topic 6 teaching and learning strategies (1)

8/12/2019 Topic 6 Teaching and Learning Strategies (1)

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INTRODUCTION

TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

6.1.1 Definition of Strategy

A strategy is a tool or method used to accomplish a task. For example, we mayuse a crane to lift heavy objects or bake a cake. A teaching strategy is a method ortechnique to enhance learning performance.

6.1

TTooppiicc

66Teaching and

Learning

StrategiesLEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:1. Explain the meaning of teaching strategies;

2. Explain the behaviourist, cognitive and constructivist teaching strategies;

3. Apply the various teaching strategies in instruction.

4. Discuss the concept of thinking skills;

5. Discuss the importance of thinking skills;

6. Discuss types of thinking skills;

7. Discuss how learning problems could be overcome by understandingthinking skills;

8. Accurately explain the use of thinking tools;

9. Discuss three types of thinking tools; and

10. Discuss how thinking skills could be improved by using thinking tools.


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TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES76

Strategies are goals intended to facilitate a performance. Strategies are processesthat when matched to task requirements, improve performance.

Below are some examples of teaching strategies:Table 6.1: Teaching StrategiesTeaching Strategy Definition

Brainstorming A learning event in which a group of learners spontaneouslycontribute ideas. Example: A group of students giving theiropinions on the danger of smoking.

ComputerSimulation Computer-based representation of real situations or systems.Example: Using acid-base titration to determine end-points. Or asimulator for pilots to train before being allowed to pilot an

aircraft.

CooperativeLearning A learning technique in which learners are members of aninterdependent problem-solving group in which they collaborate,share and delegate responsibilities, practise with others ofvarying abilities, and practise communicating with others.

Demonstration A learning event in which an individual demonstrates how to dosomething.

Dialog Journals Logs or notebooks used by more than one person for exchangingexperiences, ideas, or reflections used most often in educationas a means of sustained writing interaction between students andteachers at all educational levels and in second language andother types of instruction. Example: A logbook to keep track ofstudents supervision.

Discovery Learning An inquiry-oriented learning event in which the learnerdiscovers. Example: An experiment with acids and bases todiscover their characteristics.

Discussion Oral, and sometimes written, exchange of opinions usually toanalyse, clarify or reach conclusions about issues, questions orproblems.

Drill Practice A learning event in which a learner repeats a skill in order to fix itin his or her mind.

ExperientialLearning Learning by doing Includes knowledge and skills acquiredoutside of book\lecture learning situations through work, playand other life experiences. Experiential education includesadventure education, environmental education and servicelearning.


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TOPIC 6 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES 77

Field Trip A learning event that typically takes place outside schoolgrounds.

Game Typically a competition or contest that involves demonstration ofunderstanding of content or skill.

Guided D esign Reasoning-centred instructional method developed by Charles E.Wales and Robert A. Stager that uses small-group techniques anda prepared outline of decision-making steps to guide studentsthrough the process of resolving open-ended problems.

Hands-on A learning event that engages learners in a practical applicationof content and skills.

Inquiry Also referred to as scientific inquiry; refers to activities in whichlearners develop knowledge and understanding of how scientistsstudy the natural world.

Laboratory A learning event that involves practising science skills and usingscientific equipment.

Lecture A learning event in which one person explains a topic to the restof the group or class, and this audience takes notes and listens.

Model Simulation A learning event in which an educator and/or learner models orsimulates a natural or physical phenomenon.

MultimediaInstruction

Integration of more than one medium in a presentation or module

of instruction.Peer Coaching A learning event in which one learner helps another learner.Peer Response A learning event in which one learner gives written or verbal

feedback to another learner.

Play Typically refers to the manner in which a lot of early learningoccurs.

Presentation Typically refers to when a student explains or shows somecontent to a learning audience; similar to a lecture.

Problem Solving Occurs when learners work to determine the solution to aquestion raised for inquiry.

