training manual on rule of law [prepared for afghanistan]

8/10/2019 Training manual on rule of law [prepared for Afghanistan]

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BAR HUMAN RIGHTS COMMITTEEOF ENGLAND AND WALES

Training Manualon Rule of Law

Afghani !anA"ril #$$%


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION1

CHAPTER I: RIGHTS IN INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW

A. Internationa H!"an Ri#$t% La&. ...'

B. En(or)e"ent Pro)e*!re% + Re"e*ie% (or Internationa La&...,

C. Re#iona Treatie% an* Monitorin# Bo*ie%.1'

D. Ri#$t% in t$e A(#$an Con%tit!tion..1-

CHAPTER II: CONFLICTS IN LEGAL S STEMS

A. Priorit/ o( Bi o( Ri#$t% 0 Co" arati2e Con%tit!tiona La&..13

B. Le#a P !ra i%"........1,

C. Le#a P !ra i%" in A(#$ani%tan..'4

CHAPTER III: WOMEN AND CHILD RIGHTS

A. Internationa La& on t$e Ri#$t% o( Wo"en..''

B. Internationa La& on t$e Ri#$t% o( t$e C$i *'3

C. H!"an Ri#$t% I%%!e% Con)ernin# Wo"en an* C$i *ren.',

CHAPTER I5: RULE OF LAW ISSUES

A. Se aration o( Po&er% an* 6!*i)ia In*e en*en)e.7-

B. Co*e o( Et$i)% 0 E8 erien)e (ro" A9roa*7

C. De2e o "ent o( A(#$an Le#a Se)tor.-4


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CHAPTER 5: ADMINISTRATION OF 6USTICE

A. Fair Tria Pro)e*!re....-'

B. A ternati2e Met$o*% o( Di% !te Re%o !tion...-

C. A(#$an Met$o*% o( A ternati2e Di% !te Re%o !tion.;4

BIBLIOGRAPH ..;-


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INTRODUCTION

The Bar Hu&an Righ! Co&&i!!eeof Englan' an' Wale (BHRC) i!he in!erna!ional hu&an righ!ar& of !he Bar of Englan' an'

Wale * I! i an in'e"en'en! +o',"ri&aril, -on-erne' wi!h !he"ro!e-!ion of !he righ! of

a'.o-a!e an' /u'ge aroun' !heworl'* I! i al o -on-erne' wi!h

'efen'ing !he rule of law an'in!erna!ionall, re-ogni e' legal!an'ar' rela!ing !o !he righ! !o

a fair !rial* The re&i! of !he BHRCe0!en' !o all -oun!rie of !he

worl'1 a"ar! fro& i! own /uri 'i-!ion of Englan' 2 Wale *The BHRC was set up by a group of barristers in 1991. The Committee has a Chair,Vice-Chair, Treasurer and an !ecuti"e Committee which meets month#y. The

princip#e ob$ecti"es of the BHRC are%

The support and protection of practising #awyers and $udges whoare threatened or oppressed in their wor& 'pho#ding the ru#e of #aw and internationa##y recognised humanrights standards


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(d"ising, supporting and co-operating with other organisationsand indi"idua#s wor&ing for human rights)urthering interest in and &now#edge of human rights and the #awsre#ating to human rights(d"ising the *enera# Counci# of the Bar of ng#and + a#es in

connection with any human rights issue

n this pro$ect, the BHRC has wor&ed in con$unction with%

T$e A(#$ani%tan In*e en*ent H!"an Ri#$t% Co""i%%ion A(#$ani%tan

The ( HRC was estab#ished for the promotion and protection of human rightsaccording to the Bonn (greement, /aris /rincip#es and on the basis of the nterim(dministration on 0 une 2332. The ( HRC is a nationa# human rights organisation

whose recognition is ref#ected in (rtic#e 45 of the (fghan Constitution, 2336.

This pro$ect has been funded by%

T$e Forei#n an* Co""on&ea t$ O((i)e U?

The FCO "ro&o!e U3 in!ere !a+roa' an' wor4 wi!h

in!erna!ional +o'ie !o u""or! a!rong worl' -o&&uni!,* The FCOi re "on i+le for !he -on'u-! of

+u ine wi!h o!her go.ern&en!

an' in!erna!ional organi a!ion *

CH(/T R % R *HT7 8 8T R8(T 8( + : ; 7T C (


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A. Internationa H!"an Ri#$t% La&

1. Intro*!)tion: H!"an Ri#$t% La& an* t$e Unite* Nation%

Human rights #aw dea#s with the re#ationship between those who go"ern and those

who are go"erned. The foundations of internationa# human rights #aw #ie in estern

po#itica# thought and "a#ues, as we## as natura# #aw princip#es and po#itica# theories

dating bac& to the )rench and (merican Re"o#utions, though its "a#ues and princip#es

can be identified in other cu#tures. 1

(fter the 7econd or#d ar, human rights #aw was codified and formed part of an

internationa# #ega# order within the 'nited 8ations. n 26 ctober 1964 the 'nited

8ations a## members

1 7ee genera##y% 7teiner, H. . and (ston, /., International Human Rights in Context. Law Politics and

Morals . 7econd dition < !ford% !ford 'ni"ersity /ress, 2333=.2 )or fu## te!t, see% http% www.un.org aboutun charter


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p#edge themse#"es to ta&e $oint and separate action in co-operation with the

rganisation for the achie"ement of purposes set forth in (rtic#e 44 .

(rtic#es 44 and 40 were gi"en content through the adoption of the 'ni"ersa#

:ec#aration of Human Rights


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All For& of Ra-ial Di -ri&ina!ion

(CERD)1 !he Con.en!ion Again !

Tor!ure an' o!her Cruel1 Inhu&an

or Degra'ing Trea!&en! or

7uni h&en! (CAT)1 !he Con.en!ion

on !he Eli&ina!ion of All For& of

Di -ri&ina!ion again ! Wo&en

(CEDAW) an' Con.en!ion on !he

Righ! of !he Chil' (CRC)* The e

are a&ong !he &o ! i&"or!an! of

!he in!erna!ional hu&an righ!

!rea!ie whi-h Afghani !an ha

ra!ifie'*


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The ':HR ,6 proc#aimed by the *enera# (ssemb#y in 1965, does not impose #ega#

ob#igations on 7tates, but estab#ishes goa#s for 7tates to wor& towards. ;any of its

pro"isions are now wide#y accepted as customary internationa# #aw.

t sets out basic rights and freedoms to which a## women and men are entit#ed, such as

the right to #ife, #iberty and nationa#ity, the right to freedom of thought, conscience

and re#igion, the right to wor& and to be educated, the right to food and housing, the

right to ta&e part in go"ernment and the right not to be discriminated against on the

grounds of race, co#our, se!, #anguage, re#igion, po#itica# or other opinion, nationa# or

socia# origin, property birth or other status.

Afghanistan recognises the UDHR in Article 7 of the 2004 Constitution

through its commitment to abide by the UDHR and other international

treaties and conventions to which Afghanistan is a arty!


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(rtic#es 25-64


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http% www.un.org a" photo sub$ects images 1691@6.$pgThe Committee on conomic,

7ocia# and Cu#tura# Rights monitors imp#ementation of the C 7CR.

Afghanistan rati ed the ICESCR on 24 April 1983.


