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CE 040 856

Cooke, Gwen C.Toward Excellence in Secondary Vocational Education:Improving Teaching. Information Series No. 293.Ohio State Univ., Columbus. National Center for

Research in Vocational Education.Office of Vocational and Adult Education .(ED),

Washington, DC.85300-83-001649p..; For related documents, see CE 040 854-855 andCE 040 858-860.National Center Publications, Box F, National Centerfor Research in Vocational Education, 1960 KennyRoad, Columbus, OH 43210-1090 (1N293--$4.75).Information Analyses (070)

MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.'Basic Skills; Competency Based Education;*Educational Improvement; *Educational Quality;Inservice Teacher Education; InstructionalImprovement; Preservice Teacher Education; SecondaryEducation; Teachsr Certification; *Teacher Education;*Teacher Improvement; Teacher Persistence; Teacher'Recruitment; *Vocational EducationExcellence in Education

ABSTRACTEleven recent reports related to excellence in

education were examined, and their implications for vocationaleducation were interpreted.-Commonalities and differenceS-AMong thestudies were identified, and a selection of these was developed

further with major emphases on teaching and learning. Topics wereselee,ed according to their immediacy and relevance for vocationaleducation. The analyses of these studies highlighted tihe need for

improvement of education in the public school system, toncentrating

on high schools. The most effective strategy was the improvement of

teaching. Problems in the teaching profession and ways todifferentiate and reward good teaching were identified. Needs were

found for better teacher recruitment,and retention, improved

preservice education, technological and professional updating of

teachers in the field, teacher recognition, equity and equality in

teacher edimation, and certification. Specific recommendationsaddressed improvement of instruction through incorporating basic

academic skills in vocational education curricula, implementingcompetency-based instruction in the vocational classroom, and using

time-on-task research. Attracting a different caliber of student to

teacher education programs, adding more years of study to preservice

programs, and modifying teacher certification were considered as

possible and necessary steps to improve the future classroom teacher.

(YLB)

Information Series No. 293

I"

TOWARD EXCELLENCE IN SECONDARY VOCATIONAL EDUCATION:IMPROVING TEACHING

Gwen C. CookeSan Diego State University

The National Center for Research in Vocational EducationThe Ohio State University

1960 Kenny RoadColumbus, Ohio 43210-1090

1985

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

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position or policy

THE NATIONAL CENTER MISSION STATEMENT

The National Center for Research in Vocational Education's mission is to increase

the abiiity of diverse agencies, institutions, and organizations to solve educationalproblems relating to individual career planning, preparation, and progression. The

National Center fulfills its mission by:

Generating knowledge through research

Developing educational programs and products

Evaluating individual program needs and outcomes

Providing information for national planning and policy

Installing educational programs and products

Operating information systems and services

Conducting leadership development and training programs

For further information contact:

Program Information OfficeNational Center for Research

in Vocational EducationThe Ohio State University1960 ny Road

umbus, Ohio 432101090

Telephone: (614) 486-3665 or (800) 848-4815Cable: CTVOCEDOSU/Columbus, OhioTelex: 8104821894

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FUNDING INFORMATION

National Center for Research in Vocational Education, AppliedResearch and Development

300830016

0510C40060/0510C40061

Education Amendments of 1976, P.L. 94-482

Office of Vocational and Adult EducationU.S. Department of EducationWashington, D.C. 20202

The National Center for Research in Vocational Education

The Ohio State UniversityColumbus, Ohio 43210.1090

Robert E. Taylor

This publication was prepared pursuant to a contract with the Office

of Vocational and Adult Education, U.S. Department of. Education.Contractors undertaking such projects under Government sponsor-ship are encouraged to express freely their judgment in professionaland technical matters. Points of view or opinions do not, therefore',necessarily represent official U.S. Departfhent of Education position

or policy.

Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1'964 states: "No person in theUnited States shall, on the ground of race, color, or national origin,be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or besubjected to discrimination under any program or activity receivingFederal financial assistance." Title IX of the Education Amendmentsof 1972 states: "No person in the United States shall, on the basis ofsex, be excluded from participation in, or be denied the benefits of,or be subjected to discrimination under any education program oractivity receiving Federal financial assistance." Therefore, theNational Center for Research in Vocational Education Project, like

every program or activity receiving financial assistance from theU.S. Department of Education, must be operated in compliance with

these laws.

ii

CONTENTS

FOOIEWORD

EXECUTIVE SUMMARYvii

INTRODUCTION1

Background1

Purpose of This Paper2

A REVIEW OF ELEVEN NATIONAL STUDIES ON EDUCATION3

A Nation at Risk: The ImperatiVe for Educational Reform3

A Place Called School: Prospects for the Future3

Academic Preparation for College: What Students Need to Know and Be

Able to Do4

Action for Excellence: A Comprehensive Plan to Improve Our Nation's

Schools4

America's. Competitive Challenge: The'Need for a National Response 4

Educating Americans for the.21st Century5

Education for Tomorrow's Jobs5

High School: A Report on Secondary Education in America 6

Horace's :compromise: The Dilemma of the American High School 6

Making the Grade7

The Paideia Proposal: An Educational Manifesto7

AN ANALYSIS OF THE PREDOMINANT RECOMMENDATIONS OF

THE STUDIES9

Teachers and Teaching9

Governance, School Organization, and Management10

Curriculum11

Students and Learning11

Quality and Equity11

Research11

THE IMPACT OF THESE STUDIES AND SIGNIFICANCE FOR

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION13

Reaffirming the Purpose of Vocational Education in the Broad Spectrum

of Education13

Basic Issues for Vocational Education13

Identifying the Need to Provide Excellence in Teaching14

The School and the Instructional Process25

Critical Need for the Instruction of Basic Academic Education through

Vocational Education30

IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS33

REFERENCES37

iii

FOREWORD

Toward Excellence in Secondary Vocational Education: Improving Teaching examines someof the recent reports related to excellence in education and interprets their implications for voca-tional education. Special attention is given to the application of basic skills within vocational edu-cation. The developfttent of teachers through certification procedures and inservice education is

highlighted.

This paper is one of seven produced by the Information Systems Division of the National Cen-ter. This series of information analysis papers should be of interest to all vocational and adulteducators, including Federal and State agency personnel, teacher educators, researchers, admin-istrators, teachers, and support staff.

The profession is indebted to Dr. Gwen C. Cooke for an interesting and informative interpreta-tion of the teaching-learning process within the context of achieving excellence iri vocational edu-cation. Dr. Cooke is Director of the School of Family Studies and Consumer Sciences, College ofProfessional Studies and Fine Arts at San Diego State University. She has served as President of

the California Home Economics Association, and has published widely in home economics and*vocational education journals.

Dr. Arthur T. Bell, Chairman of the Department of Agricultural Education at North CarolinaAgricultural and Technical State University; Dewey A. Adams, Senior Research Specialist; and

Robert E. Norton, Senior Research Specialist, of the National Center for Research in VocationalEducation contributed to the development of the paper through their reviews of the manuscript.

Staff on the project included Dr. William Hull, Senior Research Specialist; Dr. Oscar Potter, Gradu-

ate Research Associate; James Belcher, Program Associate; and John Tennant, GraduateResearch Associate. Janet Ray served as word processor operator for this manuscript. Editorialassistance WPS provided by JaneeKiplinger and Judy, Balogh of Editorial Services at the National

Center.

O

Robert E. TaylorExecutive DirectorThe National Center for Research

in Vocational Education

"44 tl

.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This information paper was written in response to a National call for excellence In education in

the pub schools of the United States. In the recent studies on the status of public school educa-tion, thrgchool system was held responsible for the decline in preeminence of the Nation, thesocial ills of society, and the troubled state of the economy.

The studies called for a return to excellence in education in the Nation'i public schools. Thedecline in student standardized test scores was identified as a major indicator of the decline ofexcellence. Other issues of concern listed were the plight of teachers in the public school system,low status of the teaching profession, lack of leadership in the educational system, and lack of

motivation by many students.

Recommendations made to address these issues and take corrective action included calls forimmediate action to lengthen the school day and year and to require a core of academic basicskills courses for all students. Implicit in all studies was the right of all youth, including specialneeds students, to a public school education from kindergarten through high school.

The impact of the studies on vocational education was analyzed. Commonalities and differ-ences among the studies were identified and a selection of these was developed further in thispublication, with major emphases on teaching and learning. Topics were selebted according totheir immediacy and relevance for vocational education.

The analyses of these studies highlighted the need for improvement of education in the publicschool, system, concentrating on the Nation's high schools. The most effect)ve strategy, the one

that would have the greatest impact on the overall improvement of eduCation, was clearly the

improvement of teaching.

The prevalence of vocational educition in the comprehensive high school was noted. Thevocational program was deemed an important part of the education of youth. Improved teaching invocational education would help achieve excellence iii public secondary education.

Preparing youth for life and work in a technological society was seen as the major mission ofvocational education. Vocational education programs provide an alternative for diverse studentpopulations and make a significant contribution to student retention..For example, vocational cur-

ricula serve well the special education needs of the disadvantaged student. .

The study on student populations reinforced the premise that various educational tracks arenecessary to serve the great diversity of students. However, prominent educators and National fig-

ures recommended a common academic core for all students, in essence, a one-track system. That

all students achieve the basic academic skills was seen as essential.

Basic skills education was deemed to have a significant role in vocational education. Methodsand materials for teaching basic skills in the vocational classroom were reviewed. Teaching basic

vii

education through vocational education was identified as a major contribution to the.total educa-

tional process. Student motivation and achievement were considered in terms of their direct rela-

tionship to teaching methods and to the teacher in the classroom. Teaching and learning were

identified as the heart and core of education.

Special attention to the research on teaching included time-on-task studies, which showedthat improvement of teaching could result from increasing the amount of time spent on learning in

the classroom. A systems approach to teaching competency-based education was seen as particu-

larly effective in vocational education.

Tile plight of teachers in today's society was discussed and ways to differentiate and reward

good teaching were identified. Although the overall improvement of teaching requires a multi-pronged approach, the best way of improving teaching for the interim was seen as the technologi-cal and professional updating of teachers in the field. Inservice education programs consideredwere state-wide mentor programs, cooperative programs with business and industry including

part-time employment and faculty/staff exchange, utilization of "bridge-builders" to transmitresearch knowledge,1nto practice, and traditional formal education through workshops, seminars,

or courses.

Specific recommendations address improvement of instruction through the incorporation of

basic academic skills in vocational education curricula, implementing competency-based instruc-

tion in the vocational classroom, and utilizing time-on-task research:

Attracting a different caliber of student to teacher education programs, adding more years of

study to preservice programs, and modifying teacher certification, were considered as possible and

necessary steps to improve the future classroom teacher.

Improving teaching in vocational education was considered integral to improving teaching in

general and was deemed an essential and major part of achieving excellence in education.

viii

8

4

7

INTRODUCTION

In August 1981, Secretary of Education,T. H. Bell, appointed the National Commis-sion on Excellence in Education to study thequality of education in the United States andreport back to the. Secretary and the Ameri-can people its findings and recommenda-tions. The final report of this commission, ANation at Risk: The Imperative for EducationReform, and a series of ciimmissioned paperswere submitted to the Secretary in April 1983.The publication of the final report and com-missioned papers brought the status ofsecondary education abruptly and sharply tothe attention of all segments of society. TheNation was deemed at risk unless drastic andimmediate action was taken. A study, Actionfor Excellence: States' Task Force of Educa-tion for Economic Growth, quickly followed.

These and other majoi studies generatedan intense reaction and renewed Nationalconcern for excellence in U.S. education.The thrust for excellence in education hasbecome a dominant issue demanding furtherinquiry and a plan of action.

The call for excellence resounded to theborders of our country. President Miguel dela Madrid called for an "educational revolu-tion" in Mexico to improve the quality ofsecondary schools and universities in thatcountry. He said that Mexico faced an educa-tional crisis because great advances insciance and technology have made manyeducational programs obsolete. To our north,educators in Canada speak with concernabout the current competition among variouscurricula and express the desire for a com-prehensive curriculum. Osborne (1983)called for a study of a comprehensive cur-riculum that included vocational education.

