%e!* # s"$#l#g", ?ra!s"lva!&a !&vers&*", Ee&!g*#!, + 40508-1797,A. ?ACBR?RA.C

?$&s ar*&le &susses res&s*a!e &! s"$#*$era" us&!g *$e #!*e%#rar"&!*erers#!al #%%u!&a*! %#el # s"$#*$era". ?$&s erse*&ve e&!esres&s*a!e as %#%e!*s ur&!g sess!s >$e! *$e a*&e!* a! *$era&s* are&!*era*&!g >&*$ #!e a!#*$er &! su$ a >a" *$a* *$e a*&e!* &s @e* r#%are # a!" #ver* eer&e!es #r *ra!sa*!al a**er!s *$a* are#!l&*ual a! a!&e*" r#v#@&!g. ?$e >a"s &! >$&$ res&s*a!e %a" #r@e >&*$ are &susse a! al&e *# *$ree a*&e!*v&g!e**es, >&*$ a! e%$as&s #! >#r@&!g >&*$ res&s*a!es as *$e" are %a!&es*e&! *$e a*&e!*-*$era&s* rela*!s$&. #%e # *$e #*e!*&al rea*!s # *$e*$era&s* *# res&s*a!e are &susse, &!lu&!g s#%e rela*&vel" argues >$" u


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ree!* r#gress &! !eur# Rev&e>, ?u*#r&al

C: 11763609 Duas %#era*e


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rel&%&!ar" su#r* #r *$e %#el as a! ela!a*! #r *$e evel#%e!* # *$ege!er &ere!e &! eress! ur&!g a#lese!e.

u&$, +. .$#>euea.a.u@

A#*! $#ls ar*&ular &!*eres* #r a**a$%e!* resear$ers. Al*$#ug$ $&lre!a#*e as &*$ *$e&r!e> arers. ?ra!sa*!al %#els $ave $ele &*$ *$e&r a#*&ve%#*$ers, a! &! ases >$ere e#le $a sear$e #r a! #u! a &*$ *$e&r as

#lle*e #! *$e a#*e aul*=s re-lae%e!* $&s*#r", age a* lae%e!* >asuse as a r#" %easure *# ea%&!e >$e*$er #ler lae $&lre! re#r*e&ere!* a#*! eer&e!es a! >$a* *$e&r urre!* levels # #!*a* >ere>&*$ *$e&r a#*&ve a! *$a* age a* lae%e!*>as ass#&a*e >&*$ a#*e e#le=s re#r*e eer&e!es # &*$ *$e&r a#*&ve a! &*$ *$#selae a* #ler ages %#s* l&@el" *# re#r* *$a* *$e" (1) & !#* eel *$e"$&le gr#>&!g u, (2) & !#* eel l#ve &*$ *$e&r

a#*&ve %#*$er.

C: 11708738 Du


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Cear*%e!* # uas se!* *# all !urses # a u!&vers&*"$#s&*al. saere ree&ve r#% 625 !urses, g&v&!g a res#!se ra*e# 39.2K. Ca*a >ere *rea*e us&!g #rrela*!al a!al"ses a! %ul*&leregress!. ?$e la**er %#elle s*ress#rs a! leaers$& as re&*#rs #!urses= re#r*e e%#*!al e$aus*!. AR: G#r@ s*ress#rs >ere assesseus&!g *$e urs&!g *ress ale () >$&$ #%r&ses 34 &*e%s &v&e &!*# *$reesu#r@ s*ress#rs as a >$#le >ere #u! *# ela&!22K # *$e var&a!e &! e%#*!al e$aus*! >$ereas leaers$& &%e!s!sela&!e 9K # *$e var&a!e &! *$a* #u*#%e %easure. *ress e%a!a*&!g r#% *$e$"s&al a! s#&al e!v&r#!%e!*, r#le a%ere s&g!&&a!*l" ass#&a*e >&*$ &!reaselevels # e%#*!al e$aus*!. ?ra!s#r%a*!al a! #!*&!ge!* re>arleaers$& & !#* &!lue!e e%#*!al e$aus*!. E?A?: A l&%&*a*! #*$&s s*u" &s *$a* &* #!s&ere #!l" *$e e%#*!al e$aus*! &%e!s! #ere r#ss-se*!al &! !a*ure, #!lus!s regar&!g *$e&re*! # ausal&*" a%#!g var&a


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#urse # eress!.

u

C"!a%& a!al"ses # %#*$er-$&l &!*era*!s &! u!*!al a! "su!*!al"as: a s"!erge*& ar#a$.

Cu%as J, Ee%a" , Cau>aler J.

Cear*%e!* # s"$#l#g&al &e!es, urue !&vers&*", Ges* Eaa"e**e, !&a!a47907, A.

Cesr& a!al"*&al ar#a$ (er&ve r#%s"!erge*&s, a #%le "!a%& s"s*e%s *$e#r") *# $#%e #&*$ $&lre! reerre #r&sru*&ve # gr#us &ere &! *$e&r a&l" &!*era*!s &! re&*aa"s, a! (2) *$e %#s* reue!* a**er!s # &!*era*!s ##gr#us ar ea$ #*$er.?$e &!&!gs are &! @ee&!g >&*$ a &*$&! >$&$ *# %#ve r#% a! #e .

Cear*%e!* # rga!&/a*!al s"$#l#g", B&r@#r@: a ra%e>#r@ >$ere&! s*ress &s v&e>e as resul*&!g r#% *$e

*ra!sa*! ee! *$e &!&v&ual a! *$e e!v&r#!%e!*. A#*&!g su$ a!ar#a$ %a" als# reu&re resear$ers *# #!s&er $#> s*ressul e!#u!*ers areara&se--*$e %ea!&!gs g&ve! *# eve!*s, $#> #&!g s*ra*eg&es are lass&&e,a! $#> *$e" are use &! *$e #&!g r#ess, >$e*$er l&!ear a&*&ve #&!gs#res reall" *ell us a!"*$&!g a &!&v&uals a*uall" #e a! >$e*$er&* &s !#> *&%e *# #!s&er al*er!a*&ve %e*$##l#g&es & >e are *#


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Ara&sals # #!*r#lla&*$ Cs. #&al #%ar&s#! *$e#r" &s als# al&e *# *$e #!er!s# "#u!g aul*s >&*$ Cs su$ *$a* *$e" #*e! la@ sa%e age eers *# #%areeer&e!es >&*$ ar&a &&ul*&es. Br&e, l&!&-


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126: J e $&l#s. 2001 Ju!;26(3):285-98.

Aul*ura*&!g $u%a! eer&%e!*a*!: a! e%&r&al surve" &! 'ra!e.

A%&el , a*$&eu , 'ag#*-Eargeaul* A.