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B. En(or)e"ent Pro)e*!re% + Re"e*ie% (or Internationa La&

1. Intro*!)tion

ach '8 human rights treaty body consists of a committee of independent e!perts

that monitors the imp#ementation of that human rights treaty. These Committees are

created in accordance with the pro"isions of the treaty that they monitor. They

perform a number of functions in accordance with the pro"isions of the treaties that

created them, which inc#ude%

Con%i*eration o( State artie% re ort% Con%i*eration o( in*i2i*!a )o" aint% or )o""!ni)ation%

Con%i*eration o( inter@%tate )o" aint% or )o""!ni)ation%

P!9 i)ation o( Genera Co""ent%

(## the Committees issue *enera# Comments or Recommendations, which pro"ide

authoritati"e interpretations of the re#e"ant con"ention. The Committees are not

$udicia# bodies, at best they are Euasi-$udicia#. n a## cases, Conc#uding Comments to

statesD reports, opinions in response to indi"idua# comp#aints and *enera# Comments

and Recommendations made by "arious Committees are non-binding and

recommendatory on#y. ffecti"e#y, the '8 human rights system constitutes soft #aw

as it is not direct#y enforceab#e in courts but nonethe#ess has an impact on

internationa# re#ations and internationa# #aw.

(n a#ternati"e method of reporting to the committees e!ists through shadow reporting

by 8* s and others. The shadow report pro"ides an effecti"e means for groups other

than the 7tate to critiEue or supp#ement information in the officia# state report. This

a#ternati"e reporting mechanism ho#ds go"ernments accountab#e to their citiAens and

the '8 and is considered as important as the report content itse#f. 8* s from

different countries ha"e de"e#oped a#ternati"e reports to the officia# state report.

'. Unite* Nation%: H!"an Ri#$t% Treat/ Bo*ie%


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prob#ems reEuiring immediate attention to pre"ent or #imit the sca#e or number of

serious "io#ations of the Con"ention.


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7ubmission of Reports I (rtic#e 66

C. Re#iona H!"an Ri#$t% Treatie% an* Monitorin# Bo*ie%

1. Intro*!)tion

n addition to the '8 mechanisms for imp#ementing human rights, regiona# human

rights treaties operate in (frica, the (mericas and urope. The rights protected by

these treaties deri"e from, and are simi#ar to, those of the nternationa# Bi## of Human

Rights. ach of the regiona# treaties has de"e#oped its own uniEue approaches to

see&ing assurance that the rights are put into practice through enforcement in nationa#courts. The three main regiona# treaties on human rights are the (frican Charter on

Human and /eop#esD Rights


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democracy and human rights and embodies the go"ernmentDs duty to respect human

rights.

(rtic#e on nternationa# aw stipu#ates that%

The state sha## abide by the '8 charter, internationa# treaties, internationa#

con"entions that (fghanistan has signed, and the 'ni"ersa# :ec#aration of

Human Rights.

The new -on !i!u!ion in-lu'e

+a i- righ! for all of

Afghani !an6 -i!i8en in Cha"!er

II 9 5Fun'a&en!al Righ! an'

Du!ie of Ci!i8en 6 (Ar!i-le ##9:;)* The Cha"!er in-lu'e !he

righ! !o e


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"rohi+i!ion of for-e' la+our1

fa&il,*

Ar!i-le := of !he -on !i!u!ion

e !a+li he !he In'e"en'en!

Hu&an Righ! Co&&i ion of

Afghani !an for !he "ur"o e of

&oni!oring1 "ro&o!ing an'

"ro!e-!ing hu&an righ! inAfghani !an* The Ar!i-le "er&i!

an, in'i.i'ual who +elie.e !heir

fun'a&en!al righ! ha.e +een

.iola!e' !o file a -o&"lain! !o !he

Co&&i ion* Following !hi 1 !he

Co&&i ion -an refer -a e of


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.iola!ion of hu&an righ! !o !he

legal au!hori!ie 1 an' a i ! in

'efen'ing !he righ! of !he

-o&"lainan!*

CHAPTER II: CONFLICTS IN LEGAL S STEMS

A. Priorit/ o( Bi o( Ri#$t% 0 Co" arati2e Con%tit!tiona La&

1. Intro*!)tion: Con%tit!tiona a&

Constitutiona# #aw concerns how our ru#ers are chosen, ca##ed to account and

remo"ed, and the rights of the indi"idua# against our ru#ers. ( constitution pro"ides a

framewor& of ru#es and princip#es that define the nature and e!tent of go"ernment.

;ost constitutions see& to regu#ate the re#ationship between institutions of the state,

name#y the re#ationship between the e!ecuti"e, #egis#ature and the $udiciary, as we## as

the re#ationship of institutions within those branches. ;ost constitutions a#so attempt

to define the re#ationship between indi"idua#s and the state, and to estab#ish the broad

rights of indi"idua# citiAens. Therefore, constitutiona# #aw is concerned with conf#icts

both between different groups strugg#ing for power and between those in power and

indi"idua#s. The #ega# and po#itica# aspects of a constitution are interre#ated and both

are concerned with idea#s of fairness and $ustice. 15

A &ritten )on%tit!tion i% a %in# e *o)!"ent t$at )ontain% t$e "ain )on%tit!tiona

rin)i e% #o2ernin# t$e %tate an* i% )on%i*ere* t$e $i#$e%t a!t$orit/ in t$e an*.

Sin)e t$e Fren)$ Re2o !tion in 1 , a "o%t e2er/ nation $a% a*o te* a &ritten

15 7ee genera##y% (#der, ., Constitutional and Administrative Law


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)on%tit!tion> &$i)$ in "o%t in%tan)e% $a% "ar e* a ne& e2ent> %!)$ a%

in*e en*en)e (ro" )o onia %tat!%. T$e Unite* ?in#*o" i% an e8)e tion to t$i%

nor" in not $a2in# a &ritten )on%tit!tion. Co!ntrie% in So!t$ A%ia t$at $a2e a

&ritten )on%tit!tion in) !*e> A(#$ani%tan> In*ia an* Pa i%tan. T$e re ation%$i

9et&een internationa a& an* )on%tit!tion% 9e)o"e% e2i*ent in o%t@)o onia

%tate%> in t$e re#ion% o( A(ri)a> A%ia an* t$e Mi** e Ea%t> &$ere t$e Uni2er%a

De) aration o( H!"an Ri#$t% $a% 2irt!a / 9een re i)ate* in t$e &ritten

)on%tit!tion%.

'. R! e o( La&

Con !i!u!ionali & &ean li&i!e'

go.ern&en! an' in-lu'e !he

i'ea of !he rule of law an' !he

e"ara!ion of "ower a &ean

of re !ri-!ing an' -on!rolling

go.ern&en!* The rule of law

e&"ha i e !he i&"or!an-e of

general rule a +in'ing on

-i!i8en an' go.ern&en! ali4e*


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The rule of law re


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"ower of !he go.ern&en!1

in-lu'ing !he "ower !o -hange

law * I! "re.en! ar+i!rar,

e0er-i e of !he e0e-u!i.e "ower1

"re er.e general an' &inori!,

righ! 1 an' "ro&o!e !a+ili!, an'

"re'i-!a+ili!,*

>* Se"ara!ion of 7ower

The e"ara!ion of "ower i a

&o'el for !he go.ernan-e of !he

!a!e an' re


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/u'i-iar,* Un'er !hi &o'el1 ea-h

+ran-h ha e"ara!e an'

in'e"en'en! "ower an' area of

re "on i+ili!,? howe.er1 ea-h

+ran-h of go.ern&en! houl' +e

-he-4e' o !ha! no one +o', -an

'o&ina!e !he o!her *

'nder the doctrine of the separation of powers, the e!ecuti"e is the branch of a

go"ernment charged with imp#ementing, or e!ecuting, the #aw and running the day-to-

day affairs of the state. t is usua##y the ro#e of the e!ecuti"e to enforce the #aw by

administering the prisons and the po#ice force, and prosecuting crimina#s in the name

of the state? to conduct the foreign re#ations of the state? to command the armed

forces? to appoint state officia#s, inc#uding $udges and dip#omats? to administer

go"ernment deprtments and pub#ic ser"ices? to issue e!ecuti"e orders, &nown as

secondary #egis#ation, ordinances or decrees. ;ost constitutions reEuire that certain

e!ecuti"e powers may on#y be e!ercised in con$unction with the #egis#ature.