Role Playing The deliberate acting out of a role (possibly a role that one wouldnot normally occupy), as part of group learning session directedtowards understanding that role or the situations.

Simulation andGames The use of role playing by actors during the operation of acomparatively complex symbolic model of an actual orhypothetical social process; usually includes gaming and may beall-man, man-computer, or all-computer operations.


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DIRECT INSTRUCTION

Direct instruction (DI) is a popular behaviourist instructional strategy forclassroom teaching initially developed in the 1960s by Siegfried Engelmann. Itgrew out of the work of Siegfried Englemann and Carl Bereiter withdisadvantaged children (Bereiter & Engelmann, 1966).

This method is somewhat related to mastery learning, but it is more explicitregarding curriculum design and effective planned instructional delivery (lessonplanning). Some call this method "teacher proof" under the condition that hereally is willing to learn a teaching script developed by professional instructionaldesigners. Direct instruction is available as commercial instructional programmesthat include materials and teacher training/ in-classroom coaching.

Features The following are features of direct instruction:

Scripted Lesson Plans. Such lesson plans relieve the teacher from time-consuming preparation tasks. These are explictly tested examples andsequences made by professional instructional designers.

Signal-based teachers. Teachers frequently send signals to learners to whichthey should respond.

Skill focused: Skills are taught in sequence until students have themautomated.

Appropriate pacing: Teacher-directed instruction followed by small collectiveor individual learning/ repeating activities. Pacing of different teachingmethods is rather fast but children must have space to respond.

Frequent probing/ testing and assessments with appropriate correctivefeedback/ differential praise.

Direct instruction is not just drill & practice. Learners can engage in morecomplex tasks during certain activities.

Kenny (1980) lists the following features:

(a) Goals are clear to the students;

(b) Time allocated for instruction is sufficient and continuous;

(c) Content covered is extensive;

(d) Students' performance is monitored;

(e) Questions are at a low cognitive level and produce many correct responses;

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INDIRECT INSTRUCTION

Indirect instruction is more student centered. It involves student involvement inobserving, investigating, drawing inferences from data, or forming hypothesis.

6.3.1 Needham Model

One example of the indirect instructional strategy is the Needham Model.Needham has identified five phases in the learning process based on thefundamentals of constructivism. These phases are:

Table 6.2: Needham Five Phases in Learning ProcessPhases Purpose Examp le of Activities

Orientation Gain students interest and

attention.

Provide motivation

Provide events that contradicteach other

Give problems for thestudents to think about

Elicitation ofIdea

Identify students previousideas.

Concept mapping

Q&A sessions that lead tothinking

Restructuring ofIdea

Expand or modified previousideas based on scientific ideas

Investigate using scientificskills

Hands-on and minds-on

activities Activities that utilised

science-process skills

Group communication

Application ofIdea

Apply the idea into newsituation

Solving new problems

Designing projects

Reflection Value how far the ideas have

transform

Reflective questioning

Help students to their changeof ideas and the processing

skill that they have achieved

6.3.2 Laurillard Conversational Framework

Laurillard (1993, 2002) claims there are four main aspects of the teaching-learningprocess and that different educational media can be analysed (and used) in termsof these dimensions.

6.3


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This framework can be considered both learning theory and a practicalframework for designing educational environments. Higher education, accordingto Laurrillard, is much about acquiring "ways of seeing the world." Associated

pedagogic strategy has to consider different forms of communication andassociated mental activities: Discussion, adaptation, interaction, reflection.Design of learning environmentsLaurillard's framework includes four important components:

Teacher's concepts;

Teacher's constructed learning environment;

Student's concepts; and

Student's specific actions (related to learning tasks).

Figure 6.1: Laurillard's Conversational FrameworkEach (larger) pedagogical scenario should include all four kinds of activities(communication forms) that happen in eight kinds of "flows" in the model.

(a) Discussionbetween the teacher and the learner

(i) Teachers' and learners' conception should be mututally accessible

(ii) Both should agree on learning objectives


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(b) Adaptationof the learners actions and of the teacher's constructed environment.