!s*&*u* #ve&s, ar&s, 'ra!e. a%&el!#ve&s.#%

rel&%&!ar" resul*s # a! e%&r&al s*u" # $u%a! eer&%e!*a*! ra*&es arerese!*e a! #!*ras*e >&*$ *$#se # a surve" #!u*e a $u!re "ears ag#>$e! l&!&al resear$, al*$#ug$ *#lera*e, >as ul*urall" ev&a!*. #> *$a*e (a! ese&all" a*&e!*-suererea*&ve a! reveale a! a*&*ue #r &!*egra*&!g eer&%e!*al %e&&!e &!*##%%#! ul*ure.

u$a* a*#rs re&s#se$&lre! *# eress! $ave %ae #ss&


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r&ve!, e%&r&all" us*&&e ar#a$es *# *$e reve!*! # eress! &!"#u!gs*ers >$# are a* $&g$ r&s@, e&*$er Rev&e>, ?u*#r&al

C: 11430852 Duas *# ea%&!e *$e &!lue!e # !urs&!g ea!s= a!!urs&!g &re*#rs= *ra!s#r%a*!al a! *ra!sa*!al leaers$& s*"les #!!urs&!g aul*" #< sa*&sa*! &! a!. ?$e s*u" r#v&es a %e$a!&s% ever, a*&ve %a!age%e!*-


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Cear*%e!* # s"$#l#g", !&vers&*" # a!$es*er, #r R#a, a!$es*er 139E. ll#"s4.s".%a!.a.u@

Resear$ $as es*a$&$ u*s a re%&u% #! &!ee!e!*la!guage r#ess&!g. Al*$#ug$ *$e &%#r*a!e # #ral la!guage &s re#g!&se &!*$e a*!al urr&ulu%, *$ere $as # *"es; #!e &sl&s*e!er eua*! &! a !arr#> se!se *$a* #!s&s*e!*l" ee!s #! *$e *$ree#!&*!s, a! *$e #*$er &s l&s*e!er eua*! &! a


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Br#" H, e N.

Cear*%e!* # $&l a! 'a%&l" Cevel#%e!*, Ca>s#! Hall, !&vers&*" # e#rg&a,A*$e!s, e#rg&a 30602, A. g$#% *$ree >aves # a*a >ere #lle*e a* 1-"ear &!*ervals.?ea$ers r#v&e assess%e!*s # sel-regula*!, a! are!*&!g >as assesser#% %ul*&le erse*&ves, &!lu&!g "#u*$ re#r*s, are!* re#r*s, a!#ere s*aas l&!@e >&*$$a!ges &! $ars$-#!l&*e are!*&!g r#% Gave 1 *# Gave 2. are!*&!g a* Gave 2>as ass#&a*e >&*$ "#u*$ sel-regula*!. #u*$ sel-regula*! a* Gave 2%e&a*e *$e a*$s r#% are!*&!g ra*&es a* Gave 2 *# "#u*$ s"$#l#g&alu!*!&!g a! al#$#l use a* Gave 3.

C: 11322087 Du#r@.

Eau R, #rse A.

C&v&s! # e#!a*al erv&es, R#"al G#%e!=s H#s&*al, a! &*#r&a !&vers&*",Aus*ral&a. laurr"*&.r$.u!&%el#r@ *$a* $as &el" use *# s*u" *$e #&!gs*ra*eg&es # are!*s # re*er% &!a!*s &! !e#!a*al &!*e!s&ve are u!&*s ()

$as a"s: r&%ar" ara&sal a!se#!ar" ara&sal. A!#*$er a*#r *$a* %a" &!lue!e *$e &!&v&ual=s #&!ge#r* &s ge!er &ere!e. #*$ers a! a*$ers # re*er% &!a!*s $ave &*$ *$e re*er%


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?$e ur#se # *$&s >#r@ >as *# el#re l&!&al !urs&!g leaers$&. ?$eresear$ >as #r@ >as als# &!lue!e Rev&e>, ?u*#r&al

C: 11316275 Du$&$ >as l&!@e *# $e&g$*e!e&!*rus&ve su#r*. ?$e a$&eve%e!* # $&lre! >$#se %#*$ers reue!*l" use&!*rus&ve su#r* &%r#ve #ver *&%e $#se%#*$ers &!reue!*l" use &!*rus&ve su#r*. Ca"-*#-a" a!al"ses sugges*e *$a*al*$#ug$ &!*rus&ve su#r* r#%#*es suess, &* als# #s*ers a&lure #rl#>-a$&ev&!g $&lre!.

C: 11269386 Du


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assa$use**s e!eral H#s&*alLHarvar e&al $##l, B#s*#! 02114, A.

?$e #!e*ual&/a*! a! *rea*%e!* # ##s&*!al e&a!* &s#rer (CC) $asa"s *$a* g&ve r&se *# ##s&*!al &*$ CC %a" reu&re &ere!* #r%s # &!*erve!*!. ?$e !eess&*" # a*ra!sa*!al #!e*ual&/a*!, # a$&ev&!g a #%re$e!s&ve u!ers*a!&!g #*$e a*#rs u!erl"&!g *$e &&ul*&es # &!&v&ual $&lre! >&*$ CC, a! #%a*$&!g &!*erve!*! &!gre&e!*s *# *$e se&& !ees # &ere!* $&lre!a! a%&l&es &s &susse.

ua*$&!g "#ur as es&g!e *# el#re 'ree%a!=s (1986) &!&!g *$a* *$e &!s*&*u*!

*$a* %ae *$e grea*es* #!*r Ar&a!-A%er&a!,Ha&*&a!-A%er&a!, a! Ea*&!# %ale a! e%ale *ee!agers--16 ra>! r#% &!!er-&*"r#*es*a!* $ur$es a! 16 #%ar&s#! *ee!agers r#% *$e sa%e #%%u!&*&es->ere&!*erv&e>e. ?$e &!*erv&e>s reveale *$a* $ur$e *ee!agers >ere less s*ressea! less l&@el" *# $ave s"$#l#g&al r#ere *ee!agers &! *$e#%ar&s#! gr#u. ?$e" als# aeare %#re l&@el" *# &*$


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Cear*%e!* # s"$#l#g", !&vers&*" # alr!&a, Ber@ele" 94720-1650, A.

?$e e! # *$e las* %&lle!!&u% >&*!esse a! u!reee!*e egree # uare!ess regar&!g %e!*al &s#rer as >ell as %#*&va*! #r #l&" $a!ge.E&@e ar*#r&us, >e #!*e! *$a* *$e #!*&!ue s*&g%a*&/a*! # %e!*al &ll!ess%a" >ell


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C: 11200297 Du&!g au*e s*ress &! #%e*&*&ve s#r*.

A!s$el H, G&ll&a%s ER, G&ll&a%s .

s"$#l#g" Cear*%e!*, !&vers&*" # G#ll#!g#!g, e> #u*$ Gales, Aus*ral&a.

?$e ur#se # *$&s s*u" >as *# aser*a&! #&!g s*"les a%#!g #%e*&*&vea*$le*es &! res#!se *# varus au*e s*ress#rs. e&&all", *$e au*$#rs usea 134-&*e% surve" *# %easure ar#a$ a! av#&a!e #&!g s*"les, >&*$*as@-#use a! e%#*!-#use #&!g *e!e!&es !es*e $&erar$&all" assu$&$ *$e" use ar#a$, av#&a!e, *as@-#use, a!e%#*!-#use #&!g s*ra*eg&es (a 4-a*#r %#el) &! res#!se *# sele*eau*e s*ress#rs eer&e!e ur&!g s#r* #%e*&*!. ?$e au*$#rs #%u*e#!&r%a*#r" a*#r a!al"s&s *# *es* *$e *$e#re*&all" r&ve! %#el. ?$er&*er! l#a&!g # .30 a! a #rrela*!s ee! *$e 2 ar#a$ (0.18) a! *$e 2 av#&a!e&%e!s!s (0.43) rele*e rela*&vel" $&g$ res&uals ee! s*ress#rs. !ge!eral, s"$#%e*r& a!al"ses sugges* *$a* #&!g s*"le %a" #r@s--&.e. le*r#!& Ca*a !*er$a!ge (C) #rHeal*$ Eevel (HE) 7--#*e! resul* &! #%#s&*e #u%e!*s >$&$ a!