( #egis#ature is a go"ernment de#iberati"e assemb#y with the power to adopt #aws. n

par#iamentary systems of go"ernment, the #egis#ature is forma##y supreme and

appoints the e!ecuti"e. n presidentia# systems of go"ernment, the #egis#ature is

considered a power branch which is eEua# to, and independent of, the e!ecuti"e. The

#egis#ature enacts #aws and the consent of the #egis#ature is a#so often reEuired to ratify

treaties and dec#are war.


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go.ern&en! 1 +u! i! i -o&&on for

!he -our! 6 a-!ion !o rule a law

unenfor-ea+le* Thu 1 a

-on !i!u!ional -our! "la, a .i!al

role in "ro!e-!ing hu&an righ!

an' affir&ing 'e&o-ra!i- .alue

of hu&an 'igni!,1 e


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interact with each other and are most e"ident in contemporary mu#ti-ethnic and mu#ti-

re#igious societies. 19

urists ha"e said that the $urisprudence of any contemporary society cannot be

identified as a unified system. The 7tate cannot contro# the who#e of the #aw, as

cu#tura# and socia# aspects of #ega# princip#es are not capab#e of outside contro#.

These cu#tura# practices continue to e"o#"e and de"e#op separate from the state. The

tota#ity of the #aw is p#ura#, consisting of different systems of #aws interacting with

one another harmonious#y as we## as creating conf#ict scenario. These cu#tura#

di"ersities operate at three #e"e#s, name#y officia# #aws, unofficia# #aws and #ega#

postu#ates.

'. O((i)ia a&%> !no((i)ia a&% an* e#a o%t! ate%

O((i)ia a&% are %an)tione* 9/ t$e e#iti"ate a!t$orit/ o( t$e )o!ntr/ an* are

o(ten re(erre* to a% 9 a) etter a&. Et$ni)> )! t!ra an* re i#io!% ra)ti)e% are

re( e)te* in non@o((i)ia a&% t$at are not e8 i)it / %an)tione* 9/ t$e %tate.

Ne2ert$e e%%> t$e%e a&% o erate on t$eir o&n> e2en in( !en)in# t$e (or"! ation

o( o((i)ia %tate a&%.

T$o!#$ !no((i)ia a&% o erate* &it$o!t t$e a ro2a o( t$e a!t$oritie%> t$e/ are

%an)tione* 9/ t$e #enera )on%en%!% o( eo e &$o ra)ti%e t$e". T$i% #enera

)on%en%!% "a/ )on%)io!% / or !n)on%)io!% / 9e o9%er2e* an* it "a/ in( !en)e>

)$an#e or !n*er"ine %tate a&%.

T$e ro e o( e#a o%t! ate% i% )o" e"entar/ an* 9a%e* ! on a 2a !e %/%te"% e)i(i)a / )onne)te* &it$ arti)! ar o((i)ia or !no((i)ia a&% an* )on%i%t% o(

e%ta9 i%$e* e#a rin)i e% %!)$ a% nat!ra !%ti)e> "ora it/ an* e !it/. T$e/

re ate arti)! ar / to iti#ation> en)o!ra#in# in*i2i*!a % to %ett e t$eir *i% !te% in

a )! t!ra )onte8t> o%%i9 / o!t%i*e o((i)ia )o!rt%.

19 7ee genera##y% ens1i .! )! Comparative Law in a Global Context 3 ondon5$latinum $ublishing imited 20006!


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C. Le#a P !ra i%" in A(#$ani%tan

1. Intro*!)tion: So!r)e% o( La&

(#though the officia# sources of #aw in (fghanistan are state #aw and Sharia < s#amic

#aw=, customary #aw has contributed to the maintenance of socia# order in (fghan

society. 23

Sharia deri"es its authority from di"ine sources. The sources of s#amic #aw are% 1=

Quran , 2= Sunnah


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n the ear#y twentieth century, the state conso#idated Sharia #aw mp#ementation of the pro"isions of this constitution and other #aws, defending

independence, nationa# so"ereignty, territoria# integrity, and ensuring the security and

defense capabi#ity of the country, are the basic duties of the state.

The re#ationship between nationa# #aws and internationa# #aws becomes apparent in

the stateDs commitment to abide by the '8 Charter, the 'ni"ersa# :ec#aration of

Human Rights and other internationa# treaties and con"entions that it has signed.

CHAPTER III: WOMEN AND CHILD RIGHTS

A. Internationa La& on Ri#$t% o( Wo"en


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A* In!ro'u-!ion

In!erna!ional hu&an righ! law

re-ogni e !he righ! of wo&en !o

e


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e&"ha i on !he hu&an righ! of

wo&en* #

Howe.er1 'ue !o !he e&ergen-e of

"a!!ern of 'i -ri&ina!ion again !

wo&en1 in &an, "ar! of !he

worl'1 i! wa fel! !ha! wo&en

were in uffi-ien!l, guaran!ee'

!he en/o,&en! of !heir

in!erna!ionall, agree' righ! *

Sin-e i! e !a+li h&en!1 !he

Co&&i ion on !he S!a!u of

Wo&en (CSW) ## ha ough! !o

21 7ee genera##y% Char#esworth, H. and Chin&in, C., %he &oundaries o" international law. A "eminist anal!sis


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'efine an' ela+ora!e !he general

guaran!ee of non9'i -ri&ina!ion

in in !ru&en! !ha! fo-u on

wo&en6 righ! fro& a gen'er

"er "e-!i.e* The wor4 of CSW

ha re ul!e' in a nu&+er of

i&"or!an! 'e-lara!ion an'

-on.en!ion !ha! "ro!e-! an'

"ro&o!e !he hu&an righ! of

wo&en*

Mo ! i&"or!an!l,1 in!erna!ional

in !ru&en! !ha! fo-u

"e-ifi-all, on !he righ! of

wo&en an' in-lu'e


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Con"ention on the #imination of (## )orms of :iscrimination against omen

19 9


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stab#ishing #ega# protection of the eEua# rights of women with men and

ensuring the effecti"e protection of women against any act of discrimination

through competent nationa# tribuna#s and pub#ic institutions?

/rohibiting a## discrimination against women by adopting appropriate#egis#ati"e and other measures, inc#uding sanctions?

Refraining from engaging in discrimination against women by its pub#ic

authorities and institutions?

#iminating discrimination against women by any person, organisation or

enterprise?

;odifying or abo#ishing e!isting #aws, regu#ations, customs and practices that

constitute discrimination against women? Repea#ing a## nationa# pena# pro"isions that constitute discrimination against

women.

(rtic#e @ co"ers discrimination in the po#itica#, socia#, economic and cu#tura# fie#ds.

(rtic#e 6 proposes the adoption by state parties of Gtemporary specia# measuresD to

acce#erate eEua#ity between men and women? these measures sha## be discontinued

when the ob$ecti"es of eEua#ity of opportunity and treatment ha"e been achie"ed.