1

This has not been the first time, nor in alllikelihood the last, that education has beenstudied and-major action taken to correct thedeficiencies cited. The advent of Sputniksounded an alarm that produced a flood ofsupport for teaching more science in second-ary schools and universities. However, thesenew studies differ from the previous studiesby several orders of magnitude and havecommanded wide press coverage. The multi-tude in the public schools has become theNation's problem, creating a Nitionalconcern that something be done to bettereducate the youth of today and leading edu-cators and political figures to call for a "back-to-the-basics" movement in our educationalsystem.

Background

One major result of the "back-to-basics"movement has been an increase in thenumber.of basic education courses requiredin the high schools, which adversely affectsthe quantity of courses and progranit offeredin 'vocational education. Concomitant withthe increase.in requirements in basic aca-demic education has been the need for addi-tional funding, which has resulted in adecrease in the level of funding for vocationaleducation. These parallel decreases in thebroad spectrum of vocational educationofferings,and in funding have resulted in anegative impact on the poor, nonwhite, andurban populations. It has also seriouslyaffected vocational education's ability to pre-pare students for a lifetime of work. Themajor issues that have surfaced from thesestudies have affected the very core of theeducational system, which suggests that the

state of the art in both teaching and learningis blear.

Purpose of This Paper

This paper is intended to point out thoseactions that will provide emellence In educa-tion within the framework of improving thefield of teacher education. Improving preser-vice and inservice teacher education as wellas strengthening teacher certificationrequirements are among the more importantfactors in achieving the excellence in edika-lion called for by the National studies. Addi-tionajly, the use of applied research in theclassroom and a better understanding of the

r

diversity of the student population will'berequired in order to provide the teachers withthe tools to improve teaching.

Although the studies focused on a back-to-the-basics approach and pointed at politi-cal and economic influences as the causativefactors of the problem, the improvement ofteaching could well be the most significantsingle factor in providing a new excellence ineducation. This approach, in concert withprogram changes and administrativeimprovements, should be applied to basiceducation and vocational education alike.These measure could well facilitate astrengthening d? the vocational educationsystem.

se I

4

4

A REVIEW OF ELEVEN NATIONAL STUDIES ON EDUCATION

Many National studies on education havebeen reported during the past 2 years. Eleven

of these have been selected for their Nationalprominence and impact on vocational educa-tion. The substance of these studies is givenin the,following descriptions.

A.Nation at Risk: The Imperative forEducational Reform

In August of 1983, the National Commis-sion on Excellence in Education, an 18-

member commission chaired by David P.Gardner, completed a report containing prac-tical recommendations for educationalimprovement. The report focused on highschools, with selective attention given toelementary schools, Nigher education. andvocational and technical programs. Thisreport, perhaps more than any other, cap-tured National attention.

The commission's study relied upon fivesources of information. Commissionmembers reviewed papers from, experts: on aVariety of education issues, reports of publichearings, current Inalysis of educationalproblems, comments from concerned citi-zens, and descriptions of notable programsand promising approaches in education.After this information was studied and thedimensions of the risk were identified,recommendations for remedial action weremade.

Amcng the recommendations was onecalling for the raising of requirements foradmission to teacher elucation programs inuniversities. Major cone ern was expressed

for improving preserviOe teacher educationand making the teaching profession more

rewarding and respected. The commissionproposed a longer school day of year andmore effective use of the,existing school day,with more time devoted to leatning the "newbasics." Responsibility for leadership and fis-cal support was placed on Federal, State, andlocal officials with the Federal Governmenthaving the primary responsibility.

A Place Called School: Prospects forthe Future

This research report, directed by JohnGood lad (1984), relies on data collectedthrough e*tensive iriterviews and surveys of adiverse sample of 38 schools. Characteristicsof schools were referred to as "common-pia' es" of schooling, which are manifesteddifferently from school to school. Included inthe list of commonplaces of schooling wereteaching practices, instructional materials,physical environment, evaluation, time man-agement, and leadership.

The investigators developed a commonset of characteristics from recurring themes,and identified them as school quality and theneed for data. Recommendations included acomprehensive set of goals for States con-sisting of alternative curricular designs andpedagogical procedures, continued assess-ment of the condition of education inschools, and support for school improve-ment. One recommendation suggested thatgreater responsibility reside in the localschool. Teacher education was to separatethe pre aration process from the customaryways o keeping school; The education ofnew to hers, further development of expe-rienced eachers, and school improvementwere s n as going hand in hand.

3

Specific recommendations were formu;lated concerning the development of cur-ricula. in line with State goals and for theelimination of ability grouping and trackingof students. Need was recognized for theestablishment of research and developmentcenters focused on curriculum and closearticulation of etem ary, middle, and seniorhigh schools. More igoro.us selection'andpreparation of prin als Was deemed neces-sary-It was further re ended that canon-

. native methods be developed for staffingelementary schools and that large secondaryschools be divided into smaller, semiauton-omous unita.

Academic Preparation for College:What Students Need to Knoiv

and Be Able to Do

This College Entrance Examination :\Board report (1983), released in the spring 'cif1983tips the report of the 10-year Educa-tional Equality Project conducted under the-direction of the College Board's Office ofAcademic 'Weirs. The study was concernedwith the subject-matter preparation neededto equip students best for the most selectivecolleges and with the broad academic corn-petenciestneeded by students entering all

colleges.

The report listed the specific academiccompetencies of speaking, listening, reason-ing, and studying. The basicacademic sub-jects were identified as English, the arts,mathematics, science, social studies, andforeign language. The Lyle of the computerand the need for computer competency werealso reviewed, with computer competency

1seen emerging as a basic skill comple) en-tary to the other competencies.

The report concluded that schools willneed to devise their own coherent curricularand instructional strategies for use inaddressing the academic preparation of

youth for college.

i Action for Excellence: A Comprehensive Planto Improve Our Nation's Schools

This report was prepared by the NationalTask Force on Education for EconomicGrowth under the coordination of the Educa-tion Commission of the States (1983). Thechallenge faCing education was seen as thedevelopment of new skills for productive par-ticipation in a society depending ever moreheavily on technology. Students will needmore than the minimum competence in read-ing, writing, mathematics, sciences, reason-ing, And the use of computers. Mobilizing theeducation system to teach new skills willrequire new partnerships among all who havea Stake in education and economic growth.

In developing their action plan, the taskforce drew heavily upon the work,done bythe Educational Equality Project. The eight-4point action plan included the developmentof State plans for improving education in thepublic schools from kindergarten throughgrade 12. (The plan called for quality assur-ance by making the academic experiencemore intense and productive.) It was recog-nized thilt leadership and management inschools need improvement and that teachersneed a new and higher regard. The schoolswere delegated the responsibility for servingmore effectively those students who are nowunserved and underserved.

America's Competitite Challenge:The Need fora National Response

In the spring of 1982, PresidentYleaganinvited a 16-member task force representingcorporate and university chief executives ofthe Businesi-Higher Education,.Forum toexplore ways in which our National competi-tive position could be further strengthenedthrough increased innovation and productiv-ity. The report (America's Competitive Chal-lange 1983) resulting-from a yearlongresearch and study effort found that "agrowing number of U.S. industries are less

2

competitive than they were in the past... .While the U.S. economy has remained rela-tively stagnant in recent years, other coun-tries have made rapid gains" (p/2). In thiscompetitive climate, "Education has giveninsufficient attention to developing the basicskillsmath and sciencethat will beneeded by workers in an age governed byhigh technology" (p. 6):

Programs recommended included dis-placed worker, apprentice, and IndividualTraining Account (savings for training andretraining needs) programs as well as theestablishment of special loans in return forcommitment to teaching, tax incentives, andFederal funding for the ongoing training ofsecondary school science and.math teachers.

The report suggested increased emphasis onresearch and teaching and asserted thatpotential benefits derived from industry anduniversity initiatives would include the rele-vant education needed by students in prepa-ration for available postions in industry.

Educating Americans for the 21st Century

The Nati nal Science Board Commissionon Precolleg Education in Mathematics,Science, and echnology (1983) authoredthis report. Th co mission called for areturn to the asic in education in order tomeet the derhands of a ca age.Underlying = y recommendation was onebasic objective: to makaertain, by the year1995, that all U.S. students will be getting thebest science and mathematics education inthe world. The specific recommendations

0 included a call for devoting more Nationalresources to teaching math, science, andtechnology to all students, not just the giftedand talented. It was proposed that curriculain math, science, and technology be devel-oped for kindergarten through the 12thgrade. The retraining and upgrading of ele-

mentary and secondary math, science, andtechnology teachers were recognized asessential. Support for new education tech-nologies, particularly in computer applica-tions, was given high priority. More time was

proposed for teaching math and science bylengthening the schoo; ;ley, week, and year.Increased minimum requirements were pre-scribed for high school graduation coupledwith increased entrance requirements forcollege.

The report stressed that the basic skillsneeded by all students included not onlyreading, writing, and arithmetic, but also'communication and complex problem-solving competencies as well as scientificand technological literacy. Unlike some ofthe other reports, plans to finance the pro-posed recommendations were included.

Education for Tomorrow's Jobs

In 1981, the U.S. Department of Educa-tion asked the National Council of theNational Academy of Sciences to study thepotential for collaborative efforts of business,community groups, and public agencies. Thisstudy (Sherman 1983) was conducted by theCommittee on Vocational Education andEconomic Development in Depressed areas.The final report focused on vocational educa-tion in secondary schools more generallythan did the other reports issued. Its mainemphasis was on strengthening the capacityof vocational education for preparing non-college-bound-young -people-to_ meet the -needs of employers. The report stated that"prOliiding an effective array of vocationaleducation opportunities is a role of publichigh schools equal in importance to their roleof preparing students for college" (p. 67).Recommended were various incentives tostrengthen collaboration between vocationaleducation and the prinle sector, release time

for teachers to gain industry experience,bonus pay forfpromoting arrangements with

private sector employers, school credit forcourses taught in collaboration with employ-ers, and tax incentives for equipment dorm-

, tions and sharing.

5

Further recommendations were amade forteaching in the comprehensive NO school.Basing-teacher certification on competence

13

in both teaching and the relevant occupationrather than c41/4a bachelor's degree in educa-tion was recognized as essential. In addition,a need wa; .een for making the curriculumfor teacher preparation short, effective, andaimed at developing teaching practices for awide range of instructional settings. Thereport deemed it important to offer a varietyof inservice educational opportunities forvocational teachers. Hiring more part-timeteachers from the private sector was seen asadvantageous to bringing technologicaladvances directly into the classroom. Estab-lishing pay systems that reward the excel-lence of individual teachers and permitdifferentiation by field was recommended asnecessary to keeping the best teachers in theprofession. .

High School: A Report onSecondary Education in America

Ernest L. Boyer (1983), president of theCarnegie Foundation for the Advancement ofTeaching and fcirmer U.S. Commissioner ofEducation, undertook the study of the cur-rent conditions of the U.S. public high schoolto search for ways to raise academic quality.The report emphasized that, to be effective,high schools must have a sense of purposeand clear goals, a vision in which students,teachers, and administrators shared. It wasasserted that these goals should focus on themastery of language and a core of commonlearning, as well as on preparation for work,

. further education, and community service.Furthermore, the report suggested that track-ing of students should be eliminated andhigh schools should prepare all students fora life of work and learning.

The study provided an agenda for actionthat comprised 12 priorities. Included amongthese' riorities were the following: schoolgoals should be clarified and a common corecurriculi established, identifying the cen-trality of language; students should be pre-pared for work, continuing education, and,community service; excellence in teaching

6

must have a high pi iority, as should instruc-tional improvement; and optimal use shouldbe made of technology in the classroom.Flexible school patterns with effective admin-istrative leadership were recognized as majorfactors in the overall improvement of theschool system. In addition, strengtheningconnections with colleges and corporationsand securing public commitment to excel-lence in the Nation's schools were recog-nized as integral parts of the agenda foraction.

Horace's Compromise: The Dilemma ofthe American High School

Theodore R. Sizer (1984) chaired a studygroup cosponsored by the National Associa-tion of Secondary School Principals and theNational Association of IndependentSchools. Cizer listed many problems faced byhigh schools, among which are numerousand unrealistic goals and a lack of well-articulated values.. According to Sizer, gradu-ates are unprepared and only marginallyliterate due in part to little incentive. to under-take hard academic work. Subject matter wascovered broadly, with low productivity inrelation to time spent in the classroom. Theacademic reward system seemed geared tospeed. In addition, students were segregatedby social class as well as by racial and ethnicstereotyping. Very real problems were foundto exist for teachers and were exemplified inlimited career advancement, noncompetitivesalaries and benefits, and the low status ofthe teaching profession.