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'&ve-a*#r %#el # ers#!al&*" a! *ra!s#r%a*!al leaers$&.

Juge ?A, B#!# J.

Cear*%e!* # a!age%e!* a! rga!&/a*!s, He!r" B. ?&&e #llege # Bus&!ess,!&vers&*" # #>a, #>a &*" 52242, A. *&%-ugeu>a.eu

?$&s s*u" l&!@e *ra&*s r#% *$e 5-a*#r %#el # ers#!al&*" (*$e B&g 5) *#*ra!s#r%a*!al leaers$& as #s&*&vel" #rrela*e>&*$ *ra!s#r%a*!al leaers$&, as #!*r#lle. eur#*&&s% a! #!s&e!*us!ess >ereu!rela*e *# *ra!s#r%a*!al leaers$&. Resul*s ur*$er &!&a*e *$a*se&& ae*s # *$e B&g 5 *ra&*s re&*e *ra!s#r%a*!al leaers$& less>ell *$a! *$e ge!eral #!s*ru*s. '&!all", *ra!s#r%a*!al leaers$&


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?$&s aer ea%&!es *$e #!e*ual a! e%&r&al #!!e*!s ee! #%e*e!ea! s"$#a*$#l#g", *># $&s*#r&all" r&$ *ra&*!s #r *$e s*u" #aa*a*! &! evel#%e!*, a! >$a* %&g$* # *ra&*!s are rev&e>e, *$e! #verlas &! *$e&re&!&*! are #!s&ere, >&*$ a #us #! *$e >a"s &! >$&$ ug%e!*s a&*$ &!rease levels #Hs. ?$e ass#&a*! #r ere&ve #!*r#l re%a&!s #!e var&a!e ue *#

s#%a*#se!s#r" a%l&&a*! &s ar*&alle a! ge!eral&/es *# a sa%le #a*&e!*s >&*$ a seuall" *ra!s%&**e &!e*!. ?$e resul*s are &!*erre*e &!rela*! *# *$e *ra!sa*!al %#el # *$e s*ress r#ess.

C: 11003375 Du


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*e%era%e!* %a" &!lue!e *$e *"e # seure a! &!seure a**a$%e!*rela*!s$& $&lre! #r% >&*$ *$e&r are!*, *e%era%e!* al#!e >&ll !#*e*er%&!e & a $&l &s lass&&e as seurel" #r &!seurel" a**a$e. Gerese!*e ev&e!e sugges*&!g *$a* er*a&! &%e!s!s # *e%era%e!*,se&&all" !ega*&ve e%#*!al&*", %a" &*$ &!a!*s= ever, >e !#*e *$a* *$ese *e%era%e!* &%e!s!s # !#* re&* #verallseur&*" # a**a$%e!*. * &s l&@el" *$a* al*$#ug$ !# s&!gle *e%era%e!*$ara*er&s*&, su$ as r#!e!ess-*#-&s*ress, &! a! # &*sel e*er%&!es#verall a**a$%e!* seur&*", &* &s #ss&$"&!a!*s are lass&&e &!*# #!e su$e! r#ere #u! ee! *ra!s#r%a*!al leaers$& a! revusleaers$& eer&e!e. ?$e &!&!gs $ave &%l&a*!s #r *$e reru&*%e!*,sele*!, a! evel#%e!* # !urs&!g leaers.

C: 10876489 Du


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?#>ar a! &!*erers#!al l&e-s*ress %#el # eress!: *$e evel#%e!*al#!*e* # s*ress ge!era*!.

Ru#l$ +C, Ha%%e! , Burge C, E&!&*$ #%#ras #$ere&! $&lre! re&&*a*e s*ressul

eve!*s a! &ru%s*a!es. ! a*, s*ress *$a* >as &! ar* ee!e!* #!$&lre!=s #!*r&er. Resul*s sugges* *$a*l&e-s*ress resear$ %a" $&$ #!s&er $#> $&lre! ar*&&a*e &! *$e#!s*ru*! # s*ressul e!v&r#!%e!*s.

C: 10847625 Du&*$ *$e r#gra% a! *$e&r ual&*" # l&e. ?HC: A%ul*&a*#r %#el $as &s*&!gu&s$e *$ree a*#rs releva!* *# leaers$& #%e!*al $eal*$ *ea%s: *ra!s#r%a*!al leaers$&, &! >$&$ a leaer=s r&%ar"g#al &s *# lea *$e *ea% *# ev#lv&!g $&$ *$e leaer s*r&ves *# %a&!*a&! ee*&ve r#gra%s *$r#ug$ ee&*$ %easures # *$e *ea%=s u!*!&!g, &*$la&sse/-a&re ar#a$es *# leaers$& a! #s&*&vel" ass#&a*e >&*$


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sa*&sa*! ra*&!gs-u *# 40 ere!* # *$e *#*al var&a!e. E:Eeaers$& see%s *# er, a! #rga!&/a*!al l&%a*e. BA+RC: Resul*s r#% a e> !urseeeu*&ve s*u&es $ave #u! !urse eeu*&ves >ere *ra!s#r%a*!al leaers. As

eeu*&ves >ere %#re *ra!s#r%a*!al, *$e" a$&eve #r@ gr#u ee*&ve!ess. ?$&s s*u" &!*egra*es Bass=*ra!s#r%a*!al leaers$& %#el >&*$ Hager s*age *$e#r" a! E&@er*=s#rga!&/a*!al l&%a*e *$e#r". ?HC: urse eeu*&ves (396) a! s*are#r*&!g *# *$e% (1,115) ra*e *$e !urse eeu*&ves= leaers$& s*"le, s*ae*ra e#r*, s*a sa*&sa*!, a! >#r@ gr#u ee*&ve!ess us&!g Bass a!

Av#l=s ul*&a*#r Eeaers$& ues*!!a&re. eu*&ves= #r@ gr#u ee*&ve!ess. eu*&ves #%le*e Hager r#&le a! ra!@e *$e&r #rga!&/a*!al l&%a*e us&!g E&@er*=s r#&le #rga!&/a*!al $ara*er&s*&s. RE?: urse eeu*&ves use *ra!s#r%a*!alleaers$& a&rl" #*e!; a$&eve a&rl" sa*&s&e s*a levels; >ere ver"ee*&ve a#r&!g *# ere %#s* l&@el" a* s*age 3 (#>er


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&sru*! # !eur#s"$#l#g&al r#esses ur&!g reg!a!" a! ar*ur&*!. *&s r##se *$a* &! Ges*er! s#&e*&es re- a! #s*!a*al s"$#l#g&al a!&!s*ru%e!*al !ees are ##rl" %e* a! *$&s r&s&s %a" &!*era* >&*$!eur#$"sl#g&al a*#rs &! #%r#%&s&!g %a*er!al s"$#l#g&al u!*!&!g.?$e &!lue!e # evel#%e!*al a*#rs a! s"$#l#g&al a! $"s&al s*ress#rsare &susse &! rela*! *# >#%e!=s !eur#s"$#l#g&al $eal*$ ur&!g *$eer&ar*al *ra!s&*!. * &s $"#*$es&/e *$a* *$e e!v&r#!%e!*al %&l&eu %a"su#r*, !egle* #r era&l *$e %#*$er=s s"$##r@r#les.

u#r@-rela*e s*ress#rs a! #&!g s*ra*eg&es, a!*$e&r &%a* u#! !urses= levels # #< sa*&sa*! a! %## &s*uras r##se *$a* $&g$er levels # ere&ve >#r@ s*ress a! use # av#&a!e#&!g >#ul &!rease %## &s*ur$&le r##ul &*$ less %## &s*urere #u! *# ere #u! *# &!lue!e*$e !urses= #&!g a! ere*!s # s*ress.