(rtic#e 4 reEuires states to ta&e appropriate measures to modify socia# and cu#tura#

practices with a "iew to e#iminating pre$udice and practices based on the inferiority of

one se! o"er the other. (rtic#e 0 refers to states ta&ing appropriate measures to

suppress traffic&ing in women and the e!p#oitation of prostitution of women.

ther artic#es in the Con"ention identify areas where states must wor& to e#iminate

discrimination, these are%

/o#itica# and pub#ic #ife I (rtic#e

nternationa# organisations I (rtic#e 5

8ationa#ity I (rtic#e 9

ducation - (rtic#e 13

mp#oyment I (rtic#e 11

Hea#thcare I (rtic#e 12


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)ami#y benefits I (rtic#e 1@


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O"!ional 7ro!o-ol in ul, #$$@ in

regar' !o Me0i-o*

B. Internationa La& on Ri#$t% o( t$e C$i *

1. Intro*!)tion

Hu&an righ! a""l, !o all agegrou" an' -hil'ren ha.e !he

a&e general hu&an righ! a

a'ul! * Howe.er1 a -hil'ren are

-on i'ere' "ar!i-ularl,

.ulnera+le1 in a''i!ion !o

generall, re-ogni e' in!erna!ional

hu&an righ! 1 !he, al o ha.e

"ar!i-ular righ! !ha! re-ogni e

!heir "e-ial nee' for "ro!e-!ion* #>

2@ 7ee genera##y% Van Bueren, *., %he International Law on the Rights o" the Child


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The recognition of chi#drenDs rights in internationa# human rights #aw is a historic

de"e#opment. The internationa# community has adopted standards on rights of the

chi#d that ref#ect a "ariety of cu#tura# traditions. n doing so, it has high#ighted its

commitment to chi#dren and raised their "isibi#ity in internationa# and dip#omatic

arenas.

( number of internationa# instruments focus specifica##y on the rights of the chi#d and

inc#ude%

Con"ention on the Rights of the Chi#d 1959

ptiona# /rotoco# to the CRC on the n"o#"ement of Chi#dren in (rmed

Conf#ict 2333

ptiona# /rotoco# to the CRC on the 7a#e of Chi#dren, Chi#d /rostitution and

Chi#d /ornography 2333

'. CRC 1, ,

In ;=; !he UN General A e&+l,

a'o"!e' !he CRC* The CRC ha

+een ra!ifie' +, ;# !a!e (!he

&o ! of an, hu&an righ! !rea!,)an' i -on i'ere' !he &o !

-o&"rehen i.e ingle !rea!, in

!he hu&an righ! fiel'*


43/85

Afghani !an ra!ifie' !he CRC on

# A"ril ;;@ an' u"on igna!ure

en!ere' !he following 'e-lara!ion

De-lara!ion

>The *o"ernment of the Repub#ic of (fghanistan reser"es the right to e!press,

upon ratifying the Con"ention, reser"ations on a## pro"isions of the Con"ention

that are incompatib#e with the #aws of s#amic 7haria and the #oca# #egis#ation in

effect. 26

The Con.en!ion -o.er all !he

!ra'i!ionall, 'efine' area of

hu&an righ! 1 na&el, -i.il1

"oli!i-al1 e-ono&i-al1 -ul!ural an'

o-ial righ! 1 an' i -on-erne'

wi!h four 76 /articipation I of chi#dren in decisions affecting their own destiny?

26 http% www.ohchr.org eng#ish countries ratification 11.htm


44/85

/rotection I of chi#dren against discrimination and a## forms of neg#ect and

e!p#oitation?

/re"ention I of harm to chi#dren?

/ro"ision I of assistance for their basic needs.

n app#ying internationa# standards to the rights of the chi#d, these four

comp#ementary approaches are a## eEua##y necessary when app#ied appropriate#y.

(rtic#e 1 states that the Con"ention app#ies to Ge"ery human being be#ow the age of

eighteen years un#ess, under the #aw app#icab#e to the chi#d, ma$ority is attained

ear#ierD. This p#aces the burden on the state to $ustify instances in which a #ower age#imit may be imposed.

(rtic#e 2 incorporates a non-discrimination pro"ision for state parties to respect and

ensure each chi#dDs rights set forth in the Con"ention without discrimination of any

&ind. )urther, state parties are as&ed to ta&e a## appropriate measures to ensure that

the chi#d is protected against a## forms of discrimination or punishment. (rtic#e @ is

fundamenta# to the who#e Con"ention in that it stipu#ates that the chi#dDs best interests

must be a Gprimary considerationD in a## actions concerning chi#dren.

(rtic#e 6 prescribes to states measures for the imp#ementation of Con"ention rights.

The artic#e e!p#icit#y mentions measures for the imp#ementation of economic, socia#

and cu#tura# rights, to the ma!imum e!tent of their a"ai#ab#e resources and, where

needed, within the framewor& of internationa# co-operation.

(rtic#e 4 focuses state partiesD attention towards the potentia# of the e!tended fami#y

and the community, together with parenta# responsibi#ities, rights and duties, to

pro"ide appropriate direction and guidance in the e!ercise by the chi#d of his or her

rights in a manner consistent with e"o#"ing capacities of the chi#d.

Ratifying the Con"ention entai#s re"iewing nationa# #egis#ation to ma&e sure it is in

#ine with the pro"isions of the treaty. The Con"ention stipu#ates, among other things,

that e"ery chi#d has the right to #ife, and that 7tates sha## ensure the ma!imum chi#d


45/85

sur"i"a# and de"e#opment. ) urther, states sha## ensure that each chi#d en$oys fu##

rights without discrimination or distinction of any &ind, and sha## ensure that chi#dren

shou#d not be separated from their parents, un#ess by competent authorities for their

we##-being. hen courts, we#fare institutions or administrati"e authorities dea# with

chi#dren, the best interests of the chi#d sha## be a primary consideration.

(#so according to the Con"ention, disab#ed chi#dren sha## ha"e the right to specia#

treatment, education and care. /rimary education sha## be free and compu#sory and

discip#ine in schoo# shou#d respect the chi#dDs dignity. Capita# punishment or #ife

imprisonment sha## not be imposed for crimes committed before the age of 15. 8o

chi#d under 14 shou#d ta&e any part in hosti#ities and chi#dren e!posed to armed

conf#ict sha## recei"e specia# protection. Chi#dren of minority and indigenous

popu#ations sha## free#y en$oy their own cu#tures, re#igions and #anguages.

bser"ance of the Con"ention by state parties is monitored through the submission of

periodic reports under (rtic#e 66 to the Committee on the Rights of the Chi#d. The

Committee ho#ds regu#ar meetings and o"ersees the progress made by state parties in

fu#fi##ing their ob#igations. t can ma&e suggestions and recommendations to

go"ernments and the *enera# (ssemb#y on ways to meet the Con"entionDs ob$ecti"es.

In Ma, #$$$1 !he General

A e&+l, a'o"!e' !wo O"!ional

7ro!o-ol !o !he Chil' Con.en!ion

on !he in.ol.e&en! of -hil'ren in

ar&e' -onfli-! an' on !he ale of

-hil'ren1 -hil' "ro !i!u!ion an'


46/85

-hil' "ornogra"h,* The O"!ional

7ro!o-ol en!ere' in!o for-e in

#$$# an' Afghani !an ra!ifie'

+o!h of !he e O"!ional 7ro!o-ol

in Se"!e&+er #$$>* #:

C. H!"an ri#$t% i%%!e% )on)ernin# &o"en an* )$i *ren

1. 5io en)e A#ain%t Wo"en

CEDAW onl, &a4e one referen-e

!o .iolen-e again ! wo&en

e0"li-i!l, in Ar!i-le %1 referring !o

!raffi-4ing in wo&en an' !he

e0"loi!a!ion of "ro !i!u!ion of

wo&en* Af!er !he Con.en!ion wa

a'o"!e'1 -oun!r, re"or!