Yhe lext urged

renewed public attention to the impor-tance of teaching in high schools and tothe complexity and subtlety of that craft.While our system of schools containsmany consequential characteristicsforexample, the subjects of the currAulum,the forms of governance, the uses oftechnologies and teaching aids, and theorganization of programs for special

14

groupsnone is more important thanwho the teachers are and how they work.Without good teachers, sensiblydeployed, schooling is barely worth theeffort. (p. 4)

Major imperatives were determined forobtaining better schools. According to the

report, teachers and students need to be"given room" to work and to learn in their

own appropriate ways. Students must clearly

exhibit mastery of their school work withfocus on the ability to solve complex prob-

lems. The school structure should be kept

simple and thus flexible, and incentives forteachers and students should be appropriate

in each circumstance.

Making the Grade

The Twentieth Century Fund, an inde-

pendent research foundation; sponsored an18-month study by Paul Peterson and the

Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on Fed-

eral Elementary and Secondary EducationPolicy (1983). The task force stated, "Thenation's public schools are in trouble. By

almost every measurethe commitment and

competenCy of teachers, student test scores,

truancy and dropout rates, crimes ofviolencethe performance of our schoolsfalls far short of expectations. . .. Thisthreatened disaster can be averted only if

there is a national commitment to excellence

in our sesiools" (p. 3).

The task force proposed the establish-

ment of a National Teachers Program funded

by the Federal Government to recognize and

reward teaching excellence. A need was seen

7

for the establishment of special Federal fel-lowships for creative individualized programs

in school districts. Federal support for educa-tional research was one of therecommendations.

The Paldela Proposal: AnEducational Manifesto

This report (Adler 1982) was generated

by the Paideia group, a 21-member panel of

educators. A conception of the desiredprocesses and structure of schooling waspresented. Advocated for all students was a

one-track model'of education with threeobjectives: mental, moral, and spiritualimprovement; citizenship; and-preparation in

basic skills for earning a living.

The report condemns tracking of stu-

dents that divides children in the public

school system into those destined for labor

and those destined for more schooling. Itcontends that all children are destined forlearning, that most' are destined for labor by

their need to earn a livelihood, and that bothlearning and earning are necessary for the

fullest development of each person.

A model was presented of the three

modes of learning and the three modes of

teaching, with each school having the option

of determining the precise.-Way education

was to be accomplished. Teaching and learn-

ing were identified as the "heart of the mat-

ter," with the preparation of teachers and the

position of the school principal regarded as

significant factors contributing to the

process.

15

sPI

AN ANALYSIS OF THE PREDOMINANT RECOMMENDATIONSOF THE STUDIES

The studies constitute the thinking ofmany nationally prominent individuals;whereas The Paideia Proposal presented aphilosophical statement, the others mademajor recommendations derived fromresearch findings. A few studies used largedatabases and National samples.

There were similarities in both contentand results among the reports. Some of thissimilarity was probably the result of theauthors' involvement immore..than_ onestudyBoyer and Sizer, authors of HighSchool and Horace's Compromise respec-tively, served as members of the PaideiaGroup. In addition, the Carnegie Corporationfunded Boyer's work and partially fundedSizer's study.

Among the concerns and issues high-lighted by the studies, the loss by the UnitedStates of economic leadership among thedeyeloped countries of the world was attri-buted to the diminished status of public edu-cation. In addition, the education system washeld responsible for the social ills prevalentIn society. Schools were charged to redirecttheir efforts toward preparing students for lifein today's technological society.

In addressing the issue of lack of leader-ship in the technological world, the mostotter mentioned corrective measure wascomputer literacy for all students. Someauthorities felt that a 'computer course shouldbe a requirement for high school graduation.Strong leadership was recognized as essen-tial for a school system to function, and thecooperative efforts of education, business,industry, and concerned citizens wereregarded as the milieu in which the mostdynamic changes could be achieved.

9

The studies recognized currency in thefield as essential to the teaching process; thestatus of the teaching profession as a majorproblem in attracting and retaining qualityeducators; and rewards; incentives, recogni-tion of good teaching, and optimal pay scalesas necessary in the overall improvement ofthe teaching profession.

All of the studies recommended that stu-dents have a grounding in the basic skills of

_education, but they varied on what shouldconstitute a basic core. Some studiesrecommended a basic core plus additionalbasic skills courses for students pursuingadvanced education or continued technicaleducation as well as for those entering thework force directly from high school. Pre-scriptive solutions were given to improve theeducation provided in secondary schools.Increasing the number of courses in basicskills was strongly recommended by manystudies. There appears to be an underlyingconcept that more is better, that quantityequals quality. The following commentarydiscusses a few key topics covered in theindividual studies.

Teachers arid Teaching

All of the studies identified teaching andlearning as the core of the education processand expressed deep concern for the qualityof teaching and for public perception of theteaching profession. Many major recommen-dations were listed for improving the qualityof teachers and teaching and for renderingteaching a more respected profession.Horace's Compromise and High Schoolidentified problems relevant to teacherrecruitment and training; comprehensive

16

recommendations set standards of quality forteacher preparation and included incentiveprogram's for teacher recruitment. Action forExcellenbe listed action steps for improvingteacher recruitment methods and for teacher\preparation. Proposals for teacher educationcurricula, such as immersion in behavioraland humanistic studies, were implicit in ThePaideia Proposal and A Place Called' School.

Both A Nation at Risk and Action forExcellence included career ladders,increased pay, and recognition of individualteachers as methbds for promoting improve-ment in the teaching profession. The formerrecommended high educational standards forteachers, 11-month contracts, incentivessuch as grants and loans, and a masterteacher program. Making'the Grade pro-posed a master teacher program aimed atrecognizing and rewarding teacherexcellence.

High School identified excellence inteaching as a top priority and proposed aplan of action to accomplish this goal. Thereport advocated smaller class loads,Increased class preparation time, and exemp-tion from noninstructional duties. In addition,a teacher excellence fund was recommendedto provide competitive grants for professionalprojects and thus recognize outstandingteachers. Specifically mentioned was anincrease in average teachers' salaries andmonies for the updating of teachers. Ameri-ca's Competitive Challenge and EducatingAmericans for the 21st Century both pre-scribed increased Federal resources to sup-port the training of .math and scienceteachers.

Strengthening collaboration betweenvocational education and the private sectorwas regarded as essential for support in theteaching process. Education for Tomorrow'sJobs advised release time for teachers togain industry experience, recognizing this asan essential ingredient in the inservice train-ing of teachers. Three models or modes of

10

teaching were 'presented 'in The PaideiaProposal, which recommends that eachschool select one of these modes in itsdetermination of the best way to accomplishimprovement in education.

Governance, School Organization,and Management

Governance, with attention given tostrongieadership roles, was implicit in allreports. Major responsibilities for leadershipwere delegated to the Federal level. A com-mon thread throughout the reports was the'need for Federal support through legislationand funding. Local school districts were seenas retaining their strong traditional leader-ship responsibilities. Private and publicsectors-were to assume their share ofresponsibility.

Action for Excellence and A Nation AtRisk stressed the need for strong State andlocal leadership. The latter study, America'sCompetitive Challenge, and also Making theGrade, expressed the need for a strongerFederal presence in education, whereas aleadership role of business and industry wasfavored in America's Competitive Challengeand Education for Tomorrow's Jobs.

The Paideia Proposal cited the schoolprincipal as having a major leadership role.School organization and management weregiven great emphasis by A Nation at Risk, A

Place Called School, and Horace's Com-promise. Governance of the schools wasdesignated as the primary responsibility of

State and local officials. Policies providingfor more rigorous selection and preparationof school principals were mandated. Horace'sCompromise cited the necessity for totallyrestructuring the school system as the onlylogical alternative in correcting the presentsystem. High School advocated a "principalas leader" approach and outlined qualifica-tions and criteria for principals.

17

.ilum

Several of the studies made major pre-scriptive recommendations for improvingcurricula. A Place Called School, unlike theothers, did not call for a specific core curricu-lum but rather placed the responsibility onthe State for developing "alternative curricu-lar designs" that could be implemented at thelocal level. The establishment of researchand development centers focused on curricu-lum was also recommended,

In contrast, strict adherence to a.corecurriculum for all students was advised in a

few of the studies (Educating Americans forthe 21st Century, Academic Preparation .forCollege, and A Nation at Risk). The PaideiaProposal recommended the.most restrictivecurriculumthe same course of study for allstudents with one exception, the choice of asecond language. Education for Tomorrow'sJobs stated that:high-quality educationincluded mastery of the basic educationaland occupational skills. Although Making theGrade,urged that every student have theopportunity to acquire proficiency in asecond language, literacy in the English lari-guage was deemed the most important objec-tive of the total curriculum.

Students and Learning

Recommendations concerning studentsand the learning process were present in all

of the studies. A Place Called School andHorace's Compromise called for eliminatingthe tracking of studentsthe policy andprocedure that separates college-bound,vocational, and general students into competi-tive curricula. It was further recommended bythe latter that age-grouping cease and that

11

student placement be determined by educa-tional ability and performance:

The ability of students to teach them-selves (Size 1983) was proposed as an over-all objective of education.

Quality and Equity

Two studies placed particular emphasis

on educational quality and equity (Makingthe Grade and High School). The legislativeand executive branches of the FederalGovernment were called upon to emphasizethe need for a better education for all youngAmericans. The function of high schools wasdeemed as preparing all students for a Ile ofwork and continued leakning (High School).

Research

Only five of the reports discussedresearch to any great extent. A Nation at Risk

and Making the Grade advocated Federalsupport for research. They reeognized theneed for research of the education system,performance of teachers and students, thelearning process, and basic programs. An

evaluation of many of the Federally spon-sored education programs was regarded as anecessary first step. America's CompetitiveChallenge recommended private sectorinvestments for research facilities in univer-

sities. A Place Called School suggestedresearch into all aspects of curriculumdesign. Educating Americans for the 21stCentury called on the National ScienceFoundation to support the evaluation and

application of new educational technologiesthrough research projects, with particularemphasis on computer applications.

s

TIVIIIIPAoT OF THESE STUDIES AND SIGNIFICANCEFOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

Reaffirming the Purpose ofVocational Education in the

Broad Spectrum of Education

With the focus on excellence in educa-tion and the "new basic skills," vocationaleducation continues to function in compre-hensive high schools. There is evidence that

___the common core of basic academic skills-has diluted the vocational education programin some secondary schoolt where vocationaleducation is designated as an elective. How-ever, the focus by vocational educators is onimproving teaching in this setting. Thisincludes better preparation of students formeaningful life and work. Preparation orremediation in basic academic skills shouldbe part of a collaborative effOrtbyallteachers to improve common learning so thatall students can understand the need for andapplication of basic academic skills in a. vari-ety of life roles, including preparation for theworld of work.

similar to that offered by a college prepa-ratory curriculum. In addition, vocationaleducation answers the current concern foreconomic development and productivity byhelping shape the quantitative and qualitativecharacteristics of the Nation's labor force.

Vocational education touches the lives ofstudents in the comprehensive high schoolmore than in any other setting. It is estimatedthat 55 percent of secondary vocationalgraduates pursue further education, manyusing what they have learned in vocationalclasses to earn their way through college.The role of vocational education in the edu-cational process is deemed a, major onecapable of serving a variety of functions and

--Student populations well.

In his delineation of the major purposesand functions of vocational education identi-fied at the hearing held by the AmericanVocational Association, David (1983) sug-gested that vocational education provides(1) an alternate program of study for the sub-stantial fraction of high school students whodo not plan to attend college that makes asignificant contribution in student retentionby expanding the range of education oppor-tunities; (2) an increased chance of employ-ment for new entrants into the labor marketthrough the acquisition of employability/occupational skills; (3) more equal opportuni-ties for economically, culturally, physically,emotionally, and intellectually disadvantagedstudents to develop their potential for makinga living; and (4) preparation of students forpursuing further education and training

13

Basic issues for Vocational Education

Not only does vocational education playa major part in th-Weparation of the individ-ual for a meaningful place in a free society,but it is most significant in the individual'spreparation for living and working in a tech-nological society. The major school studiesattribute the economic crisis to the schoolsand hold the schools accountable for devis-ing corrective measures. A Nation at Risk(National Commission on Excellence in Edu-cation 1983) states, '!Our once unchallengedpreeminence in commerce, industry, science,and technological innovation is being over-taken by competitors throughout the world"(p. 5). Action for Excellence (EducationCommission of the States 1983) expressed asimilar concern: "The possibility that othernations may outstrip us in inventiveness andproductivity is suddenly troubling Americans.Highly skilled human capital has alWays beenimportant to our economy" (pp. 13-14).