C: 10718888 Du


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eer seual $arass%e!*: a &e ra!ge # u!>el#%eseuall" #r&e!*e a! ge!er-#e!s&ve #%e!=s %e!*al a! $"s&al $eal*$, $eal*$-rela*e &*$ evel#%e!*al ela"s:$&l-r&ve! #r *ra!sa*!al

+e#g$ B+, ar!&er H, Ber!$e&%er E, all&%#re R.

Cear*%e!* # s"$&a*r" a! B&*$ eress&ve &s#rers,s$&/#$re!&a-se*ru% &s#rers, a! !#r%al #!*r#ls.

Ha%&l*#! B, Asar!#> JR, ?#%s#! .


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Cear*%e!* # s"$&a*r" a! B#r@ #u*#%es.?HC: Base #! a sa%le # e&g$* $#s&*als, *$e asa&!g ee* >as *es*eus&!g #rrela*! a!al"s&s. ?$e %a&! s#ures # var&a*! a%#!g leaers$&s#res >ere e*er%&!e >&*$ a!al"ses # var&a!e (AA), a! *$e &!*era*!ee* # $&erar$&al level a! leaers$& s*"les #! r&*er! var&aas*es*e >&*$ %#era*e regress! a!al"s&s. RE?: # su#r* >as #u! #r aasa&!g ee* # leaers$& ar#ss $&erar$&al levels. Ra*$er, *$e var&a*!# leaers$& s#res >as ela&!e r&%ar&l" ere #


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J l&! $&l s"$#l. 1999 Ce;28(4):558-62.

E&!@s a%#!g *$e#r", resear$, a! ra*&e: #r!ers*#!es # l&!&al s&e!*&&r#gress.

Je!se! .

Cear*%e!* # $&l s"$&a*r", , 10032, A.

C&susses $#> el&&* l&!@s a%#!g l&!&al *$e#r", resear$, a! ra*&e are!eessar" & a l&!&al &s&l&!e &s *# surv&ve &! *$e %a!age are %ar@e*lae# *#a". R# &ees # %ul*&level a*a &* *#ge*$er, &e!*&"@!#>lege gas, a! se* rr&*&es #r u*ure s*u&es. As s$#>! $e*$er urre!* resear$ %e*$#s are ull" aeua*e *#*es* *$ese !e>er, %#re #%le, %ul*&level *$e#r&es #r *$e l&!&al $e!#%e!a*$e" see@ *# $ara*er&/e. ?# aress *$ese &&ul*&es, as >ell as *# &!rease*$e ae # s&e!*&& ava!es *$a* %a" resul* r#% r#&*us l&!@s a%#!g*$e#r", resear$, a! ra*&e, #er several re#%%e!a*!s *# l&!&als"$#l#g" &! ge!eral a! *# l&!&al $&l s"$#l#g&al resear$ &!ar*&ular.

C: 10587908 Dus #r *$e evel#%e!* #!&$e eer*&se u!er a! u%


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r#ess!als &! erv&es #r A#lese!*s.

u#%e! >&*$ #%e! >&*$ &*$&! e&s!-%a@&!g resear$. ?$eaer ea%&!es *$e #%le&*" # *rea*%e!* e&s! %a@&!g >&*$&! *$e #!*e* #*$e #!s*ru*s # ausal a!*eee!*s, r&%ar" ara&sal, se#!ar" ara&sal,#&!g a! aa*a*!al #u*#%es. a%les se&& *# >#%e! >&*$ Rev&e>, ?u*#r&al

C: 10520101 Du. 1999;27(3):462-70.

e%#r" as #>er: >$# &s *# e&e

Bea$rs J.

reg#! Heal*$ &e!es !&vers&*", #r*la!, A.

?$e *ra!sa*!al ase*s # $u%a! %e%#r" re%a&! e!&g%a*&: %e%#r" &su*esarr" &!*e!se ae*&ve $arge; %e%#r"=s ee*s var" >&*$ $#> #!*e!* &s ra%e#r sla!*e


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uere #!s&s*e!* >&*$ee*a*!s r#% rr l&*era*ure su$ as !%es$&!g a%&l&es a! Ree*&!g eer!e*>#r@s, >$&le #*$ers >ere !#vel a! &!*r&gu&!g su$ as !*a!gl&!g eers.'a%&l" r#&les >ere #!s&s*e!* &! *$e&r r&s@ a! r#*e*&ve ass#&a*!s #r


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? a! $a!g&!g #u*. v&e!e # *ra!sa*!al rela*!s ee! a*er-s$##la*&v&*&es a! $&l aus*%e!* >as #u!. ?&%e se!* &! a*&v&*&es ee! 3ra! 5*$ graes >as rela*e *# $&lre!=s aus*%e!* &! 5*$ grae. ! a&*!,$&l aus*%e!* %easure &! 3r grae >as ass#&a*e >&*$ *&%e &! &ere!*a*&v&*&es &! 5*$ grae.

C: 10380876 Du! $&l ere %#s* l&@el" *# re#r*$&g$ #!*r#l a! a!ger, *# , a e*a&lese%&s*ru*ure &!*erv&e> assess&!g *$e #urre!e # s*ressul eve!*s &!%ul*&le l&e #%a&!s. !*erv&e>s >ere #e us&!g a #!*e*ual *$rea* ra*&!g%e*$# *# e*er%&!e eve!* s*ressul!ess a! ee!e!e. #u!gs*ers als##%le*e *$e $&lre!=s Ceress! !ve!*#r" a! *$e Rev&se $&l a!&es*

A!&e*" ale *# assess sel-re#r*e s"%*#%s # eress! a! a!&e*".#!s&s*e!* >&*$ re&*!s, age- a! ge!er-rela*e a**er!s # l&e s*ress


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var&e ar#ss *$e *"e a! #!*e* # s*ress#rs. #s* !#*aell as $a!ges #urr&!g&! e!v&r#!%e!*s # elers >$# age &! lae-&s a rela*&vel" !e>, &verse resear$area # $&g$ releva!e #r aul* evel#%e!*al&s*s a! ger#!*#l#g&s*s. ?$&sar*&le el#res *$e useul!ess # a *ra*a


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&!*erve!*! r#gra%s. *u&es >&*$ res$##l a! s$##l-age $&lre! s$#>e*$a* E &!*era*!s re&* #g!&*&ve %#&&a#r@ #r *$e s*u" # #&!g, &ll!essa**r&ell as *$es"$#s#&al #!*e* >&*$&! >$&$ *$e ers#! &s #era*&!g. ?$&s #!*e* &!luess#-e#!#%& a*#rs, s#&al su#r*, s#&al !#r%s, a! e*er!al a*#rs su$as *$e %ass %e&a. ?$e eer&e!e # $eal*$ *$rea* &s ee!e!* u#! &!&v&ualara&sal, a! *$e ra%e>#r@ &!#r#ra*es '#l@%a! a! Ea/arus= *ra!sa*!al

%#el # s*ress, as >ell as Eeve!*$al=s &ll!ess rerese!*a*! %#el. Be$avura! *$e ere*! # *$rea* are als# ee!e!* u#! #u*#%e ee*a!&es a!*$e ara&sal # #!e=s #>! #&!g res#ures, a! s# *$e #!e*s # l#us ##!*r#l a! sel-e&a" are als# &!#r#ra*e. ?$&s ra%e>#r@ all#>s #!e *#&e!*&" e*er%&!a!*s # &ll a& !urses &!&e!*&"&!g areas #r s"$#-s#&al &!*erve!*!.