24

)or fu## te!t of the ptiona# /rotoco#s to the CRC, see%http% www.ohchr.org eng#ish #aw crc-conf#ict.htm?http% www.ohchr.org eng#ish #aw crc-sa#e.htm


47/85

u+&i!!e' un'er Ar!i-le =1

!oge!her wi!h NGO u+&i ion 1

re.eale' !ha! .iolen-e again !

wo&en "re en!e' a -en!ral

o+ !a-le !o !he eli&ina!ion of

'i -ri&ina!ion again ! wo&en*

Ta4ing a--oun! of !hi i!ua!ion1

!he Co&&i!!ee on !he Eli&ina!ion

of All For& of Di -ri&ina!ion

again ! Wo&en a'o"!e' general

re-o&&en'a!ion ( #1 @1 ;)

un'er Ar!i-le # !ha! -learl,

!a!e' !ha! .iolen-e again !

wo&en fell wi!hin &eaning of

'i -ri&ina!ion again ! wo&en on


48/85

!he groun' of e01 a "ro.i'e' in

Ar!i-le of CEDAW* #%

/aragraph 1 of *enera# Recommendation 19 states that gender-based "io#ence is a

form of discrimination that serious#y inhibits a womenDs abi#ity to en$oy rights and

freedoms on the basis of eEua#ity with men. *ender-based "io#ence is defined as

>"io#ence that is directed against a woman because she is a woman or that affects

women disproportionate#y. 2

/aragraph out#ines the rights and freedoms affected, these inc#ude% the right to #ife?

the right not to be sub$ect to torture or to crue#, inhuman or degrading treatment or

punishment? the right to eEua# protection according to humanitarian norms in time of

internationa# or interna# armed conf#ict? the right to #iberty and security of the person?

the right to eEua# protection under the #aw? the right to eEua#ity in the fami#y? the right

to the highest standard attainab#e of physica# and menta# hea#th? the right to $ust and

fa"ourab#e conditions of wor&.

/aragraphs 5 and 9 high#ight the responsibi#ity of the state to e#iminate "io#ence

against women perpetrated by pub#ic authorities as we## as the stateDs responsibi#ity

for pri"ate acts in the fai#ure to e!ercise due di#igence to pre"ent such "io#ence.

n 199@, the '8 *enera# (ssemb#y adopted the :ec#aration on the #imination of

Vio#ence (gainst omen. The :ec#aration defines what constitutes "io#ence against

women and out#ines actions *o"ernments and communities shou#d ta&e to pre"ent

such acts.

(t the 199@ or#d Conference on Human Rights in Vienna, (ustria, womenDs rights

were reaffirmed as human rights. The Vienna Conference ca##ed for the appointment

of a 7pecia# Rapporteur on Vio#ence against omen by the '8 Commission on

20 Connors, ., G'nited 8ations approaches to Gcrimes of honourDD in ds. e#chman, . and Hossain,

7., 'Honour( Crimes, Paradigms and )iolence < ondon% Led Boo&s imited, 2334=.2 http% www.un.org womenwatch daw cedaw recommendations recomm.htmMrecom19


49/85

Human Rights. The Rapporteur reports his her findings on "io#ence against women to

the '8 Commission on Human Rights, and recommends the means and ways to

e#iminate it. 25

n 1994, at the )ourth or#d Conference in Bei$ing, the internationa# community

adopted the /#atform for (ction, 29 which estab#ished three strategic ob$ecti"es for

go"ernments to achie"e the e#imination of "io#ence against women%

ntegrated measures to pre"ent and e#iminate "io#ence against women?

The study of the causes and conseEuences of "io#ence against women, as we##

as the effecti"eness of pre"entati"e measures? and The e#imination of traffic&ing in women and the pro"ision of assistance to

"ictims of "io#ence due to prostitution.

For go.ern&en! !o a-hie.e !he e

o+/e-!i.e 1 i! i re-o&&en'e'

!ha! !he,

Condemn "io#ence against women?

!ercise due di#igence in its pre"ention, in"estigation and punishment whether

committed by pub#ic or pri"ate persons?

mp#ement e!isting internationa# standards and support internationa#

mechanisms?

(dopt and effecti"e#y imp#ement #ega# measures?

ntroduce or strengthen awareness-raising of "io#ence against women?

/ro"ide ser"ices and support for those affected by "io#ence.

'. For)e* an* C$i * Marria#e%

25 )or fu## te!t, see% http% www.unhchr.ch htm# menu4 wchr.htm29 )or fu## te!t, see% http% www.un.org womenwatch daw bei$ing p#atform dec#ar.htm


50/85

n 233@, the 7pecia# Rapporteur on Vio#ence (gainst omen identified ideo#ogies that

perpetuate cu#tura# practices that are "io#ent towards women, and stated >Chi#d

marriage, forced marriage and incest are additiona# forms of direct abuse that regu#ate

fema#e se!ua#ity. gnoring women and young gir#s as indi"idua#s capab#e of ma&ing

choices about their #i"es, these practices sub$ect many women to unwanted se! and

rape, thus destroying their #i"es and their #ife potentia# .@3

Wi!h regar' !o for-e' an' -hil'

&arriage 1 !he Co&&i!!ee on !he

Eli&ina!ion of Di -ri&ina!ion

Again ! Wo&en ha i ue'

General Re-o&&en'a!ion # on

5E


51/85

CEDAW Co&&i!!ee an' !he CRC

Co&&i!!ee ha.e no!e' !heir

-on-ern o.er 5-ri&e of honour61

whi-h in-lu'e for-e' an' -hil'

&arriage * The Hu&an Righ!

Co&&i!!ee6 General Co&&en! #=

e&"ha i e !ha! 5wo&en ha.e !he

righ! !o en!er in!o &arriage onl,

wi!h !heir free an' full -on en!6*

In in!erna!ional hu&an righ! law1

!he righ! of &en an' wo&en !o

&arr, an' foun' a fa&il, -an +e

foun' in Ar!i-le %( ) of !he

UDHR? Ar!i-le $( ) of !he


52/85

ICESCR? Ar!i-le #>(#) an' (>) of

!he ICC7R* The un'erl,ing

e&"ha i in !he e ar!i-le i !ha!

for a &an an' wo&an !o &arr,

an' e !a+li h a fa&il,1 !he, &u !

rea-h !he age of &a/ori!, an'

!he, &u ! en!er in!o a &arriage

wi!h free an' full -on en!*

CEDAW ou!line &ea ure for

!a!e "ar!ie !o eli&ina!e

'i -ri&ina!ion again ! wo&en

rela!ing !o &arriage an' fa&il,

rela!ion an' !o en ure !ha!

wo&en1 on !he +a i of e


53/85


54/85

The Reso#ution on the #imination of "io#ence against women, 233@, @6 identifies

"io#ence against women in the fami#y and at paragraph %

>7trong#y condemns physica#, se!ua# and psycho#ogica# "io#ence occurring in the

fami#y, which encompasses, but is not #imited to, battering, se!ua# abuse of women

and gir#s in the househo#d, dowry-re#ated "io#ence, marita# rape, fema#e infanticide,

fema#e genita# muti#ation, crimes committed against women in the name of honour,

crimes committed in the name of passion, traditiona# practices harmfu# to women,

incest, ear#y and forced marriages, non-spousa# "io#ence and "io#ence re#ated to

commercia# se!ua# e!p#oitation as we## as economic e!p#oitation.