19

Placing somewhat lesser emphasis thanthe others on education's responsibility tobusiness, Making' the Grade (Peterson andthe Twentieth Century Fund Task Force onFederal Elementary and Secondary Educa-tion Policy 1983) included this statement, "Inessence, the skills that once were possessedby only a few must now be held by the manyif the United States is to remain competitivein an advancing technological world."

A Nation at Work: Education and the Pri-- vate Sector (1984) concluded that vocational-

technical education must be regularlyupdated and improved in all aspects to meetthe needs of students and respond to thechallenges of productivity and technologicalchange. Kang and Bishop (1984) state that"excellence in secondary education canimprove the productivity of the nation's workforce by improving the quality of thevocational preparation of young people(especially of high school dropouts and theOne-third of high school graduates who dOnot attend college) and by improvi,- theemployability skills (career selection, jobsearch, work habits, etc.) of young people"(p. 1).

However, vocational education in thecomprehensive hig-Tsehool has been faultedfor4ts-stow-response to the developments in.technology that have had an impact onchanging labor market demands andrequirements for skills necessary in old andnew occupations. In the overall search forimprovement in education, vocational educa-tors need to respond by becoming attuned tothe dynamics of the labor market. Programsneed to reflect the real world of work anddemonstrate a futuristic stance in courseofferings. The newest technological devel-opments need to be addressed with the .

enhancement and *preservation of the still-valid basic vocational and technical skills.

Rosenthal and Pilot (1983) confrontedthis issue and recommended that U.S.Department of Labor mechanisms for releas-ing information on occupational projectionsbe tied directly to vocational education

Pip

information networks in Order to reach thelargest possible audience of potential users.Vocational educators can then use this newinformation in program planning by incorpo-rating concepts that lead to a better under-standing of our technological world. Thismust be a major focus of the educator'sattention and energy.

The Senate committee, in their endorse-ment of the Carl D. Perkins Vocational Edu-cation Act of 1984, stated that "vocationaleducation, positioned on the cutting edge oftechnological change in the workplace, mustnot, stand pat. To perpetuate outmoded prac-tices in the face of these other changeswould be to create a vocational systemunresponsive to the needs of both employersand the students who invest theil .rust in theeducation they receive" (Update 1984). Theimportance of vocational education in prepar-ing people for a technological society hasbeen recognized nationally. Vocational edu-cators must reinforce this recognition anddirect their programs toward optimal prepara-tion for all the students they serve.

In view of these facts, improving teach-ing (and thereby improving learning) is thepremise on which vocational educators muststand in their striving for excellence in educa-tion. This will have the greatest impact on theSecondary public schools while giving theMost return for time and money invested.

Identifying the Need to ProvideExcellence in Teaching

Problems In the Teaching Profession

The 11 major studies were deeply con-cerned with the plight of the teaching profes-sion in today's society, including the manycompromises teachers, must make to surviveprofessionally. Factors contributing to thisdilemma of teachers were listed as: inade-quate salaries, limited possibilities for careeradvancement, burdens of clerical tasks andsupervisory and disciplinary roles, excessive

14

2

numbers of students in classrooms, and theperceived lack of prestige for the teachingprofessional. These factors add to the currentproblems of high schools trying to improveeducation. The answers to these problemswill be as complex as the great diversity ofthe schools involved and the students theyserve.

Good lad. (1984) delineated the factorsteachers said were the most important totheir work satisfaction. Most of these must be

present for the teacher to perform effectively.Included were optimal class size, adequatefunding per pupil, demonstrated leadershipand administrative ability of the principal,and teacher involvement in the deCision-making process. Goodlad recommended thatdecision making be decentralized, with atriad of teachers, principals, and parentsworking together on major issues. Tx) often,teachers individually have little impact on thefactors that most affect their satisfaction withthe teaching profession. The most direct andimmediate influence on satisfaction is theirinvolvement in the decision-making process.

The Excellent Teacher

The teacher has been recognized asplaying the major role in the teaching andlearning process. However, there is still con-troversy at many levels of education concern-ing the attributes of a good teacher and whatconstitutes good teaching. Excellence inteaching depends on the individual teacher inthe classroom. Truly excellent teachers arerecognized as such by students, colleagues,

and the community at large. The results ofteaching excellence can be identified aschanges in students through their achieve-ment of a high level of learning and demon-strated ability to solve complex problems.The stu nts develop a new thirst for learn-

ing and ex d their creative ability. In addi-tion, students learn "how to learn" so that

they can teach th selves.

How these changes the learning pro-cess occur differs among t etchers. The truly

excellent teachers are able to take thescience of teaching and turn it into an art.Major aspects of this ability include the rela-tionship teachers have with students, theknack for managing a successful classroom,and the use of varied instructional methodsand strategies. Although other factorsimpinge upon the teaching process, these aredeemed the most significant in the day-to-day business of teaching.

Some of the remaining discussion in thispaper will center on the acceptance andunderstanding of the many diverse types ofstudents present in the public schools. A

mutual feeling of acceptance and trustshould underlie the teacher-student relation-ship. Excellent teachers make students feel

that they belong in a particular classroom.These teachers are alert to the student who isalienated, poorly motivated, disruptive, orapathetic. They know how to make the stu-dent comfortable enough in the classroom tobe able to participate actively in the class-work without fe a of making a mistake orinviting ridicule by other students. A bond isestablished between the excellent teacherand the student in the classroom.

There is an astuteness in these teachersthat helps them determine which situationsthey can solve and when it is best to seekadditional help.-These aspects of teachingare observable, major evidence of excellencein teaching.

The Competent Teacher

Scriven (1979) has proposed a definitionof professional teaching that, if consideredand accepted by educators, would have sig-nificant impact on teacher education pro-grams and certification of teachers. He statesthat professional teaching must contributesubstantial positive gains in the learning,either partially or totally, of content, skills,and attitudes. He adds that the learning gainsfrom professional teaching should exceedthose achieved by reading a book or listeningto an audiotape. Moreover, professional

teaching should produce gains that aregreater than those produced by a nonprofes-sional in the same setting. Substituting theword "competent" for "professional" wouldcharacterize excellence in teaching.

Research studies have consistentlyshown certain characteristics of instructionto be correlated with either high or lowachievement of students (Bryant 1981).

These are time management by teachers,classroom climate, and quality of instruction.Medley (1982) opposes the use of "learninggains" as an assessment of teacher compe-tence for purposes of teacher preparation orcertification. He believes that if the teacher isregarded as a professional, the use of pupillearning for evaluating teacher performancedoes not make sense. He argues that one ofthe essential characteristics of practitionersof any profession is that they are notexpected, and are not even permitted, to guar-antee results. Professional ethics demandthat the professional accept any case, how-ever hopeless, and that professionals guaran-tee their services and best efforts, not results.Medley.further states that the public acceptsthe fact that some diseases cannot be curedbecause medical science, being imperfect,knows no way to cure them; but the publicdoes not accept the fact thatsome childrencannot learn some things because pedagogi-cal science, being imperfect, knows no wayto teach them.

Although teachers have an impact onstudents' learning, it is clearly recognizedthat other factors also influence it. At times, itmay be difficult to isolate the influence of anindividual teacher. However, professionalteachers must be held accountable for know-ing and demonstrating the knowledge andskills required of the profession. Educatorscan describe and define better what theseknowledgeSand skills are today than theycould in the past. Teacher education pro-grams and certification should hold theserequirements of the profession to assure afoundation for excellence in teaching.

16

Recruibient and Retention

Beginning in 1970, fewer childrenenrolled in public schools and a teacher sur-plus developed. Educators believed that thiscould be a time for improving significantlythe quality of the teaching force. They pro-jected that more education majors would behired from the top of the graduating class,more rigid and appropriate certificationstandards would be developed, and require-ments of teacher education programs would.be tightened. However, this scenario did notcome to pass.

Newly hired teachers, many times thebest and most talented, but also nontenured,were discharged due to economic con-straints. Consequently, fewer positions wereavailable for new teachers, which resulted in

an aging teaching force.

Currently, a pool ortalented young stu-dents attracted to teaching as a career doesnot appear to exist. A study by Dearman andPlisko (1982) shows that entering collegestudents selecting teaching as a career areamong the least academically talented oftheir classmates. Education majors were thelowest among 12 groups of college majorslisted in the math and verbal subscores of theScholastic Aptitude Test (Benderson 1982).

Why are the talented young people beingreplaced by the less able in teacher prepara-tion programs? Among the possibilities maybe increased opportunities for women to ,

enter other professional fields. Also, salaryranges for teachers as compared to otherprofessionals are very low. The lack of status,promotional opportunities, and satisfactoryworking conditions for teachers is widelyrecognized. These conditions make theteaching profession a less than attractiveprospect for the bright, young collegeentrant.

The traditional satisfactions of teachinginclude seeing young people develop and

22

"flower"; having 3 months each year topursue further education, supplementarywork experience, or extended vacation; hav-ing job-security; and attaining status withinthe community'. These satisfactions do notnecessarily exist in the profession today.Those that do exist may not, in themselves,be reason enough for entering the teaching

N profession. Even a public relations recruit-ment campaign, like those developed by themilitary, may not change the situation.

Reducing certification requirements mayhelp increase the potential pool of teachereducation candidates; however, it will reduce,the quality of those entering teaching. Set-ting high certification standards to eliminatecandidates having a weak academic background or teaching ability would have agreater impact on the quality of teachers in

the long run. This strategy could also havethe effect of increasing the prestige of theprofession.

Raising teachers' salaries significantly tomake teaching careers morecompetitive-withcareers in private industry should have major

. impact on teach,/ recruitment and retention,but this author believes that such an actionalone is not sufficient. Adverse working con-ditions (namely, large classrooms, nonteach-ing duties, school discipline, long hours, and

a long work week) must be corrected.

Alterations in the workplace could beaccomplished through the use of supportstaff working with full-time teachers. Theprincipal must demonstrate leadership abilityand direct school programs; in addition, thediscipline of the student body is a major*responsibility of the principal. Teachers musthave opportunities to collaborate in decisionsaffecting their careers. Team teaching, time-sharing, and flextime should all be institutedas alternative employment practices to makeuse of the excellent teachers who cannot ordo not wish to be employed on a full-time,structured basis.

Meeting the current crisis in certain sub-ject areas will require incentives for potential

17

teachers. These might take the form of grantsfor retraining, reduced work load, smallerclass size, and additional support staff.

Increasing numbers of elementary stu-dents will be entering the public school sys-tems in 1985, immediately creating a need formore teachers, with the same effect onsecondary schools occurring in 1990. Thiswill have varying impact across the countrybecause Of the uneven geographic distribu-tion of available positions andOotential.can-didates. Dearman and Plisko (1982) indicatethat not all teacher candidates secure jobsand that some never apply for certification.These are additional factors that affect thesupply of new teachers.

Modern technology must be utilized tohelp ameliorate this impending teacher short-age by collecting data on available teachersand.positions and disseminating it through-out the Nation in a timely fashion. Theamount and kinds of supply-and-demanddata and their dissemination would have

great impact on public school systems andteacher preparation institutions.

Preservice Education

In addition to ensuring the currency ofteachers in the field, it is imperative that.,school systems hire the best of the newly cer-tified teachers and provide the supportnecessary to allow them to develop into out-standing teachers. Who are the potential newteachers on the education scene? Somerather discouraging results have been foundin answer to this question.

'shier (1984) surveyed 103 teacher edu-cation programs in major public and privateinstitutions to ascertain their admission and 'graduation requirements. Studehts admittedto approximately half of these programsneeded only a 2.0 grade point average (GPA)for admission (a C average) and a mere 3

percent needed a 3.0 GPA (a B average). Thelow GPA standard was replicated in the lowGPA that students earned in their majors with

23.

the average of 2.25 GPA in professional edu-cation and other subject matter courses. This2.25 GPA was all that was required of thestudents to stay in the professional teachereducation programs of half of the institu-tions. A quarter of the institutions onlyrequired a 2.0 GPA. Graduation requirementswere similarly lax, with approximately one-third requiring a cumulative GPA of 2.5 andOne-third requiring a 2.0 GPA.