C: 10320510 Du


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*arge* $&lre! ur&!g $#%e v&s&*s *# a ur#s&ve ra!#% sa%le # 171 &!*a*>$&*e a%&l&es >&*$ a 10- *# 12-"ear-#l $&l, 85 >&*$ g&rls a! 86 >&*$ as ass#&a*e >&*$ a*&ve,se!sa*!-see@&!g *e%era%e!*, l&$&$ aressesr#esses &!v#lve &! *$e evel#%e!* # s"s*e%s, a! e

C: 10225123 Du


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r#ue EA, arls#! A, Eev" A+, gela! B.

!s*&*u*e # $&l Cevel#%e!*, !&vers&*" # &!!es#*a, &!!ea#l&s 55455, A.

B#>la"s *$e #&!*r#u* # evel#%e!*al $&s*#r" a! urre!* &ru%s*a!es (!ever e&*$er al#!e).arl" eer&e!e #es !#* ause la*er a*$#l#g" &! a l&!ear >a"; "e*, &* $asse&al s&g!&&a!e ue *# *$e #%le, s"s*e%&, *ra!sa*!al !a*ure #evel#%e!*. rr $&s*#r" &s ar* # urre!* #!*e*, la"&!g a r#le &!sele*!, e!gage%e!*, a! &!*erre*a*! # su#.a


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G&*$ *$e ree!* resurge!e &! #ular&*" # *ra&* *$e#r&es # leaers$&, &* &s*&%el" *# #!s&er *$e ge!e*& e*er%&!a*! # *$e %ul*&le a*#rs #%r&s&!g*$e leaers$& #!s*ru*. !&v&ual &ere!es &! ers#!al&*" *ra&*s $ave


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s&!g a %#el # *ra!sa*!al evel#%e!*al regula*! *# evalua*e *$eee*&ve!ess # a! earl" &!*erve!*! r#gra%%e #r re-s$##l $&lre! >&*$%#*#r &%a&r%e!*s.

G##ls#! EH.

Cear*%e!* # ua*!al *u&es, !&vers&*" # *ra*$l"e, lasg#>, +.

?$&s s*u" &!ves*&ga*es $#> earl" &!*erve!*! r#gra%%e e e%$as&s #! reve!*! s*ra*eg&es *$a* $ave *$e&r &%a* earl&er &! *$el&e #urse a! earl&er &! *$e #urse # %e!*al &s#rer, a! *# #lla&*$ reve!*! se&al&s*s a! av#a*es &! rela*e &els.

u


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D'ee&!g &s#rers &! &!a!": ee&!g &!*era*! #!e* &! &ag!#s&s a!*rea*%e!*F

DAr*&le &! HeF

+ere! , ?"a!# .

#%%u!&*"-


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eve!*s, 2) &!v#lv&!g *$e areg&ver(s) &! *$e a*&e!*=s re#ver", a! 3)e!$a!&!g *$e &!&v&ual=s aa*&ve #&!g e#r*s a! res#ures. ?$e ar*&lea**e%*s *# gu&e !urses &! %a@&!g e&s!s #! >$e! *# #!sul* a! #lla&*$ a! A *# a$&eve es&re a*&e!* #u*#%es.

ulege &! *$e 90=sF

DAr*&le &! er%a!F

He&% .

A*er a e. ?$e#re*&all" Ea/arus= #!e* #*ra!sa*!al #&!g $as &*$ #us #! e%#*!s. A!*#!#vs@"=ssalu*#ge!es&s &s #!s&ere *# &*$ s*ress-resear$ &s !eee, %e*$##l#g" s$#ul # &%#r*a!* &!*erve!*! s*ra*eg&es evalua*! # e&a"

&s !eessar".

ual/a.u!&-$e&el# ar#a$es, #!e #r&e!*e *#>ar *$e su


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e!v&r#!%e!*, a!#*$er #r&e!*e *#>ar *$e e!v&r#!%e!*al se&&s # *$e&!&v&ual=s av#r&*e lae, >ere e%l#"e. s *$e eer&e!e # l&v&!g a* $#%e&ere!* #r &!&v&uals >&*$ varus levels # #%e*e!e G$&$ ase*s areere&ve *# #%e! age 62-92 "ears ( M 77"ears) ar*&&a*e &! *$e s*u". 42 ers#!s >ere ge!erall" $eal*$"; *$e #*$er42 suere #u! &! *$e eer&e!e # #g!&*&ve,ere #u! &! *$e eer&e!e # e%#*!al, s#&al, a! as $ara*er&/e


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s*ra*eg&es, &* &s ese&all" r&*&al *# es*a$&$ a&! #&!g s*ra*eg&esare aa*&ve. e&& #g!&*&ve s*ra*eg&es, ar*&ularl" #&!g sels*a*e%e!*s, are &%#r*a!* #%#!e!*s #r #g!&*&ve-$# are %#*&va*e *# %&!&%&/e*$e l#sses a! %a&%&/e *$e ga&!s ass#&a*e >&*$ *$e ag&!g r#ess.

u! R?, Ba@e%a! R, a%&*$ $&g$ levels # a&l" s*ress a!all&a*&ve #&!g *e$!&ues a! >as !#* s&g!&&a!*l" ass#&a*e >&*$ sever&*"# *$e ar&a ee*. ?#ge*$er, *$e var&a


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aus*%e!*. G&*$&! *$e l&%&*a*!s # *$e s*u", *$e a*a >ere &!*erre*e *#su#r* *$e u*&l&*" # *$e#re*&al %#els &! &e!*&"&!g areas &! !ee #&!*erve!*! ar#ss $r#!& &ll!ess gr#us.

C: 9718895 Du


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u#%e! >&*$ a!#re&a!erv#sa (A), 21 >#%e! >&*$ #%e! >&*$#u* a! ea*&!g&s#rer (!#!-C). RE?: G#%e! >&*$ ea*&!g &s#rers >ere %#re l&@el" *# use#g!&*&ve av#&a!e #r #g!&*&ve ru%&!a*! a! >ere less l&@el" *# #>!la"*$e&r r##%e!>&*$ ea*&!g &s#rers >ere less l&@el" *# #%e! >&*$#u* ea*&!g &s#rers. C: * &s #!lue *$a* >#%e! >&*$ea*&!g &s#rers are less ee*&ve &! *$e&r #&!g *$a! >#%e! >&*$#u* ea*&!g&s#rers.

C: 9697014 Duell ar@ a!er !s*&*u*e, Bual#, e> #r@14263, A.


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A *ra!sa*!al ar#a$ >as use *# ea%&!e s*ress a! #&!g a%#!g 59 #!#l#g"!urses. &!e >#r@ s*ress lus*ers >ere &e!*&&e: $"s&&a!-Rela*e *ress,rga!&/a*!al 'a*#rs, #r@er*ress, >&*$ *$e &rs* 3 ra*e as %#s* reue!* a! %#s* &!*e!se. ?e! #&!glus*ers >ere als# &e!*&&e: #>#r@er u#r*, #s&*&ve Reara&sal,Cevel#&!g a r#>*$ erse*&ve, #s&*&ve !v#lve%e!* &! ?rea*%e!*, Ae*&veRegula*!, Bala!&!g G#r@ *ress, ega*&ve #&!g, Aa*$", G&*$ra>al, a!a*$ars&s, >&*$ *$e &rs* 3 ra*e as %#s* reue!*l" use a! %#s* ee*&ve.?$e rela*!s$&s a%#!g *$e lus*ers, as >ell as *$e *$e#re*&al a! l&!&al&%l&a*!s # *$ese resul*s, >ere &susse.