The Reso#ution ca##s upon states to ta&e action at paragraph 16 stressing that%

>..7tates ha"e an affirmati"e duty to promote and protect the human rights of women

and gir#s and must e!ercise due di#igence to pre"ent, in"estigate and punish acts of a##

forms of "io#ence against women and gir#s, and ca##s upon 7tatesN.To condemn

"io#ence against women and not in"o&e custom, tradition or practices in the name of

re#igion or cu#ture to a"oid their ob#igations to e#iminate such "io#ence.

CHAPTER I5: RULE OF LAW ISSUES

A. Se aration o( Po&er% an* 6!*i)ia In*e en*en)e

1. Intro*!)tion

@6 )or fu## te!t, see% http% www.unhchr.ch Huridocda Huridoca.nsf


55/85

In !he &o'ern -on !i!u!ional

S!a!e1 !he "rin-i"le of an

in'e"en'en! /u'i-iar, ha i!

origin in !he !heor, of e"ara!ion

of "ower 1 where+, !he

e0e-u!i.e1 legi la!ure an'

/u'i-iar, for& !hree e"ara!e

+ran-he of go.ern&en!1 whi-h1

in "ar!i-ular1 -on !i!u!e a , !e&

of &u!ual -he-4 an' +alan-e

ai&e' a! "re.en!ing a+u e of

"ower !o !he 'e!ri&en! of a free

o-ie!,* Thi in'e"en'en-e

&ean !ha! +o!h !he /u'i-iar, a

an in !i!u!ion an' al o !he


56/85


57/85

( #ega# system based on respect for the ru#e of #aw a#so needs independent and

impartia# prosecutors wi##ing to in"estigate and prosecute suspected crimes committed

against human beings e"en if persons acting in an officia# capacity ha"e committed

them. 'n#ess $udges and prosecutors p#ay their respecti"e &ey ro#es to maintaining

$ustice in society, there is a serious ris& that a cu#ture of impunity wi## ta&e root,

thereby widening the gap between the genera# pub#ic and the authorities. f peop#e

encounter prob#ems in securing $ustice for themse#"es, they may be dri"en to ta&e the

#aw into their own hands, resu#ting in a further deterioration in the administration of

$ustice and, possib#y, new outbrea&s of "io#ence.

This #ega# system wou#d not be comp#ete without independent #awyers who are ab#e to

pursue their wor& free#y and without fear of reprisa#s. ndeed, independent #awyers

p#ay a &ey ro#e in defending human rights and fundamenta# freedoms at a## times, a

ro#e which, together with that p#ayed by independent and impartia# $udges and

prosecutors, is indispensab#e for ensuring that the ru#e of #aw pre"ai#s, and that

indi"idua# rights are protected effecti"e#y.

'. UN Ba%i) Prin)i e% on t$e Ro e o( La&/er%

The /reamb#e of the '8 Basic /rincip#es on the Ro#e of awyers


58/85

/rincip#e 9 of the '8 Basic /rincip#es states that go"ernments, professiona#

associations of #awyers and educationa# institutions sha## ensure that #awyers ha"e

appropriate education and training.

/rincip#e 13 pro"ides that this must be done without discrimination


59/85

/rincip#e 2@ pro"ides that #awyers are entit#ed to freedom of e!pression and

association. This wou#d inc#ude the right to be constructi"e#y critica# of the $ustice

system, and to form and $oin bar associations, which wou#d represent them in this

constructi"e criticism.

n particu#ar, /rincip#e 26 e!press#y pro"ides, #awyers sha## be entit#ed to form and

$oin se#f-go"erning professiona# associations to represent their interests, promote their

continuing education and training and protect their professiona# integrity. The

e!ecuti"e body of the professiona# associations sha## be e#ected by its members and

sha## e!ercise its functions without e!terna# interference.

This indicates that a bar association shou#d be independent and run by its own

members. t shou#d be instrumenta# in setting standards for the profession. t shou#d

represent #awyersD interests.

/rincip#e 24 states that a bar association must cooperate with go"ernment to ensure

that e"eryone has effecti"e and eEua# access to #ega# ser"ices and that #awyers are ab#e

to assist their c#ients without interference. The bar association and the go"ernment

are therefore partners in this endea"our.


60/85

n the recognition of the #ac& of internationa# treaties in the area, the Commonwea#th

< atimer House= /rincip#es set out the re#ationship between par#iament, the $udiciary

and the e!ecuti"e in member countries. These princip#es aim to strengthen democracy

and adherence to the Commonwea#thDs fundamenta# "a#ues in member states by

out#ining the #imits of power in the three branches of go"ernment, enab#ing them to

interact better in the promotion of good go"ernance and the ru#e of #aw. These

princip#es focus on securing trust among the branches of go"ernment and gaining the

confidence and respect of the peop#e in their #eadership. @

The Commonwea#th /rincip#es go"ern issues such as the harmonious ba#ancing of

power and the interaction between par#iament, the e!ecuti"e and the $udiciary in

democratic societies. They set out in detai# the consensus reached by representati"es

of the three branches of go"ernment in the Commonwea#th on how each of their

nationa# institutions shou#d interre#ate in the e!ercise of their institutiona#

responsibi#ity. The /rincip#es specify restraint in the e!ercise of power within their

respecti"e constitutiona# spheres so that the #egitimate discharge of constitutiona#

functions by other institutions are not encroached on.

The Commonwea#th /rincip#es were fina#ised by Commonwea#th #aw ministers and

endorsed by Commonwea#th Heads of *o"ernment at their summit in (bu$a, 8igeria,

in :ecember 233@. The /rincip#es ha"e been disti##ed from the atimer House

*uide#ines on /ar#iamentary 7o"ereignty and udicia# ndependence.

B. Co*e o( Et$i)% 0 E8 erien)e (ro" A9roa*

1. Intro*!)tion

The nternationa# Bar (ssociation has estab#ished the nternationa# Codes of ega#

thics @5 as mode#s for or go"erning the practice of #aw by their members. n some

$urisdictions these Codes are imposed on a## practitioners by their respecti"e Bar

(ssociations or aw 7ocieties or by the courts or administrati"e agencies ha"ing

@

)or fu## te!t, see% http% www.thecommonwea#th.org sharedFaspFfi#es up#oadedfi#es Q(CC92 3(-929-6( 3-( )9-6(() C056 9C F [email protected]@5 )or fu## te!t, see% http% www.ibanet.org images down#oads nternationa#F thics.pdf


61/85

$urisdiction o"er the admission of indi"idua#s to the practice of #aw. ;uch of these

reEuirements are a guide as to what the nternationa# Bar (ssociation considers to be a

desirab#e course of conduct by a## #awyers engaged in the internationa# practice of #aw.

'. Internationa Co*e o( Et$i)%

7ome of the &ey princip#es are%

awyers sha## at a## times maintain the honour and dignity of their profession.

They sha##, in practice as we## as in pri"ate #ife, abstain from any beha"iour,

which may tend to discredit the profession of which they are members.

awyers sha## preser"e independence in the discharge of their professiona#

duty.

awyers sha## a#ways maintain due respect towards the Court. awyers sha##

without fear defend the interests of their c#ients and without regard to any

unp#easant conseEuences to themse#"es or to any other person. awyers sha##

ne"er &nowing#y gi"e to the Court incorrect information or ad"ice, which is to

their &now#edge contrary to the #aw.

t sha## be considered improper for #awyers to communicate about a particu#ar

case direct#y with any person whom they &now to be represented in that case

by another #awyer without the #atterDs consent.

awyers sha##, when in the c#ientDs interest, endea"our to reach a so#ution by

sett#ement out of court rather than start #ega# proceedings. awyers shou#d

ne"er stir up #itigation.

awyers shou#d ne"er represent conf#icting interests in #itigation. n non-

#itigation matters, #awyers shou#d do so on#y after ha"ing disc#osed a##

conf#icts or possib#e conf#icts of interest to a## parties concerned and on#y with

their consent. This Ru#e a#so app#ies to a## #awyers in a firm.