These statistics indicate that students arenot challenged to perform academically inorder to be admitted to professional teachereducation programs in major universities.Furthermore, they can complete their degreerequirements and enter the teaching profes-sion by maintaining the same low level ofachievement.

In the past years, there has beenrenewed interest in extending teacher prepa-ration to or as much as 7 years (Gallegos1981). Many reasons have been given forextending programs, including the opinionthat the expanded professional knowledgebase cannot be accommodated by rearrang-ing the form and content of existing pro-grams. Reducing the general education andsubject matter components of the teacheredutation program woul e unacceptablesince teachers must be brO ly and rigor-ously prepared. An increas in social esteemand salary have been obse d to follow, notprecede, more stringent tr ing in otheroccupations having professional status. Thismay be the greatest argument in favor of anextended teacher education program.

The funding of model extended teachereducation programs that could demonstratethe value of the increased time may be onemethod of attack. Superior teachers areprepared when students who are bright, moti-vated, and committed to teaching as a pro-

, fession are inducted into such a program.

Since the program approval standardsused by State education agencies influence

18

directly what is included in teacher educationprograms, a revision of these standardswould be required. A review and synthesis of"essential" courses and content would definethe new program.

Koehler (1979) presented a programapproach in which the teacher is emplo)redand concurrently continues training duringthe first years of teaching. Inherent in such aprogram is the recognition that there is a'significant difference between beginningcompetence and professional excellence inteaching. This.model takes into account thefact that the first 3 years, particularly the first,are critical in teacher development. Com-monly called a "fifth-year program," thisapproach creates a bridge between preser-vice and inservice education, which allows anextension of professional and academicstudies and supports the linking of theoryand practice. In some States, this model ispart of a master's degree program.

Colleges and universities can developlinkages with industry, business, and socialservice agencies to provide job placement forteacher candidates in nonteaching positions.Such employment has attracted prospectiveteachers to the teaching profession. Majorcorporations have staff development pro-grams for their employees that could bemade available to teacher candidates as fieldexperiences to enrich their teacher prepara-tion programs.

Lowry et al. (1983) conducted a study ofrecent vocational teacher education gradu-ates to determine their preparation for'instructing exceptional students. They foundthat graduates were not uniformly preparedfor teaching exceptional students, especiallythe adult learner and student's having little orno proficiency in the English language. Onlyhalf of the 2,091 participants from 29 Stateshad been required to take courses rele4ant toteaching exceptional persons. Lowry et al.

recommended changes in teacher prepara-tion programs to remedy these deficits.

24

Insentice Education

Although attention must be given topreservice education of teachers, an imme-diate need for inservice education is seen byLydecker (1983) and Wonacott and Hamilton(1983). This need is even stronger for thevocational education teacher who must notonly remain current in a subject matter fieldbut must also maintain currency in atechnology.

Failure to maintain, such currencyappears to be one of the more pressing prob-lems facing 'vocational education today.Vocational education teachers must not onlyseek currency in their subject matter areas,they must also seek renewal and vitalizationin their teaching methods and strategies.Others must seek competency in new voca-tional areas as obsolescence overtakes theiroriginal field of specialization. If teachersholding tenure are not willing to take theadditional training, methods must be devisedto circumvent the situation so that the educa-tion students receive is current and viable inthe marketplace.

Ravitch (1984) describes an inserviceeducation program for developing teachingmethods in her article on a "good" school,the Edward R. Murrow High School in Brook-lyn, New York. The principal has taken theleadership role in determining the teact+ingmethod to be used in the classroom and inretraining teachers to use the "developmentallesson" or the "socialized recitation." Thedepartment chairs or the principal trains allteachers in this method. This article furtherillustrates the difficulty of maintaining andbuilding a good teaching staff and the prob-lems in removing incompetent and ineffectiveteachers. It is an excellent example of oneperson's determination and leadership abilityco establish a "good" school through "good"teaching.

A new text on the effective use ofresearch findings in teaching has recentlybecome available (Hosford 1984). The authoris concerned with "bridge builders" in

19

education and their attempts to translate newknowledge into common practice. He notesthat some teachers questioned the need forbridge building. They fear they might offendcolleagues by departing from traditionalpractice and are more comfortable with thestatus quo. Others are afraid of possible fail-ure if they adopt the new practicc. Hosfordexamines and presents methods for gainingknowledge, transmitting that knowledge intopractice, and achieving artistic levels ofteaching.

A study by Emmer and Evertson (1982)has been useful in increasing the knowledgeof successful teaching. The instructional'procedures developed for the study areexamples that can be used in teacher updat-ing and training. bydecker (1983) reportssupport for the development of more pre-scriptive research on vocational education sothat program improvement plans will bebased on actual circumstances in the class-room. She recognized that an effort wasneeded to increase the application of generaleducation research on effective schools, timeon task, cognitive process, and so forth, tovocational education. She proposed thatevery vocational teacher complete a paidinternship in industry every 5 years to remaincurrent in the field and that these teachersshould be responsible for teaching otherfaculty the implications of new technology.To this end, she advocated the implementa-tion of a career ladder plan that distinguishesamong beginning teachers, experiencedteachers, and master teachers.

Wonacott and Hamilton (1983) identifiedsix delivery techniques to provide technolog-ical update to secondary and postsecondaryvocational teachers. These are work expe-rience internships; university and collegecourse work; workshops, conferences andseminars; industry observation; educationand industry staff exchange; and part-timeemployment. The investigators report thatmany program personnel fou.nd a noticeabledrop of interest and participation as timepassed. They do not attribute this lagginginterest to any real decrease in the extent or

25

c.

level of teachers' need for technologicalupdating, which they ascertain to be on theincrease. This response to additional trainingneed- urther investigaVon.

. Although further training in "how toteach" may re needed by teachers of all stu=dents, it is essential for teachers mainstream-ing disadvantaged students in vocationalclassrooms. Consultants from the Penn-sylvania Bureau of Vocational Educationidentified the modifications in curriculum,facilities, and teaching strategies required tohelp disadvantaged students succeed. Infor-

.mation has been made available to help thevocational teacher identify students withspecific disabilities (Iwler et al. 1983).

Southern Illinois University has producedcurricula for the Vocationql English as aSecond Language Progra6 (Hepburn et al.1981). The National Cen r for Research inVocational Education a he Ohio State Uni-versity has developed ,,resource guide for

vocational education achers to serve spe-cial needs learners better (Denniston et al.

1980).

These specialized requirements furtheradd, to the inservice education requirementsof teachers. Such requirements place a heavyburden on the teacher which can only berelieved by careful, efficient use of time.Various steps, including releask0 time, relieffrom nonteaching duties, and smaller classloads will aid in providing the teacher withopportunity for the required study. Furtherincentives such as grants-in-aid and salaryincrements would also assist in persuadingmore teachers to seek inservice training,

Recognition of Teachers

Some States have recognized thestrengths of individual teachers by differen-tiating among them. California has beenknown as the trendsetting State in the Nationand was the first to have a 5-year preserviceteacher education program in the State uni-versity system. This State has implemented amentor teacher program on a large scale and

is the first State in the Nation to do so. TheCalifornia MentorTeacher Program has been

adopted by school districts representing 90

percent of the student and teachers in theState. Local school boaMs, working withteacher groups, designate exemplaryteachers as mentors. In addition to spendingthe majority of their time teaching, mentor-teachers provide inservice education to newand experienced teachers and may also,develop special curriculum materials. Theprogram is intended to encourage teachers

' to pursue excellence within their professionand to provide an incentive for them toremain in teaching. Annual stipends of $4,000will be added to their salaries in 1984-85.California school districts can designateup to 5 percent of their teachers asmentor-teachers.

20

Pennsylvania's Governor Thornburg(1983) stated, "We must upgrade the skills ofthose men and women responsible for theinstruction of our children and the manage-ment of our schools, and we must attracthighly competent newcomers to the educa-tion profession, insist on better and continu-ing teacher training, and provide recognition.rewards and other incentives for outstandingwork by our most dedicated educators"(p. 4). He called for full implementation of theagenda for excellence developed'for theCommonwealth system of public education.Included is a spedial Excellence in TeachingAward program for Pennsylvania's most out-standing educators. Thia program provides 1-

year, $2,000 excellence awards annually toeach district's finest teachers. Like California.up to 5 percent of each district's teachingforce will be eligible for an-award in anygiven year.

The criteria for selection of these mentorand master teachers will be a critical factor inthe success of these programs. The definitionof excellence must receive consensus fromall involved as this will be vital to the selec-

tion process.

These programs are examples of twopopulous States' attempts to address the

26

issue of teaching excellence in concert withother measures on broad range ofrecommendations and plans of action forimprovement in the public school system. Itis interesting to note that the novelty of thesemodels is not that they are rewardeystems----iput that they pre being implemented on astatewide basis with adequate funding toinstitute and continue such programs.

Many of the studies on excellence ineducation recommended that outstandingteachers receive some form of recognitionsuch as incentive pay. The pitfalls of thisform of recognition lie in translating the term"outstanding" to mean the acquisition ofadditional Units of college credit, the numberof years on the job, teaching in a school sys-tem with a high percentage of disadvantagedstudents, or in a special subject area wherethere is a shortage of teachers. The HoustonPlan for Educational Excellence, designed by.

the Houston Independent School District in1982, provides extra pay for the presence ofteachers in a classroomlabeled-as "outstand-ing teacher attendance. This, in itself, doesnot necessarily contribute to educationalexcellence and may keep ineffective teachers

in The classroom. Teachers should beexpected to be in the classroom in order to

teach.

It is this author's contention that the realincentive for good teaching is recognition.Such recognition may take many forms,through association with an outstandingschool system, verbal "fitrokes" from those ina position of leadership, or requested partici-pation in the decision-making process.Grants, incentive bonuses, and merit payshduld be awarded in a meaningful mannerthat recognias excellent work.

V

Equity a Equal

Teacher education inatitutions and theschool sygtem ersed to beware ofthe needfor equity and eritikility in education. Voca-tional eduCators mtlet.take a proactive stanceto ensure equity and equality in vocational

so

education. Major obstacles to achievingthese goals are the traditional views of voca-tional occupations and the work role percep-tion of vocational teachers. Welter (1981)states that vocational teacher educators can'inbrude'equity awareness activities intocourses, encourage students from nontradi-tional backgrounds to enter graduate vOCE1-tional education programs, and cooperatewith administrators and guidance counselorsin developing sex equity strategies. Race andethnic discrimination are seen as more sub-tle. Grossly unequal enrollments exist invocational programs, resulting in the per-petuation and prolongation of inequity in

employment for women, disabled individuals,and minority group members.

Strategies that have een used to pro-mote equity in vocation programs include.sensitivity workshops or activities, interdisci-plinary teachi teams, and application ofsound rese ch to equity and equality con-cerns in vocational education. In addition, itis possible to modify or redesign teachereducation programs to include selectiverecruitment.tor equity.

In literature on ferrfate learning styles,Berthelot (1982) found support for implica-tions involving traditionally male voattionaktechnical education programs. Implicationsfor education included varied teachingmethods to accommodate learning style dif-ferences and varied content, method, anddelivery to attract women to nontraditionalprograms.

Codification

Certification policies vary among theStates and are often historic in nature. In

most cases certification requirements arebased On specific subject matter an educa-tion courses taken by the teacher ca didate.

Some States have approved teacher educa-tion programs or waiver programs that granteligibility for certification to studentscompleting these programs. Thesecertifica-tion standards, because they are based on

21

27

minimum standards, do screen out theclearly unacceptable teacher candidates, butthey do not ensure that those certified are themost competent to teach.

There are numerous examples of per-sons-hired to teach on an "emergency" cer-tificate who were not certified to teach andwho nevertheless taught successfully. Thereare also examples of those who were certifiedbut were either not successful or only mini-mally successful in a teaching career. If therewere a more distinct correlation between cer-tification and competence, schools could uti-lize to a greater extent uncertified part-timebusiness and industrial personnel as theywork toward certification. This could be anadvantage in those areas where there is apredicted shortage of teachers but could becounterproductive if noncertified teacherswere deemed as effective as certifiedteachers by those outside the educationalcommunity.