(i) Teacher must adapt objectives with regard to existing conceptions

(ii) Learners must integrate feedback and link it to his own conceptions

(c) Interactionbetween the learner and the environment defined by the teacher

(i) Teacher must "adapt to world," i.e. create an environment adapted tothe learning task given to the learner

(ii) Teacher must focus on support for task and give appropriate feedbackto the learner.

(d) Reflectionof the learner's performance by both teacher and learner

(i) Teacher should support the learner to revise his conceptions and toadapt the task to learning needs

(ii) Learner should reflect at all stages of the learning process (initialconcepts, tasks, objectives, feedback, ...)

Learning Styles ModelThe Felder design mod elis an instructional design model based on learning styleconsideration. While some learning style people argue that pedagogical designs(in particular, electronic learning environments) should accommodate differentlearning paths, Felder (in the context of class teaching) argues that it is sufficientto incorporate a variety of teaching modes.

Felder-Silverman m odelAccording to Felder (1996, 1993), this model classifies students along the

following dimensions:(a) What type of information does the student preferentially perceive?

(i) Sensing learners (concrete, practical, oriented towards facts andprocedures) or

(ii) Intuitive learners (conceptual, innovative, oriented towards theoriesand meanings).


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(b) Through which modality is sensory information most effectively perceived?

(i) visual learners (prefer visual representations of presented material--

pictures, diagrams, flow charts) or(ii) verbal learners(prefer written and spoken explanations).

(c) With which organisation of information is the student most comfortable?

(i) Inductive learners(prefer presentations that proceed from the specificto the general) or

(ii) Deductive learners (prefer presentations that go from the general tothe specific).

(d) How does the student prefer to process information?

(i) Active learners(learn by trying things out, working with others) or

(ii) Reflective learners(learn by thinking things through, working alone);

(e) How does the student progress towards understanding?

(i) Sequential learners (linear, orderly, learn in small incremental steps)or

(ii) Global learners(holistic, systems thinkers, learn in large leaps).

6.3.3 Active LearningWhat is meant by active learning?

According to Boyer, E. (1990):Great teachers stimulate active not passive learning, and they encouragestudents to be critical, creative thinkers, with the capacity to go on learning aftertheir college days are over.

According to Bonwell and Eison (1991). active learning involves:

Less emphasis on transmitting information and more on developing students'skills;

Higher-order thinking (analysis, synthesis, evaluation);

Activities (e.g. reading, discussing, writing); and

Greater emphasis on students' exploration of their own attitudes and values.


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According to Meyers and Jones (1993):

Research literature suggests that students must do more than just listen. Theymust read, write, discuss or be engaged in solving problems.

Most important, to be actively involved, students must engage in suchhigher-order thinking tasks as analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

Thus, active learning is:

A class teaching and learning techniques that involves students in learningactivities other than passively listening to lectures;

Can be defined as instructional activities relating students to doing thingsand then reflecting on what they are doing or what problems they are

solving; Can occur in class or outside of class (e.g. computer simulations, Internet

assignments or discussion, independent study research).

Can be used with all levels of students from first year to graduate level.

6.3.4 Cooperative Learning

Cooperative Learning (CL) is an instructional paradigm in which teams ofstudents work on structured tasks (e.g. homework assignments, laboratory

experiments or design projects) under conditions that meet five criteria: positiveindependence, individual accountability, faceto-face interaction, appropriateuse of collaborative skills and regular self-assessment of team functioning(Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1998).

Mod els used in Cooperative LearningBelow are some models in cooperative learning:

THINK-PAIR-SHARETHINK Assign a topic.

Students think.

PAIR Students move to assigned partners.

Please move to your partner that we assigned earlier.

Students discuss with partners.


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SHARE Teacher calls on students to share with class.

Student #4, Derick, what did you and your partner say about how to bestsolve word problems?

(a) Modification: Timed Pair Share(i) If you want to prevent one person from monopolising the

conversation, set a time limit and students take turns talking.