62/85

awyers shou#d ne"er disc#ose, un#ess #awfu##y ordered to do so by the Court

or as reEuired by 7tatute, what has been communicated to them in their

capacity as #awyers e"en after they ha"e ceased to be the c#ientDs counse#. This

duty e!tends to their partners, to $unior #awyers assisting them and to their emp#oyees.

C. De2e o "ent o( A(#$an Le#a Se)tor

1. Intro*!)tion

Ar!i-le % of !he #$$@Con !i!u!ion on !he In'e"en'en-e

of !he u'i-iar, !a!e

( ) The /u'i-ial +ran-h i an

in'e"en'en! organ of !he !a!e

of !he I la&i- Re"u+li- of

Afghani !an*

(#) The /u'i-ial +ran-h -on i ! of

!he Su"re&e Cour! ( S!era

Mah4a&a )1 High Cour! 1 A""eal


63/85

Cour! * S!ru-!ure of au!hori!ie

of whi-h are 'e!er&ine' +, law*

(>) The Su"re&e Cour! a !he

highe ! /u'i-ial organ1 hea' !he

/u'i-iar, organ of !he I la&i-

Re"u+li- of Afghani !an*

On No.e&+er > #$$:1 !he

In!erna!ional Bar A o-ia!ion hel'

a -onferen-e on e !a+li hing an

in'e"en'en! +ar a o-ia!ion for

Afghani !an in 3a+ul* There were

@$ "ar!i-i"an! * The

"ar!i-i"an! re"re en!e'

in'i.i'ual Afghan law,er 1


64/85

law,er 6 grou" 1 go.ern&en!

law,er 1 /u'ge 1 a-a'e&i- 1 law

!u'en! 1 na!ional an'

in!erna!ional NGO 1 UN agen-ie

an' in!erna!ional 'onor * The

-onferen-e wa a''re e' +,

e0"erien-e' law,er 1

in!erna!ional e0"er! 1 an' !he

De"u!, Mini !er of u !i-e* The

ou!-o&e of !hi -onferen-e were

Twel.e Ba i- 7rin-i"le for Bar

A o-ia!ion * >;

'. T&e 2e Ba%i) Prin)i e% (or Bar A%%o)iation%

@9 Tahmind$is, /. and :e ;arco, ., International ar Association Position Pa-er /sta&lishing an Inde-endent ar Association in A"ghanistan


65/85

It i% e%%entia t$at an a)ti2e an* in*e en*ent 9ar a%%o)iation 9e e%ta9 i%$e* in A(#$ani%tan on a (ir" (ootin# 9/ e#i% ation.

Le#i% ation &i en%!re t$at t$e o9 e)ti2e% o( t$e 9ar a%%o)iation are ) ear an* t$at it% #o2ernan)e i% tran% arent. It &i

a %o en%!re t$at a&/er% a)t in a))or*an)e &it$ )on%tit!tiona nor"%.

The term >bar association is not wide#y understood in (fghanistan. t is used here tomean a se#f-go"erning professiona# association for a## #awyers, which represents not

on#y the interests of those #awyers, but a#so promotes their continuing education and

training, regu#ates entry into the #ega# profession, estab#ishes and upho#ds professiona#

standards and ethics


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CHAPTER 5: ADMINISTRATION OF 6USTICE

A. Fair Tria Pro)e*!re

1. Intro*!)tion

The right to a fair tria# is one of the cornerstones of the ru#e of #aw. t is designed to

protect indi"idua#s from the un#awfu# and arbitrary depri"ation of other basic rights

and freedoms, the most prominent of which are the right to #ife and #iberty. The

princip#e of a fair tria# is the core of the ci"i# and crimina# procedure. ith respect to

crimina# $urisdiction, it is designed to ensure that a## indi"idua#s are protected by #aw

throughout the crimina# process, from the moment of in"estigation or detention unti#

the fina# disposition of their case. 63

'. Fair Tria Stan*ar*% in t$e ICCPR

Afghani !an a--e'e' !o !heICC7R on #@ A"ril ;=> an'

a er! !he 'u!, !o a-! in

a--or'an-e wi!h i! in Ar!i-le of

!he #$$@ Con !i!u!ion*

Afghani !an6 in!erna!ional legal

63 *uhr, (., Hob, C. and ;oschtaghi, R., 0air %rial Standards in the A"ghan Constitution, the A"ghan

Code o" Criminal Procedure, the A"ghan Penal Code and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights


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o+liga!ion un'er Ar!i-le ;1 $

an' @ of !he ICC7R en!i!le all

"er on wi!h a righ! !o a fair !rial*

The &o ! i&"or!an! a "e-! of a

fair !rial are 'eal! wi!h +elow*


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The princip#e of non-retroacti"ity of crimina# #aw, app#ies for a## stages of

$udicia# proceedings, and states that on#y such actions are deemed crimina# that

ha"e been defined as crimes by a #aw that was in force at the time of the

action. The princip#e contains two e#ements% 1= actions that are not stated to be a crime cannot be the basis for in"estigations, prosecution, sentencing or

punishment, and 2= in the case of #ega# reforms, no one can be prosecuted for

an action that was not a crime at the time of action, e"en if it is #ater defined to

be a crime.

nternationa# #aw ensures #ega# predictabi#ity and certainty. t is an abso#ute

prereEuisite for the ru#e of #aw, whereby indi"idua# #iberties are protected

against arbitrary and unwarranted intrusion of the state. Howe"er, this

princip#e is not abso#ute. f the new #aw is more fa"ourab#e for the accused

than the o#d one under which the crime too& p#ace, this beneficia# crimina# #aw

may be app#ied retroacti"e#y. This is ca##ed retroacti"ity of the most fa"ourab#e

#aw for the benefit of the accused


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hooding=, pro#onged p#aying of music, sha&ing, depri"ation of s#eep, threats of

death etc., and medica# e!perimentation.


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This right constitutes one of the most fundamenta# e#ements of a fair tria#. n

the interests of $ustice, the accused is entit#ed to the minimum guarantees of

#ega# representation and #ega# aid, if he does not ha"e sufficient means, in fu##

eEua#ity.


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The reEuirement of a prompt tria# in crimina# cases ob#iges the authorities to

ensure that a## proceedings, from the pre-tria# stages to the fina# appea#, are

comp#eted within a reasonab#e time.