From the beginning of Federally spon-sored vocational education programs, voca-tional educators have recognized the needfor a valid and effective system for credential-ing vocational teachers. Over the years, Statestandards for certification of vocational edu-cation personnel have been based on tradi-tion, logic, and the law of supply anddemand. There continues to be alwide rangeof standards, criteria, and certification prac-tices across the States (Miller 1982). How-ever, the States do agree that valid workexperience is essential for certification ofvocational teacheis. The Smith-liughes Actclearly specifies that only persons with prac-tical experience be allowed to teach in Fed-erally reimbursed programs. Occupationalexperience remains the certification require-ment for some vocational service areas in all

50 States.

In a National survey of certificationsrequirements, Resnick (1977) observed thatwork experience requirements for vocationalteachers ranged from 1 to 8 years, varyingwidely within vocational service areas. Miller

22

(1980) found that 10 States did not requireany work experience for vocational agricul-ture teachers. Norman and Way (1984)determined that some amount of work expe-rience was required for certification ofsecondary occupation') home economicsteachers in 75 percent of the States, includ-ing the District of Columbia.

Standards for vocational education certi-fication are Under continual review, and up-to-date competency for recertification is amajor area of concern. Documentation oftechnical competencies is more difficult toascertain than the completion of a specifiednumber of college credits for renewal of cer-tification. 16 addition, the number of semesterhours required prior to beginning teaching.varies widely. Resnick and Gardner (1979)found a range of 52.4 credits lot trade andindustrial teachers to 117.2 credits for voca-tional agriculture teachers. They concludedthat such a variaton in certification helps toexplain why reciprocity agreements continueto develop slowly for vocational teachingcredential acceptance among States.

A study conducted by Greenan and, Larkin (1982) determined the existing voca-

tional and special education certificationpolicies and practices in the 50 States, theDistrict of Columbia, and the Trust Terri-tories. Most States do hot issue vocationaland special education certification for voca-tional and special education persnnel.ever, course work and occupational workexperience are primary requirements for cer-tification in those States offering such certif:-cation. While most States offer certification inK-12 special educition, postsecondary andadult special education certification is almostnonexistent. Very few States waive the onr:u-pational work experience requirements fo,

certification. In addition, undergraduate anograduate course work is used to satisfyrequirements for extended certification. It

was found that a limited number of Statesrequire vocational educators to completespecial education courses for vocationalcertification.

Many States are now moving to developand use tests as some part of their certifica-tion systems. A recent National survey com-pleted by the Council of Chief Stafe SchoolOfficers reported that 20 States are moving toor are presently using tests (Andrews 1982).Less than half the teacher education pro-grams surveyed by Ishler (1984) indicatedthat students needed to pass certificationtests to become eligible to receive a teachingcertificate. Andrews (1982) found that thereported purposes of the tests are to screencandidates for basic skills mastery, to testcandidates' knowledge of content in the certi-fication field, and to assess leaching perfor-mance on the job. Validity and reliability ofthese tests and their impact on minorities, thecosts of administration, and legal considera-tions are important concerns confrontingStates and are yet to be evaluated.

Vocational Education andthe Student Population

The diversity and sophistication oftoday's student population must be recog-nized. Students have changed over the yearsin pace with vast and rapid technologicalchanges in the world. Youths "grow up"sooner and have more freedom and respon-sibility. They are more knowledgeable andworldly than their predecessors. Many havetraveled more widely and achieved a greatervariety of experience than their teachers.

Preparation for Life

Preparation for a fulfilling life is a majorcontribution of vocational education pro-grams in addition to preparation for the worldof work. There is evidence that these pro-grams are valued by many youth and play animportant part in the retention of youth inhigh schools. Students who find basic educa-tion difficult and not meaningful can learnthrough direct application in the vocationaleducation classroom; likewise, studentssearching for meaning in high school educa-tion can find significant classes, courses, and

23

programs in the vocational setting. Further,freedom of choice for all students in the edu-cational setting is enhanced through thesevocational education offerings.

Tracking of Students

The major studies recommended discon-tinuance of the tracking of students in publichigh schools. It was concluded that the prac-tice of tracking discouraged, if not elimi-nated, the diversity required to retain'theinterest of today's students. At the same time,an increased and prescriptive common coreof academic basic skills courses was alsoproposed for all students. This increase in

the length and number of courses could elim-inate, and has in some cases eliminated,many elective courses, including vocationaleducation courses. A common core of aca-demic basic-skills :lasses that has depth andbreadth could, in effect, become a one-tracksystem.

If a one-track system became the norm,it eliminate choice in courses and pro-grams. This would'undoubtably increase thedropout rate in many schools. Some com-promise between diversity and tracking mustbe determined to assure the flexibility neededfor divrose student populations. It will benecessary to meld the basic core and voca-tional studies package in such a way thateducational requirements and the needs ofstudents are met.

Student Motivation and Retention

Vocational education classes play amajor role in motivating the student to stay inschool, prepare for the future, and plan for alife of work. This student motivation cannotbe overlooked when improving education inthe public schools and is a topic that hasreceived increasing attention by researchers.Stauffer (1982) identified eight steps neces-sary to improve the intellectual motivation ofstudents: provide a conducive classroomenvironment, establish high standards,

29

provide special help, maintain close interac-tion between student and teacher, providespecial attention to gifted students, becomeinvolved in school concerns, increase timespent on academic careers, and allow stu-dents to evaluate faculty.

While one may question certain items onthe list, it seems obvious that increasedteacher involvement in the process of educa-tion is necessary if students who lack .motiva-tion are to achieve success. Most vocationaleducation teachers are accustomed to work-ing with students on a one-to-one basis. Theexcellent vocational education teacher helpsstudents determine why they should dosomething, what they should accomplish,and where they should direct their goals. Theimportance of this challenge should not beunderestimated.

Based on a National temple of 3,400young people by Mertens, Seitz, and Cox(1982), all else being equal, vocational educe-lion participation increased the probability ofhigh school completion, although the size ofthe effect was small. To a small degree, thisindicated a need to combine.education in thevocational classroom with other methods ofinterventioi to retain the most dropout-proneyouth.

Weber nd Silvani-Lacey (1983) indi-cated that when potential and actualdropouts ar afforded the opportunity toparticipate i vocationally oriented programsthat have aril integrated basic skills compo-nent, their b sic skills attainment will usuallyincrease su stantially. Based on the outcomeof this stud , they recommended earlier iden-tification of ropouts, increased use of indi-vidualized i structiOn, and further work oninnovative a d flexible program delivery.

Student ActOevement

There is evidence to suggest that highexpectations'of teachers directly affect stu-dent achieveMent. These high expectationsdetermine the criteria for measuring student

achievement. If high student standardized testscores are expected, and efforts by teacherand students are directed toward that goal, apositive student achievement will result.

It is important to note that there is dangerin using anyone criterion for judgingachievement. Test scores, for example,'should not be used alone in measuring theeffectiveness or excellence of teaching,although this is the major criterion for manyschool systems in the Nation today. TheNational studies cited lower standardized testscores as the major indication of an overalldecrease in the quality of education in publicschools. A better indicator for judging effec-tiveness or excellence is through the establishment of program goals, selection ofmethods to meet these goals; and thendetermination of to what extent the goalshave been met based upon predeterminedcriteria. This cannot be better illustrated thanthrough the concept of serving thedisadvan-taged student population.

Oliadvantaged Students

Disadvantaged students, including spe-cial needs students, dropouts, migrants, andother youth who do not fit the "norm" of theNation's secondary student population, have

been given much attention over the past fewdecades. Some vocational programs find adisproportionate numiier of disadvantdged,students in the classroom. This may be due

to many factors,.one of which is the practiceof tracking..A severe problem still exists inproviding optimal education and essentialeducational services for these students. Theyoften come to the vocational classroom with-out the necessary grounding in the basicacademic skills that are needed for applica-

v tion in the program. It is in this area thatvocational education performs a major

service.

A variety of program delivery methodshave been and are currently in Use. Plata and

Jones (1982) delineated roles for vocational,special, and bilingual education teachers in

24

30

an interdisciplinary approach to vocationaleducation of limited or non-English-speakingand disabled students. A cooperative teach-ing approach was presented by Mod (1979)for comprehensive career education forbehaviorally disordered and learning-disabled 'students. He states that educationalpriorities for secondary special needs stu-dents require an emphasis on vocationalrather than academic training and a morestructured learning situation. Integrated pro-grams, mainstreaming of students, and use ofintervention strategies are prevalent in theliterature on disadvantaged students. Voca-tional educators need to remain current onthe research that is in progress and to beaware of the results of previous research inorder to apply findings in their programs in

their high schools.

Many successful programs for disadvan-taged students were found by investigators in

a study conducted through PennsylvaniaState University in 1978"(Meeting the Needs

of Teachers.of Disadvantaged Programs inPennsylvania). Findings of the study notedthat successful teachers of disadvantagedstudents seemed to display more endurance,order, and deterrence than did less success-ful teachers of disadvantaged individuals.Ellis (1978) emphasized the strong need forschools to improve and extend the benefits ofvocational education to groups that have

been bypassed historically, including minori-ties, women, disabled persons, persons with ,limited English-speaking ability, and poorindividuals. He suggested greater flexibility inprograms and recommended that vocationaleducators take a more active role in job plan-ning and job development for these students.

Additional heip is available to the teacherof disadvantaged youth in the form ofconcept-rich National and State informationsystems such as the Educational ResourcesInformation Center (ERIC) and VocationalEducation Resource System (VERS). VERS islocated in the Office of Vocational Educationin the California State Department of Educa-tion and is a resource information system forteachers with special needs students.

25

Another statewide resource system in Cali-,fornia is Vocational Occupational I nforma-'tion Center for Educators (VOICE), located inthe Vocational Education Support ServicesSection of the U.S. State Department. ManyStates have similar resource information sys-tems operating within their States, serving asa major source of supportfor vocationalteachers.

Even with rich sources of help andinformation, it is recognized that the humaningredient is the most important part of anylearning experience. All students can achieveto the best of their ability if they can recog-nize positiv outcomes for themselves.Recognition of their achievements will pro-duce changes in student motivation, interestin learning, and a positive attitude towardlearning. Vocational education can offer suc-cessful experiences for students and providethe foundation needed for lifelong interest inlearning, for an enriched and fulfilled life, andfor admission to the mainstream of life.

The School and the Instructional Process

Purpose of Schools

It is recognized that many other factorsare operative in the educational setting inconcert with the educative process, andmany of these must be addressed beforeteaching and learning can take place. Ratherfacetiously, Cohen (1984) stated that theschool system was not failing but that it pro-vided very real and necessary functions intoday's society. "It keeps the student off thestreet and out of the job market for a longerperiod of time, it provides free care for work-ing parents, and many students are prepared

for further education at undemanding institu-tions of higher education" (p. 13). He

believes that "legal and economic compul-sions, and the social pressures that havebeen generated have helped to turn highschools into social centers for otherwiseunoccupied adolescents. High schoolteachers accommodate well to the reality ofschool, making life together most decent and

31

sometimes genuinely compassionateandgenerally undemanding" (p._14).

Thornburg (1983) recognized thatschools are called upon to meet a variety ofstudent needs far in excess of education."Schools ... deal with.problems such ashealth, mental health, discipline, and familyproblems. Schools are asked to handle prob-lems such as truancy, delinquency, and high-youth unemployment rate" (p. 25). He pro-posed that school districts develop partner-ships with many human service agencies intheir communities. This would alleviate theirbdrden of responsibility for noneducationalprograms and enhance their ability to providereliable information and training to students,parents, and teachers in a wide range ofproblem areas.

Many problems facing society today andhaving impact on the youth in high schoolshave been discussed by educators (Spitze .

1984). These include mental illness and sui-cide, drug abuse, child abuse and abuse ofthe elderly, violent crime, poor nutrition, andalcohol-related traffic deaths. Spitze con-tended that "the purpose of schooling is notjust preparation for more schooling but also,and especially, preparation for life--for our-selves and for our contribution to others andto society as a whole" (p. 51). She furtherstated that "some of our most important edu-cational objectives are content free, amongthem, helping students develop positive self-concept, a love of learning, and the ability tothink" (p. 51).

It seems evident that teachers should notjust teach subject matter or job preparationbut, first and foremost, teach children.Addressing the multitude of problemsbrought forth in the lives of the youth oftoday, moreover, is a necessary step in thetotal process of education.