C: 9684214 Du r&*&ala*$>a".

Eaer*" E.

A A #%%u!&*" H#s&e, Arl&!g*#!, A, A.

?$&s ar*&le asser*s *$a* &! l&g$* # $a!g&!g #!&*!s &! *$e $eal*$aree!v&r#!%e!*, *ra!s#r%a*!al leaers$& &s *$e %#s* ar#r&a*e leaers$&s*"le #r *$e $#s&e reg&s*ere !urse ase %a!ager. ?$e au*$#r e&!es*ra!s#r%a*!al leaers$& a!, *ra&!g r#% earl" leaers$& *$e#r&es,e%#!s*ra*es $#> *$e *ra!s#r%a*!al-*ra!sa*!al leaers$& ara&g% e%erger#% ree&!g leaers$& *$e#r&es. ?$e #%#!e!*s # *ra!s#r%a*!alleaers$&--*ra!s#r%a*!al # $a!ges >&*$&! e> Qeala!.

R&*$&e C.

'aul*" # Heal*$ *u&es, $##l # urs&!g a! Heal*$ A%&!&s*ra*!, $arles*ur* !&vers&*", G, Aus*ral&a.

?$&s aer re#r*s #! *$e #!*e* a! r#ess # $eal*$ s"s*e% re#r% &! e>Qeala!. ?$e s*u" &s s #!u*e >&*$ 31 %a!agers r#% *$reer#>! Heal*$ !*err&ses (u Qeala!) $ave s#ug$* *# s$&* r#% *$e *ra&*!al=ass&ve= $eal*$ %a!age%e!* s*"le (us&!g *ra!sa*!al %a!age%e!* s@&lls *#


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&*$ =s$are$#lers=, sul&ers a! us*#%ersLl&e!*s). v&e!e #a*&v&*&es a! r#esses ass#&a*e >&*$ *ra!s#r%a*!al leaers$& are&e!*&&e. uess # *$e e> Qeala! $eal*$ re#r%s >&ll $e*$er *$&s &sal&a&*$ var"&!g egrees # r#&%&*" *# *$e &!&v&ual. ?$ese levels# *$e e!v&r#!%e!* &!*era* a! *ra!sa* >&*$ ea$ #*$er #ver *&%e &! s$a&!g&!&v&ual evel#%e!* a! aa*a*!. G&*$ a sa%le # %al*rea*e (! M 188) a!!#!%al*rea*e (! M 134) $&lre! ee! *$e ages # 7 a! 12 "ears, *$&s&!ves*&ga*! e%l#"e a 1-"ear l#!g&*u&!al es&g! *# #!u* a!e#l#g&al-*ra!sa*!al a!al"s&s # *$e %u*ual rela*!s$&s a%#!g #%%u!&*"

vle!e, $&l %al*rea*%e!*, a! $&lre!=s u!*!&!g #ver *&%e. !&a*#rs# $&lre!=s u!*!&!g >ere e*er!al&/&!g a! &!*er!al&/&!g as ev&e!e *$a* $&lre! a! *$e&r #!*e*s %u*uall"&!lue!e ea$ #*$er #ver *&%e. Resul*s >ere &susse >&*$&! *$e ra%e>#r@ #a! e#l#g&al-*ra!sa*!al %#el # evel#%e!*.

C: 9635223 Du


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e&&!e, a!$asse* 11030, A.

?$&s aer rese!*s a severel" &s*ur&*$ a $r#!&suas *# ea%&!e r#se*&vel" >$e*$er #&!g %e&a*e *$erela*! ee! eur#*&&s% a! $a!ge &! &ere!* l&!&al %e!*al s"!r#%es.

Assess%e!*s >ere #!u*e >&*$ 154 #r%er s"$&a*r& #u*a*&e!*s s& a! seve!"ears a*er *$e&r &!&*&al #!*a* >&*$ a! #u*a*&e!* l&!&. C&s#s&*!al#&!g %e&a*e *$e rela*! ee! eur#*&&s% a! $a!ge &! #ur # *$e !&!el&!&al sales # *$e &ll#! l&!&al ul*&a&al !ve!*#r" (-) (&ll#!,1987). H&g$ eur#*&&s% le *# #&!g s*ra*eg&es # &se!gage%e!* a! *$eve!*&!g # e%#*!s a! *# a la@ # r#$&$ &! *ur!*ra!sla*e &!*# a rela*&ve &!rease #! *$e - sales. ?$e %e&a*#r %#el #

#&!g >as #u! *# al" *# *$e - sales =s#%a*##r% &s#rer=,="s*$"%&a=, =al#$#l ee!e!e= a! =*$#ug$* &s#rer=. Resul*s are &susseu!er *$e erse*&ve # a! &!*egra*! # *$e #s&*!s # *$e *ra!sa*!al*$e#r" # s*ress a! ers#!al&*" s"$#l#g".

C: 9619128 Du


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&%l&a*!s. *u&es # &!a!* a #r@, A.A'#!*a!ae!*er.#lga*e.eu

A! a!ger-r#v#a*! ara&g% >as use *# assess *$e ee*s # #&!g r#essesa! ara&sal # a&l" s*ress#rs #! s*ress rea*&v&*" &! 33 !#r%#*e!s&veu!ergraua*e >#%e!. ar*&&a!*s er#r%e a %e!*al ar&*$%e*& a! a!&!*erers#!al #!l&* *as@ ur&!g *$e re- a! #s*%e!s*rual $ases # *$e&r%e!s*rual "les. !rease use # *$e e%#*!-#use #&!g r#esses #

*e!s! reu*! a! #s&*&ve reara&sal >as #rrela*e >&*$ l#>er levels #$ereas &s*a!&!g >as ass#&a*e >&*$ $&g$er levels #s"s*#l& as ass#&a*e >&*$ $&g$er -&!#%e reg!a!* a! are!*&!g >#%e!: a r#ess #


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#u*a*&e!* a&*! re#ver" r#gra% aresse *$e ues*!: G$a* &s *$e !a*ure# a&*! re#ver" #r reg!a!* a! are!*&!g->#%e! &! a! a&*! *rea*%e!*r#gra% r#u!e *$e#r" %e*$##l#g" >as use *# e*er%&!e *$e !a*ure # *$e&!*erers#!al a! s#&al r#esses *$a* e&!e a&*! re#ver" #r >#%e! &!*$&s s*u". ver 2 "ears, au*ae se%&-s*ru*ure &!*erv&e>s, #u%e!*rev&e>s # %e&al re#rs, *rea*%e!* r#gress a! gr#u *$era" !#*es, a!ar*&&a!* #ere #lle*e a! a!al"/e. ?$e #!s*a!*#%ar&s#! %e*$# # a!al"s&s &!v#lve a! #!g#&!g r#ess # *$e#re*&alsa%l&!g, %e%#&!g, a! #e! a! *$e! a&al #&!g *# &e!*&", gr#u, l&!@, a!reue *$e a*eg#r&es r#ue. A evel#%e!*al %#el # a&*! re#ver" &!reg!a!* a! are!*&!g >#%e! e%erge *$a* #!s&s*e # *$e &%e!s!s #