(0ii) 7u+li- hearing H r!i-le

A@(A)

The "rin-i"le of !he "u+li--on'u-! of a !rial -on i ! of

!wo -o&"onen! !he righ! !o a

"u+li- hearing an' !he righ! !o

a "u+li- /u'ge&en!*

The "u+li- na!ure of a hearing

i an i&"or!an! afeguar' in

!he in!ere ! of !he in'i.i'ual a

/u !i-e i a'&ini !ere' in a

!ran "aren! &anner* I! al o

"ro.i'e !he -our! wi!h an


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o""or!uni!, !o affir& i!

in'e"en'en-e1 i&"ar!iali!, an'

fairne 1 !here+, in-rea ing a

general en e of !ru ! in !he

/u'i-ial , !e& a&ong !he

-i.ilian "o"ula!ion*

There are e.eral "er&i i+le

e0-e"!ion !o a "u+li- hearing1

+, whi-h !he "re an' !he

"u+li- &a, +e e0-lu'e' fro&

all or "ar! of !he hearing1 for

e0a&"le1 in /u.enile -a e *


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duty of the $udicia# authorities to inform the accused of the charges made

against him, his #ega# rights and of the re#e"ant actions ta&en by the $udicia#

authorities. (## of this pro"ides the defence with an eEua# opportunity to

prepare and present the accused case.

an* to )$a en#e t$e e2i*en)e !t (ort$ 9/ t$e

ro%e)!tion. Con%e !en)e o( t$i% ri#$t i% t$at a o( t$e e2i*en)e "!%t

nor"a / 9e ro*!)e* in t$e re%en)e o( t$e a))!%e* at a !9 i) $earin#>

%o t$at t$e e2i*en)e it%e ( an* t$e re ia9i it/ an* )re*i9i it/ o( t$e &itne%%

)an 9e )$a en#e*.

T$ere )an 9e %o"e e8)e tion% to t$e r! e> (or e8a" e to rote)t t$e

&itne%%> 9!t t$e%e e8)e tion% )annot in(rin#e t$e ri#$t% o( t$e *e(en)e.

T$ere "a/ 9e i"it% to t$e ri#$t to e8a"ine &itne%%e% *!e to ra)ti)a

(a)tor%> %!)$ a% t$e !na2ai a9i it/ o( t$e &itne%% or &$en t$e &itne%%

rea%ona9 / (ear% re ri%a . Ho&e2er> t$e !*i)ia a!t$oritie% "!%t not 9e

ne# i#ent in t$eir *!t/ to (in* t$e er%on% )on)erne*.


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!he "ro&o!ion of !he -hil'6

en e of 'igni!, an' !he

'e ira+ili!, of !he -hil'6

rein!egra!ion in o-ie!,*

Therefore1 e"ara!e /u.enile

/u !i-e , !e& !o han'le

-a e of a--u e' -hil'ren are

'e ira+le* To ena+le !he

rein!egra!ion in !he o-ial

en.iron&en! re-or' of -hil'

offen'er &u ! +e !ri-!l,

-onfi'en!ial an' onl,

a--e i+le !o au!hori e'

offi-ial * To "ro!e-! !he "ri.a-,

an' !o a.oi' !he !ig&a!i a!ion


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of !he -hil'ren1 !rial of

/u.enile houl' e0-lu'e !he

"u+li- an' !he "re * Thi

e0-e"!ion fro& !he "u+li-

hearing i al o e0!en'e' !o

/u'ge&en! for !he a&e

rea on * u.enile houl' +e

e"ara!e' fro& a'ul! if !he,

are u+/e-!e' !o i&"ri on&en!*

B. A ternati2e Met$o*% o( Di% !te Re%o !tion

1. Intro*!)tion

(#ternati"e :ispute Reso#ution


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(:R encompasses a range of means to reso#"e conf#icts without forma# #itigation.

The interest in (:R in some countries a#so stems from a desire to re"i"e and reform

traditiona# mediation mechanisms.

(:R today fa##s into three broad categories%


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nternationa# Commercia# (rbitration, which ma&es an arbitra# award #ega##y binding

and grants broad rights to commercia# parties choosing arbitration.

C. A(#$an Met$o*% o( A ternati2e Di% !te Re%o !tion

)or centuries, the traditiona# institution of the irga has operated as an important

mechanism of dispute sett#ement in (fghanistan, and has contributed to the

maintenance of socia# order in the country significant#y. The term irga is wide#y used

in /ashto, but is a#so found in :ari /ersian and Tur&ish #anguages. n the cu#tura# and

po#itica# conte!t of (fghan society, irga is more c#ose#y associated with the ritua#s

and processes of the /ashtun traditiona# triba# institution of dispute sett#ement, where

peop#e gather and sit in a #arge circ#e in order to reso#"e disputes, or ma&e co##ecti"e

decisions about important socia# issues .62

"en though irga is more strong#y bound up with the triba# economy and society of

the ma$ority /ashtuns of (fghanistan, the irga has a#so been identified as in the form

of a shura in rura#, or #ess urbanised parts of (fghanistan where the minority (fghan

Ta$i&s, HaAaras, 'Abe&s dominate. (mong (fghan Ta$i&s, HaAaras and 'Abe&s, the

shura operates as a mechanism of conf#ict reso#ution to reso#"e a conf#ict betweenindi"idua#s, fami#ies, groups of fami#ies or who#e tribes.

(#though irga is a pre- s#amic institution, its fundamenta# spirit and phi#osophy is

genera##y compatib#e with teachings in the Quran. (s the o"erwhe#ming ma$ority of

the (fghan popu#ation are fo##owers of s#am, they adhere to the phi#osophy and the

spirit of irga since it is does not contradict their re#igious be#iefs. The di"erse triba#

and ethnic character of irga has been trans#ated into the nationa# po#itica# #ife of (fghan society, where the two houses of (fghan par#iament ha"e been named wolasi

irga


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assemb#y of e#ders and po#itica# figures constitute the lo!a irga and periodica##y meet

in order to ma&e decisions on issues of nationa# importance such as dec#aration of

war, or treaties of peace, adopting a constitution. (t the #ower


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days. ( #oca# irga is usua##y hosted either by re#ati"es of the disputants or by

inf#uentia# members of the "i##age based 3hel upon raising an issue that see&s

reso#ution.

The process of engaging the mar3achain to reach the -ri3ra


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adhere to irga decisions and or persists in re-offending. n other cases, irga may

recommend the marriage of a woman from the -ar4 s, con"icted personDs side, to the

"ictimDs c#ose re#ati"e as a sett#ement of a dispute.

(#though these practices ha"e become rare in the #oca# irga, they are sti## pre"a#ent in

areas where war#ords and commanders continue to ru#e. Howe"er, studies suggest

that irgas and shura s created by these war#ords are gradua##y being rep#aced by the

more independent traditiona# #oca# irgas, and the authority of respected "i##age and

triba# e#ders is being restored. This has been attributed to the war#ordsD #oss of

credibi#ity and #egitimacy among the #oca# peop#e.

8e"erthe#ess, some of the practices of the traditiona# irga or shura , must be

condemned as they "io#ate nationa#, s#amic and internationa# human rights #aw. n

the 21 st century, the traditiona##y patriarcha# institution of the #oca# irga can on#y

function as an ega#itarian institution if it inc#udes the participation of both men and

women. Therefore, it reEuires reform on "arious #e"e#s. n order for the #oca# irga to

fu##y rea#ise its potentia#, it needs to be independent and freed from the i##egitimate

inf#uence of war#ords. )ina##y, a## its decisions must be compatib#e with the nationa#

#aws and the fundamenta# princip#es of human rights. The e!perience of the recent#y

he#d /mergenc! and Constitutional Lo!al *irga s in (fghanistan ha"e shown that the

institution of irga has the capacity to bridge tradition with modern "a#ues.

BIBLIOGRAPH


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Te8t%:

(#der, ., Constitutional and Administrative Law


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BAR HUMAN RIGHTS COMMITTEE OF ENGLAND AND WALESGARDEN COURT CHAMBERS: 9%$ LINCOLN6S INN FIELDSLONDON WC#A >LSUNITED 3INGDOM

Tel @@($)#$ ;;> ::Fa0 @@($)#$ ;;> $$

E&ail +hr-J-o&"u er.e*-o&We+ i!e www*+arhu&anrigh! *org*u4

training manual on rule of law [prepared for afghanistan]

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