Vocational educators must seek ways touse real-world problems and challenges andtranslate theseinto complex problem-solvingskills. The criteria for successful teaching

26

should include not just whether the studentwas placed in employment, but whether.ornot the student has acquired the problem-solving skills necessary for continued suc-cessful learning. This does not negate theneed for developing basic skills, a positiveattitude toward learning, personal motivation,and other attributes that contribute. to learn-ing success.

Vocational teachers have a multifoldpurpose: preparing students for entrance intothe world of work in a technologicalaaociety,preparing students for a meaningful life andlifelong learning, collaborating with businessand industry to improve the education pro-cess, and providing application and remedia-tion in basic academic skills.

Learning Environment

This multifold purpose of vocationaleducation is achieved in the individual class-rooms by what "happens" in the classroomsThe classroom determines, to a great extent,the amount of learning that takes place.Much literature exists on "classroom con-trol," including literature on the methoJsused for opening and closing class periods,the friendly but yet respected teacher, specialtechniques to gain attention, and strategiesfor maintaining an "orderly freedom." One ofthe major factors of classroom control forteachers is their competency in developingresponsible, self-motivated, and self-directedstudents. Students involved in matters affect-ing their destiny will help produce themaximum in classroom effectiveness. As anillustration of what is believed to be impor-tant in the learning environment, Griffin andassociates (1983) selected particular teach-.ing behaviors in designing and implementinga staff development program. These werebased on behaviors found in research andincluded learning environment (warm andsupportive), classroom management (wellorganized), classroom instruction (workoriented), and productive use of time (briskpaced).

32

Instructional Time

The productive use of time and time

--Spent,* aperticolarrloarning task have been

the topic of much research and educationalcommentary. Cohen (1984), in reaction to therecommendation by some of the major stu-dies that the school day and year beincreased in length, expressed concern aboutthe lack of commitment and wasted hours in

many classrooms.

Barranco (1984) continued this theme inreaction to the criticism that the currentschool year is too short: "I am not convincedthat we will improve education by simplyadding more time. I am more concerned withthe way time is currently used" (p. 7).

Honig (1983), in discussing the majorelements of school effectiveness for the Cali-fornia public school,system, made the follow-ing points on the maximum use of 4ime:

"Efforts need to be devoted to determineboth how much time can be obtained forinstructional purposes and how to better use

that which is already available. .. . Strongefforts must be taken to ensure that theteachers' current instructional time is notreduced and that it is free from interruptions.Since the amount of time that a studentspends in instruction is so closely related to

his or her learning, major efforts must bedevoted to helping teachers increase thistime factor in the classroom" (p. 2). However,Karweit (1983), in summarizing and evaluat-ing existing studies of time use in school,

found inconsistent effects of achievement.She concluded that the effect of time spent inthe classroom in educational tasks is influ-enced by what is being studied, the diversityof the student group, the dynamic nature ofteaching and learning, and the skills of the

teacher.

Time is said to be our most preciousresource and, as in any other endeavors, itaffects the productivity of the school. Timewas found to be a mediating factor in theteaching process (Kuwait 1983). Since there

is a limited amount of time available for

27

instructional purposes, including years,weeks, days, and class periods, maximizingthb use of time is one method of improvingthe quality of teaching. et.< ,2 cl ,.4,:,111-4,;,f 4,1,47pj..r.1

This use of time is referred to as "time-ontask" and defined as.the amount of time astudent is actively engaged in learning activi-ties. The use of time on task in secondaryvocational education was studied by Halasz

hm (1983) and Halasz, Behm, andFish (1984). They found that 65 td 76 per-

cent of instructional time was spent on task,with by far the greater part of this time spenton content, including basic, technical, andemployability skills, and a very small propor-tion of time spent on noncontent, includingsetup, cleanup, and other related tasks.Approximately one-fourth of the instructionaltime was spent socializing and 5 percent ofthe time on scheduled breaks. This meant :

that between -24 and 35 percent of a student'stime was spent off task. Just three`of thefields of specialization were studiedagriculture, business and office, and tradeand industrial education. Not only were.4herevariations among these service areas but alsoamong classes in the same service area.

an

The researchers found that key class-

room variables and teacher behaviors bothrelated to time on task. Positive relationshipswere found among student time on task andteachers' knowledge of classroom behavior,teaching methods, the relevancy of the tux,organization of the curriculum, definition ofclass goals (found to be the most importantoverall variable), and grouping of students(found to be the most important classroomvariable). They also found that time on task

can be increased by defining goals clearly,treating time as an important resource, pre-

planning and organizing for the classroom,

using a range of teaching methods, assigningmeaningful tasks, minimizing scheduledbreaks and interruptions, and encouragingstudents to work independently. In addition,

time on task was increased when teachersprovided positive reinforcement for students,

held positive expectations, and served as role

models for good work habits. Teachers were

33

found to have the responsibility for directingstudents' use of time and instituting neces-sary change.

0,111/ 4,,

Karweit (1983) eigitained-tharstearning"time results from the conversion of thenumber of days allotted to the number ofdays attended, from the reduction of thelength of the school day to the fraction of theday used for instructions, and from the shrink-age of allocated instructional time in a sub-ject to the time engaged inlearning or time.on task" (p. 18).

There is sufficient evidence that both theamount of time and the use of the time allot-ted affect the teaching and learning process.This recognition has been translated intoaction plans of increasing the school yearand day, and adding to the requirements ofthe basic skills courses. These correctivemeasures are direct and readily apparent tostudents, teachers, administrators, and thecommunity. Effective use of time in the class-room is an individual matter, almost totally inthe control of the teacher. Improving educa-tion by making the best use of allocated timeis a most difficult and time-consuming pro-cess. It is one area that needs the attentioA ofboth teachers and administrators in the pub-lic schools.

Learning Process

In addition to time on task, what is beingtaught and how instruction.takes place havemajor impact on the learning process. Somestudents achieve more when taught withstructured curricula and others respond bestto more individualized or discovery learningapproaches. Other students, who learn orreceive their instructions directly from theteacher, achieve at a faster rate than thosewho are expected to learn new materials orskills on their own or from each other. Instudies on teaching, evidence indicates thatthe high success rate seen in the classroomsof highly effective teachers and programs isobtained because the initial instruction

28

proceeds in small steps that are not too diffi-cult. Also, these teachers monitor the stu-dents in the practice of new knowledge andskill to the point where bonding results, anecessary step for retention.

Methods of instruction depend on thesubject to be taught, the individual student,the teacher, and the teaching moment.Hawley (1982) has identified tasks that are .required of most teachers in order to beeffective in most situations. These are as fol-lows: getting and holding attention, settingdirection, diagnosing end acknowledging thestarting level of student knowledge and skill,relating new material to students' prior expe-rience, recognizing and incorporating stu-dent ideas, stimulating student thinking,engaging students with ideas, involving stu-dents with materials, structuring peer learn-ing situations, and responding to student'work.

Despite similarities in subject matter,acquisition of the subject matter takes placein varying ways for most students in a class-room. Recognizing that students learnthrough a number of instructional methods,this writer haschosen to highlight one prom-ising method by discussing the background,use, problems, and promise of competency-based education (CBE) for vocationaleducation.

Performance-based or competency-based instruction gained much attentionfrom educators in the early 1970s. Exemplaryvocational programs using Competency-based instruction are found in many geo-graphic areas in a wide range of settings. By1977 the Commonwealth of Kentucky hadcommitted itself to having all vocational pro-grams competency based and developedmany CBE modules for student use. Duringthe late 1970s, the West Virginia VocationalCurriculum Laboratory also developed largenumbers of competency-based instructionalmaterials. Proceedings from the Californiastatewide workshop entitled "Common CoreCurriculum in Vocational Education"

34

Included information on preparing teachersto initiate, plan, and manage competency-based vocational programs (Cooke andVandegiriend 1977).

Vocational educators have taken aleading role in the movement towardcompetenCy-based education since thismethod of instruction has grounding in thebasic principles of vocational education.Focusing training on the skills that workersneed and using trainee performance as a

basis for assessment have been character-istics of vocational training for a long time.The systems approach to the instructionalelements is the aspect of CBE that is new.Proponents of this method of instruction seegreater relevancy, efficiency, and effec-tiveness in instruction, whether it isorganized in an individualized and modularsystem or in a traditional lecture and demon-stration setting. A model of a competency-based vocational program is shown ingraphic terms in figure 1.

VARIABLE TIME LINE

TEST-OUT PROCEDURES

f

ExitI

to Re-entrySub- to

occupation Complete Program

Figure 1. Model of competency-based vocational program

SOURCE: Used with permission of Glen Fardig (1977. p. 4).

There are basic principles behindcompetency-based education. The compe-tencies included derive from analysis of thetasks performed by successful workers andare made known to the student in advance ofinstruction. The instructional program is

29

specifically directed to help students achievethe competencies. Students move throughthe program by demonstrating that thesehave been achieved. Assessment of studentperformance is based on predeterminedcriteria and occurs when the student has

35

mastered the material up to that point. Eachstudent is assessed individually throughcriterion-referenced measures rather than incomparison with other students.

Problems inherent in this system have todo with the difficult and time-consuming taskof developing the instructional materials.These can be overcome with the help ofteacher educators and curriculum specialists.Teachers using the CBE method need toview this type of instruction with a newoutlook and remain flexible in theirprogramming.

Classroom management, shown to be a .

factor in finding increased time for time ontask, has major implications in thecompetency-based education approach sincethe variety of learning activitiesysed in itmay be extensive. Teachers must alsobecome adept at managing the individualperformance assessment of students. Smithand Nagel (1979) worked with competency-based education at San Diego State Univer-sity and found that competencies as a goalrequired a change of behavior on the part ofthe instructor. They found that once mas-tered, this new strategy became satisfying formany teacher educators. They state, "For theindividual instructor, once he/she is suc-cessful in specifying objectives, working oncompetencies, looking at performance anddeveloping a one-to-one relationship withstudents, there is no turning back" (p. 1954The National Center for Research in Voca-tional Education at The Ohio State Universityhas developed a very complete series ofmodules for performance-based teach reducation. These provide pre- and inse ceteachers with thitfelning necessOtthe transition to programs based on thismethod of instruction.

A large number of competency- andperformance-based programs are firmly inplace in high schools, postsecondary insti-tutions, and universities throughout theNation. This approach to teaching in thevocational classroom can preserve quality,

30

equal opportunity for students, and improvethe teaching and learning process.

Critical Need for the Instruction ofBasic Academic Education through

Vocational Education

Boyer (1983) states that many vocationalcourses "are enriching and useful. They pro-vide excellent options for a wide range ofstudents and should be strengthened, notdiminished" (p. 127). The strengthening ofvocational programs and instruction in aca-demic basic skills is seen as going hand inhand. He recommended that the relationshipof the two in the comprehensive high schoolbe explored.

The National Advisory Council of Voca-tional Education reported on five regionalforums held in 1983 on the topic of businessand vocational edtcation (A Nation at Work1983). The forum participants indicated Thatmastery of basic skills is fundamental.intoday's world and that only those studentsproficient in reading, writing, computing, andcommunicating can achieve competency inmodern vocational programs. They statedthat while education must stress the basics, itmust redefine them to be work related. Voca-tional programs and career exploration were,'seen as extremely useful in helping manystudents see the relevance of the basics totheir work lives. Ways in which vocationaleducation and the teaching of basic subjectsfit together should be made clear to allteachers and administrators.

State leaders are also very concernedand involved in providing direction for cur-riculum development and effective teaching.Honig (1983) reported a list of school effec-tiveness factors that were developed by theTask Force on Standards for EffectiveSchools in California. Included in the list of16 major elements of school effectivenesswas rigorous content. The report Mated:

In effective schools, students areexposed to a broad-based academic

6

curriculum, including reading, language,mathematics, science, physical educa-tion/health, social studies, and fine arts.In addition to placing strong emphasison the mastery of basic skills, effectiveschools also give attention to high-orderthinking skills and concepts. And theteaching of the basic skillsreading,writing, and computingis an acceptedresponsibility not only of English andmathematics teachers but also of otherteachers. (p. 2)

The topics and subjects that constitutebasic academic skills differ according to theperson or report addressing the issue. Expe-rience Based Learning (McClure 1977) listedlife skills as critical thinking, functionalcitizenship; and personal and social devel-opment; basic skills as reading, writing,listening, and mathematics; and careerdevelopment as career knowledge, employ-ability skills, and understanding work. ANation at Risk (National Commission onExcellence in Education 1983) identifiedEnglish, mathematics, science, social studies,and computer science as the "new basics"and recommended that State and local highschool graduation requirements be strength-ened to include a foundation in these fivesubjects. Henry and Raymond (1982) listedreading, writing, speaking and listening,mathematics, science, and reasoning asbasic skills with other skills listed as humanrelations and work .behavior. Cooperation atthe community level between companies andschool systems was suggested for the pur-pose of generating new methods to deal withthis problem. In The Unfinished Agenda, theNational Commission on Secondary Voca-tional Education (1984) recommended"secondary vocational education coursesshould provide instruction and practicein the basic skills of reading, writing, arith-metic, speaking, listening, and problem-solving" (p. 25).