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r&g$*s, >e %us* eua*e *$e% as *# *$e re&se %ea!&!g # # *$e $&l eg# s*a*e >ere s&g!&&a!*l" grea*er *$a! *$#se# *$e #*$er s*ue!*s ( O 0.01). Bu* #ll#>&!g %" le*ure *$e a!s>ers # *$esa%e 1s* "ear s*ue!*s al*ere *# rele* *$e v&e> # *$e aul* eg# %#re ( O0.05). Ge #e!e I*$e @e" e!*er # s"$#s#%a*& >#%e!=s $eal*$ &! Jaa!I &!#ur l&!& *># "ears ag#. &!e *$e! >e $ave *al@e ever" %#!*$ *# e#le &!ge!eral a#%e!=s &seases, a! als# &susse varus r# *$a* *$e e*$#s # *$e Hea urs&!g s*a &srela*e *# *$e ra*&e # *ra!s#r%a*!al leaers$&, a! *# a&*!ale#r*s &sla"e


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*$a* a#lese!*s >$# (a) $ave a !ega*&ve ere*! # *$e&r


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*ress, s#&al su#r* a! !ega*&ve ae*&v&*" &! $&lre! >&*$ !e>l" &ag!#sea!er: a r#se*&ve *ra!sa*!al a!al"s&s.

ar!& JG, +a*/ .

Cear*%e!* # s"$&a*r", !&vers&*" # alr!&a, a! C&eg#, $##l #e&&!e, A.

#!e*uall"-r&ve! &!ves*&ga*!s #! *$e #*e!*&all" %#&&a&*$ !e>l"-&ag!#se a!er %a" a&l&*a*e*$e &e!*&&a*! # e&a*r& a!er a*&e!*s a* r&s@ #r %alaus*%e!* ur&!g*$e r##u! avers&*" ass#&a*e >&*$ *$&s l&e-*$rea*e!&!g &sease a!avers&ve #r@, ere&ve s*ress a! s#&al su#r* >ere &!ves*&ga*e #!urre!*l"a! r#se*&vel" >&*$&! a! el#ra*#r" es&g! as re&*#rs # !ega*&veae*&v&*" (a!&e*" a! eress&ve s"%*#%s #%#s&*e #!s*ru*) &!!e>l"-&ag!#se e&a*r& a!er a*&e!*s a* ?&%e 1 (>&*$&! #!e %#!*$ a*er&ag!#s&s), ?&%e 2 (6 %#!*$s #s*&ag!#s&s), a! ?&%e 3 (9 %#!*$s#s*&ag!#s&s). H&erar$&al %ul*&le regress! a!al"s&s &!&!gs &!&a*e *$a*ere&ve s*ress a! s#&al su#r* $ave &re* a! &!ee!e!* ee*s #!

!ega*&ve ae*&v&*" r&!&all" a* *$e 9-%#!*$ *&%e &!*erval. ?$ese &!&!gsare &susse &! *er%s # *$e #g!&*&ve-


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l&!&al s"$#l#g&s*s, *$ere are %a!" , ?u*#r&al

C: 9420357 Duee! (! M 23). ?$e %e*$#s use >ere ues*!!a&resa! &!*erv&e>s. ?$e %ul*&-leaers$& ues*!!a&re earl&er evel#e


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use as a &*$ra>! res$##lers ase.

Ea're!&ere J, aua!# '.

Cear*%e!* # s"$#l#g", !&vers&*" # a&!e, r#!# 00469, A.e*erlaa&!e.a&!e.u

A! &!&a*e reve!*&ve &!*erve!*! resear$ r#gra% &!*egra*&!g a**a$%e!*,

a**r&&*$ra>! res$##l $&lre! a! *$e&r%#*$ers >ere &v&e euall" &!*# *rea*%e!* a! #!*r#l gr#us, a! assesse #!%a*er!al sel-re#r* # are!*&!g s*ress, e s&g!&&a!* $a!ges &! *$e *rea*%e!* # gr#u: %#*$ers &! *$e*rea*%e!* gr#u %#era*e *$e&r level # #!*r#l *# a %#re ar#r&a*e, less&!*rus&ve level, >$&le $&lre! &! *$e *rea*%e!* gr#u s$#>e a! &!rease &!##era*! a! e!*$us&as% ur&!g a r#&*$ %#*$er.?ea$er-ra*e s#&al #%e*e!e a! a!us->&*$ra>!


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eress!, a! #!e #ula*!- Rev&e>, ?u*#r&al

C: 9307614 Du


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Ce* # A!*$r##l#g" a! Ar$ae#l#g", !&vers&*" # #u*$ Ar&a, re*#r&a,#u*$ Ar&a.

*ree* $&lre! &! #u*$ Ar&a are, &! *$e %a&!, ee! *$e ages # 11 a! 17"ears. Rae, r#s*&*u*!, seual ere el&&*e &! #us gr#u &suss!s. A* *$e *&%e # *$es*u", 79 elare#rga!&sa*!s, >$&le 62 #rl. 'ear # H &!e*! & !#* aear &! al&s* # a"-*#-a" rr&*&es #!s*ru*e &*$ ##, %#!e" a! l#*$es. H#>ever, %#re *$a! $al # *$e&*$ Ig&rlr&e!sI, >$# *$e%selves reue!*l" e!gage &! *ra!sa*!al se. ?$e&!&!gs are &!*erre*e &! *er%s # *$e rela*!s$&s ee! #>er "!a%&s

surr#u!&!g rae a! age, a! $#> *$e" ae* sel-&!&*&a*e #!*r#ls #verseual&*" a! seual r#*e*!.

C: 9255928 Du#%e!=sra*&e # #r@ >as aa*e r#% *$e#g!&*&ve ?ra!sa*!al #el # *ress a! #&!g a! *$e Heal*$ Bel&e #el.?$e #!ve!&e!e sa%le #!s&s*e # 269 >#%e! reru&*e r#% a! e%l#"ee l&s* #a %e&al e!*er a! a %e%ere a!al"/e v&a AAs, AAs, a! $&erar$&alregress!. Resul*s &!&a*e *$a* #&!g s*"le re&*e B ra*&e (&.e.,r#&&e!", reue!") a! $eal*$


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Cear*%e!* # s"$&a*r", #r*$ $#re !&vers&*" H#s&*al- $##l #e&&!e, a!$asse* 11030, A.

BJ?: ?$e ra*e # su&&e a**e%*s a! *$e e#sure *# r&s@ a*#rs #rsu&&e &! a! u!sele*e sa%le # #!&r%e ases # $"s&all" aere use &! *$e assess%e!* # s"$#a*$#l#g" # a#lese!*s a!*$e&r are!*s RE?: ?$e r##r*! # a#lese!*s a**e%*&!g su&&e & !#*&er #r *$e *># gr#us. H#>ever, *$e ae s&g!&&a!*l"grea*er e#sure *# r&s@ a*#rs #r a#lese!* su&&e, &!lu&!g a%&l"&s&!*egra*!, a! &ag!#ses # eress!, &sru*&ve e*$a* *$e #ll#>&!g a*#rs >ere ass#&a*e >&*$ s&g!&&a!*l" grea*er r&s@ #rsu&&e a**e%*s: a#lese!*s= ere*!s # *$e&r a%&l&es as la@&!g#$es&ve!ess a! %a*er!al su#r*, $&g$er a#lese!* I$#s*&l&*"I &ea*!s#res, a#lese!* &ag!#ses # &sru*&ve &s#rers a! #!u* &s#rers,

a#lese!* su


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&!lue!e # leaers$& s*"le as >ell as e%#>er%e!* #! var"&!g lass&&a*!s# !urs&!g ers#!!el %a" a, #>a &*" 52242, A.