Basic academic skills are prerequisite forvocational education and essential for filland successful participation in the world

ti

31

today. Most people in our society work, and

they must demonstrate employability andoccupational competencies. Basic skills arefundamental in this regard and essential tomobility and access to the world of work.Campbell-Thrane and others (1983) reportedthat a number of research studies show that"higher payoffs from vocational training canbe expected when basic skills instruction(principally remedial) and vocational skillsacquisition are functionally tied together"(pp. 1-2).

How well do vocational education stu-dents attain basic academic skills? Haneyand Woods (1982) found that the basicacademic skills attainments of those partici-pating in general track and in vocationaleducation secondary programs appear to be

similar: This finding is similar to that of Lotto(1983) and Weber and his associates (1982),who found in addition that secondary voca-tional education students are less proficientin basic academic skills than are academicstudents.

Corman (1980), in her literature search,found that information was not yet availableon the level of basic skill acquisition ofstudents in different vocational programs;however, vocational education students per-formed below average in reading compre-hension, vocabulary, and thath'ematics. Later,Weber and Silvani-Lacey (1983) found thatthe basic skills'attainment of secondary voca-tional students varied according to the ser-vice area or program in which they wereenrolled. They also found that the basic skillslevel of potential and actual dropouts usuallyincreased substantially when they partici-pated in vocationally oriented programs withbasic skills components. Careful attentionshould be given to these findings by voca-tional educators who plan to incorporatebasic skills education into their programs.

What can vocational education teachersdo to incorporate basic skills instruction intothe curriculum? How can the extent of basicskills deficiency be determined by the

37

vocational education teacher? Roberts et al.

(1975) developed three preentry criterion-referenced tests, "Skill Checks," which weredesigned to assess an applicant's verbal andmathematical competencies and to assist in

the implementation of remedial education.Although these tests were developed for thespecific vocational training areas of officeoccupations, automotive mechanics, andmachine shop, they could serve as modelsfor use in other curricula. Dunn, Gray, andMartini (1982) recommended diagnostic testsfor use in the vocational classroom and sug-gested the use of source information oninformal student assessment.

The early identification of skill deficien-cies and appropriate corrective action shouldhelp vocational education students completetheir education program successfully. Wells(1981) directed a project to enhance thebasic skill levels of marketing and distributiveeducation students identified as disadvan-taged through a tutorial approach to teach-ing. Students in the project experienced asignificant gain in test scores in both Englishand math. A similar result was found byWeber and Silvani-Lacey (1983) while using

an integrative approach to teaching basicskills in vocationally oriented programs.Their study synthesized existing data on thecharacteristics of actual and potential drop-outs and identified methods to remedy basicskill deficiencies in these youths.

The June 1981 issue of VocEd wasdevoted to basic skills instruction. Since thispublication was issued, much research andstudy has gone into the development ofstrategies for teaching basic skills in voca-tional education and into the development ofresource materials for this purpose.Campbell-Thrane and her associates (1983)

have developed three models for deliveringbasic skills instruction in conjunction with

vocational education, which are identified asnonintegrated, integrated, and combinationmodels. Lotto (1983) analyzed the strategiesand approaches used by vocational educa-tors and found that they are most likely touse a combination of four approaches: reme-

--tliation (a compensatory approach), rein-forcement (a support-oriented approach),alternative schools (a total organizationapproach), and inservice training (an instruc-tional improvement approach).

1

32

Curriculum is as important as teachingmethods and strategies. Educational mate-rials are being developed to answer the needfor basic Skills instruction. A few exerrples °include materials developed by-the OregonState University (1981-1983) for writing,mathematics, speaking and listening, andreading skill improvement in vocational edu-cation secondary programs (Martin 1981;

Mathematics in Vocational Education 1982;Speaking and Listening in Vocational Educa-tion 1983; Writing in Vocational Education1983). The National Center for Research inVocational Education at The Ohio State Uni-versity has published modules that enablevocational teachers to assist students indeveloping and reinforcing their basic skills.Dunn, Gray, and Martini (1982) have listedapproximately 200 vocationally relevantinstructional materials and sources on basicskills development and have developedinstructional strategies for a broad range of

secondary vocational programs.

Basic skills instnIction in vocational edu-cation secondary prcigrams can enhance theachievement of excellence in public schoolsystems. Education for academic, life, andemployability skills cannot be separated andcategorized for teaching by any one method,curriculum, teacher, or program. The coop-erative efforts of all involved in the educativeprocess are necessary to attain this goal.

38

IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Current trends in secondary vocationaleducation indicate that teachers will continueto be the critical factor affecting the success(excellence) of school programs. The litera-ture suggests that teachers will need new andrenewed support in this endeavor. IMprove-ments in the quality of teacher education,both preservice and inservice, will bedependent upon programs that addressteaching methodology and provide up-to-date information in the subject matter col-cialty. Proper complication for the valueheld for.education must be extended in orderto attrabt and retain the best teachers.Teacher excellence can be identified frOminformation present in the research literature.

Vocational educators must identify thenattire of quality curriculum, teacher excel-lence, model programs, and the supportrequired'to provide for excellence in teach-ing. This information must be impressed onthose who make the critical decisions onprograms and funding. Undoubtably, certain

/programs and methods are more effective ininfluencing adolescent attitudes and behav-iors, and certain other methods are bestsuited to specific Student needs. These mustbe documented. With the increasingdemands to demonstrate program account-ability, evaluative research of this type mustbe given high priority. It is critical that pro-grams that are 'working" be supported and

strengthened.

Further research and a systematic dis-semination system for this research on allaspects of teaching and learning in the voca-tional classroom must be recognized as vital.Taking what is good from research in othersubject areas and blending it with specificvocational research can enhance theresearch process. It can well provide a coop-erative and interdisciplinaryeolution to theproblems that cut across disciplines and pro-vide for overall excellence in teaching and

education.

To achieve excellence in vocational edu-cation, teaching must be improved:

33

Vocational education course workmust be thoroughly redesigned toincorporate the basic academic skillsas an integral part. This will requirean updating of all vocational educa-tion teachers as well as a major re-structuring of vocational educationpreservice teacher preparation. Thisthrust in education toward narrowerand narrower specialization has, inthe past, provided very little in theway of basic education for studentspreparing for specific occupations. Abasic education consisting of thatgleaned in grades K through 12 is notsufficient to cope with today's tech-nological society. Therefore, utilin-tion of currently developed materialon teaching.the basics through voca-tional education should be incor-porated into teacher preparationprograms.

Competency-based education, asone method of improving excellencein vocational education, should beinstalled in the vocational educationclassroom. The competency-basededucation approach holds greatpromise for the improvement of voca-tional teaching. Teachers will need toaccept individualization of instruc-tion, provide opportunity for studentswith varying learning styles and rates,.become more flexible, and develop*the ability to extemporize. A newoutlook will be needed for the newrole of the teacher in the classroom,that of resource person or facilitatorrather than lecturer. Managerial skillswill oe essential in organizing theclassroom and.laboratory to facilitatethe variety of learning activities in

the competency7based educationmethod. ,

Time-on-task research has provideda catalog of a number of the short-comings of current classroom prac-tices. The application of this research

39

to the vocational education class-room could very well provide the"extra" time required to teach the .

basic elements of a new program.The use of this research will dependheavily on the suppoit of the schooladministrative personnel. Many func-tions now performed in classroomshave very little to do with the educa-tional Process and will have to beperformed at the administrative levelto make this proposal work.

Preservice education of vocationaleducation teachers will require rigor-ous examination and revision. Notonly must subject matter areas berevised to include the teaching ofbasics as an integral part, butmethods must be instituted to insurethat the students enterinhe voca-tional education teachiWprofessionare of the caliber and scholastic abil-ity that will provide the basis forexcellence in teaching. It will be

4 necessary to raise the GPA require-ments both for entering the field andfor remaining in the program. Cer-tainly, the GPA renuirement forgraduation in any teacher educationprogram should be well above theaverage. A GPA of 3.0 would notseem unreasonable, and perhapsstandards should eventually gohigher than that. a

Inservice teacher education in voca-tional education will also requirerigorous examination#nd revision.All inservice teachers will requirework in the teaching of the basics asan integral part of their subject mat-ter. Further, a system of requirementsfor maintaining currency in the fieldshould be instituted to assure thatinservice teachers do in fact remaincurrent in subject matter and teach-ing methods. It will be necessary totie such a requirement to the renewalof certification in order to provide

-4\

34

this assurance. Additionally, it will benecessary to provide an effective sys-tem for "retreading" those teachers insubject matter areas that becomeobsolete as technology progresses.Such a system probably wouldrequire a stipend and other supportfor those teachers who participate.

rTeacher certification is a contro-versial process that will require acomplete and thorough overhaul.Certification should not be a rewardfor completing university coursework successfully. A system must bedevised that will provide temporarycertificat!..in while the neophyteteacher gains experience. Full certifi-cation should come only after theneophytes have proven themselves ascapable teachers of specific subjectmatter in "real" classrooms. Further-,more, the certification system mustprovide a means of tying inservicetraining or retraining to the certifica-tion process. This should be done insuch a way that failure to remain cur-rent in one's field would result in lossor suspension of certification untilsuch time as currency is reestab-lished. One suggested model for acertification program of this typemight be the professional engineer-ing and architectural registrationprograms of the variousStates. Mostof these provide for a postgraduateexamination of subject matter and anexperience requirement of 3 to 5years followed by a professionalexam. These registration programshave worked well in providing forcompetency in fields where publicsafety is involved and and could wellprovide a similar program for teachercertification. The institution of a"master" certification level wouldprovide a means of rewarding trulyexcellent teachers and might help insolving the bruising that tenurewould receive in establishing such a

40.

program. kttainment of such a certi-.fication could provide a worthwhilegoal for any professional.

Improvement otthe status of theteaching profession and teachers canonly be provided by the teachersthemselves. School administrators,educators, and legislators can help;however, the first effort must bemade by the teachers. The publicdoes not perceive the teacher as ahighly qualified professibnal. To alterthis image will require exemplary .per-formance, excellence in..teaching,and successful programs. The publicmust see that t e educational systemand its teachers e worthy of profes-sional status. No i all part ofthiswill be the perception that Johnnyand Jill can score higher in the Scho-lastic Aptitude Test than studentsscored last year, the year before, or 5.

years before .that.

Recognition of truly excellentteachers is mandatory to make anyscheme for improvement in teachingwork. To excel requires the expendi-ture of much extra effort. If that effortis not rewarded, it will be difficult, ifnot impossible, to sustain it. Suchrewards as salary increments,bonuses, grants, andeleased time

35

tiw.

Will help; howeverc,lhe most impor-tant reward is beer and public recog-nition. Without recognition no system/of rewards can long suffke. Those frewards that are perceived by therecipient as, indicative of achievementare the most successful. Therefore,grants, bonuses, and such one-timerewards appear to be the more effec-tive. Such rewards, coupled withrecognition, will prove to be the mostsuccessful. 1

Attracting professional teacheri intovocational education classrooms willrequire that salaries commensuratewith professional attainment be ten-dered. Of equal importance is workload. Additionally, class size must be

examined and the number of contacthours addressed. Adequate time forclass preparation, grading of papersand projects, and for study to main-tain currency must be provided.

Educators, legislators, members repre-senting professional organizations, individu-als from the corporate sector, and lay peoplewill need to work in concert to develop actionplans that will most directly and effectivelyaddress the above recommendations. Voca-tional educators should take a major leader-1ship role in this process.

41

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