?$e rese!* s*u" #%are a%#r@&!g a" a! als# #%le*e %easures # ere&ve s#&al

su#r*, a&l" &!*erers#!al s*ress, a! $eal*$


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rela*!s$&s *$a* e&s* &! a%&l&es # $&lre! >&*$ CC a! u!ers#re *$e&%#r*a!e # a%&l" s"s*e%s #r #r@ 13244-2340, A.

Rev&e>e *$e *ra!sa*!al %#el as al&e *# *$e a%&l" #!*e* # e&a*r&s"$#l#g". A *$ree-ar* seue!e # $&l e&g$* re%a*ure &!a!*s a! a! a#lese!* reerre #r reea*e$#s&*al&/a*!s ue *# &aere rese!*e *# &llus*ra*e *$e%#el. u&el&!es #r *$e ra*&&!g e&a*r& s"$#l#g&s* are rese!*e *#assess a%&l" #rga!&/a*! *$r#ug$ a%&l" r&*uals a! a%&l" %ea!&!g-%a@&!g &!*$e *ell&!g # a%&l" s*#r&es.

u


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Asser*! *ra&!&!g *$era" &! s"$&a*r& %&l&eus.

As$e! R.

!&a!a !&vers&*" e&al e!*er, !&a!a#l&s, A.

?$e urre!* &!ves*&ga*! &!v#lve a! a**e%* *# evel# a l&!&al r#eure *#erease a!&e*" a! &!rease res#!s&ve!ess (asser*!) # s"$&a*r&&!a*&e!*s # &er", Ce #!*#r* !&vers&*", Ee&es*er.

?$ree %#els # s*ress-*$e s*&%ulus %#el, *$e res#!se %#el a! *$e#g!&*&ve-$e!#%e!#l#g&al-*ra!sa*!al (?) %#el-$ave


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Rela*&ves= eresse e%#*! a! !#!-verars a s$&/#$re!& a%&l"%e% a%&l" a**&*ues ev#lve ur&!g *$e #urse# a rela*&ves= s$&/#$re!& &s#rer.

C: 9068777 Due &suss *$e#re*&al a! #!e*ual %#els *$a* use a!#rga!&s%& #r s"s*e%s %e*a$#r #r u!ers*a!&!g a%&l&es. Ge sugges* *$a* su$*$e#r&es are &%#r*a!* #r s*&%ula*&!g !e> resear$ a! #rga!&/&!g e&s*&!ga*a, a! *$a* ava!es &! *$ese *$e#r&es #ver *$e as* e> eaes $aveea!e *$e #*e!*&al #r u!ers*a!&!g $&l evel#%e!*, as >ell as aul*aa*a*! a! *$e evel#%e!* # l#se rela*!s$&s. ?$ese ara&g%s #ll#>r#% %#els *$a* v&e> evel#%e!* as resul*&!g r#% *$e *ra!sa*!al regula*#r"r#esses # "!a%& s"s*e%s. u$ %#els are $elul #r #!s&er&!g %ul*&le&!lue!es #! evel#%e!* a! aa*a*! a! $ave &%l&a*!s #r *$e es&g! #ee*&ve &!*erve!*!s. Ge #us #! *$e se&&s # s"s*e%s *$e#r&es asal&e *# a%&l&es, a! *$e resear$ ge!era*e Rev&e>, ?u*#r&al

C: 9046561 Du


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239: J ers. 1996 Ce;64(4):959-91.

?$e %&s%easure # #&!g &*$ !a*urall" #urr&!g s*ress. ?$&s ar*&le rese!*s ar&*&al rev&e> # *$e #!e*ual a! %e*$##l#g&al &ssues &!v#lve &! *$e use# *$ese $e@l&s*s. As *$e" are urre!*l" e%l#"e, #!ve!*!al $e@l&s*sre!er a! &!#%le*e a! &s*#r*e #r*ra&* # #&!g. e&&all", *$ese$e@l&s*s are gr#u!e &! *## !arr#> a #!e*! # #&!g; *$e al&a*!a! &!*erre*a*! # $e@l&s*s &! *$e *"&al s*u" are !#* a&*$ul *# a*ra!sa*!al %#el # s*ress a! #&!g; s*a*&s*&al #!*r#ls a!!#* el&%&!a*e*$e ee*s # @e" ers#! a! s&*ua*! var&aa, #>a &*" 52242, A.

?$&s ar*&le &!*r#ues *$e J#ur!al # ers#!al&*"=s se&al &ssue #! #&!g a!ers#!al&*". * &rs* rese!*s a $&s*#r&al #verv&e> # *$e s"$#l#g&al s*u"# $#> e#le #e >&*$ s*ress a! &e!*&&es *$ree ge!era*!s # *$e#r" a!resear$: (a) *$e s"$#a!al"s*s a! *$e eg# evel#%e!* s$##l, >$&$ *e!e *#eua*e ers#!al&*" a! #&!g s*ra*eg&es; ($&$aeare &! *$e 1960s a! e%$as&/e s&*ua*!al a! #g!&*&ve &!lue!es #!#&!g >$&le #>!la"&!g *$e r#le # &!&v&ual &ere!es; a! () *$e %#s*ree!*, I*$&r ge!era*!,I >$#se >#r@ &s rerese!*e &! *$&s se&al &ssue a!

#uses #! *$e r#le # ers#!al&*" &! #&!g >$&le %a&!*a&!&!g s*r#!g#era*!al &s*&!*!s a%#!g #&!g, ers#!al&*", ara&sal, a! aa*a*!al#u*#%es. ?$&s &!*r#u*! #!lues >&*$ a &suss! # u!res#lve #!e*uala! %e*$##l#g&al &ssues a! a &! *$&s se&al &ssue.

u


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?$e G#l a!=s a!al"s&s--a! &!*era*!al erse*&ve.

C#ra* ?E.

ea**le !s*&*u*e #r s"$#a!al"s&s, A.

C: 8994267 Du a*$>a"s # r# # *$e !eur#$"sl#g&all&*era*ure er*&!e!* *# &re* &!*erre*a*! sugges*s rea%s are sus*a&!e !eur#s"$#l#g" #rea%s rea&r%s *$e e!*ral r#le # rea%s &! *$e #rga!&/a*! # ae*,

e%#*!, &!*e!*!, a! ge!eral aa*a*!.

u # *$e l&*era*ure.

*ae@ J?,


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$u!re *>e!*"-#!e a#lese!* %ales r#% e> #u*$ Gales, Aus*ral&a, >$# >ereurre!*l" #%e*&!g &! *ea% s#r*s &!&a*e *$e&r usual res#!ses *# ea$ # 8au*e s*ress#rs #%%#!l" eer&e!e &! s#r*, us&!g a 128-&*e% &!ve!*#r". ?$erel&aas $&g$ (.87). ?$e rese!* resul*sar*&all" su#r* *$e #!s*ru* # #&!g s*"le a%#!g a#lese!*-age s#r*s#%e*&*#rs.

C: 8758614 Du&*$ %"sel as a !urseF

DAr*&le &! er%a!F

E#&ll all#> !urses *# a!al"se a!aus* *$e&r s@&lls *# #%%u!&a*e %#re ee*&vel".

C: 8716935 Du


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e*erse! JR, %&*$ , @#r#uu A,

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