(b) Modification: Rallyrobin(i) If the discussion is supposed to generate a list from the pair of

students, the students can take turns writing.

(c) Modification: Think-Write-Pair-Share(i) Slows pace of discussion. All students write their ideas so teacher can

monitor the participation.

(d) Managing student behaviour(i) Assign partners to avoid issues of popularity.

(ii) Change partners to allow students to experience each others

communication styles.

(iii) Require quiet think time.

(iv) Monitor discussions.

(v) Ask students to share what their partner said to emphasise thatlistening skills are important.

NUMBERED HEADS TOGETHER Place students in groups of four.

Number students in each group 1 4.

Present information to students.

Require students to think about answer in groups and develop a consensus.

Call on number 1, 2, 3 or 4, and ask any student with that number to raisetheir hand.

Call on one student or several students for answers.


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Modification: Involving the Class

(a) After students present their answers, you can call on the entire class toshow agreement or disagreement. Every student must answer.

Who agrees with this answer? Show me a thumbs-up sign if you agree orthumbs down if you think another answer is correct.

(b) If you want justification, ask Why?

JIGSAW Students are part of a learning group and research team.

Students meet in their LEARNING GROUP and define goals.

Each student from the group joins a separate RESEARCH TEAM to researchtheir part of the goal.

Students return to the LEARNING GROUP to share results and teach groupmembers.

The LEARNING GROUP shares with entire class.Modification: Individual Experts

(a) Instead of joining a research team, students work independently andbecome an expert before sharing with the LEARNING GROUP.

Each of you will now become an expert in your topic. Here are theresources you can use

GROUP INVESTIGATION Teacher introduces a unit.

Students list topics to be investigated.

LEARNING GROUP chooses a topic.

LEARNING GROUP determines subtopics for members to investigate.

Members prepare report on subtopic for LEARNING GROUP. Subtopics combined into information on topic.

LEARNING GROUP presents their topic to class.

Managing Student Behaviour

(a) Coach learning groups on equitable distribution of subtopics and work-load.


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(b) Listen to students as they respond to the reports presented by individuals.Encourage sensitivity and demonstrate examples of respectfuldisagreement.

I sense that you are displeased with your teammates research. Talk to meabout what you would have done with that subtopic. Well figure out howwe can work with him.

6.3.5 Problem-based Learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is the process of acquiring new knowledge basedon recognition of a need to learn. In problem-based learning, small groups ofstudents are presented with contextual situations and asked to define the

problem, decide what skills and resources are necessary to investigate theproblem and then provide possible solutions (Duch, Groh & Allen, 2001).Therefore, ill-structured problem-based learning has been chosen as theinstructional material strategy. Ill-structured Problem-based Learning providesstudents with opportunities to learn in situations that are similar to those theywill encounter in the real world. Students work together in small groups guided

by tutors who are responsible for ensuring that the learning objectives for eachcase are identified.

Savery and Duffy's (1994) model of the PBL process proposes some steps that a

facilitator could follow:(a) Facilitator identifies or designs an ill-structured problem or task relevant to

the learner.

(b) Facilitator presents the problem to the learners.

(c) Learners, in their own groups, collaboratively:

(i) Generate working ideas or possible;

(ii) Identify available information related to the problem;

(iii) Identify learning issues;

(iv) Identify resources to look up or consult;

(v) Assign tasks to the various group members;

(vi) Gather information; and

(vii) Propose solution(s).

Steps two through five may be repeated and reviewed as new informationbecomes available and redefines the problem.


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THINKING SKILLS

6.4.1 What are Thinking Skills?

The statement by Rene Descartes (1596-1650), I think, therefore I am, expressesthe meaning of thinking for us as humans. Our brain is the most important thingwe have but people usually do not bother to think about thinking. According toDe Bono, thinking skills are not about intelligence or high IQ. Intelligence is like

the horsepower of a car while thinking is the driving skills with which anindividual drives his or her intelligence (De Bono, 1995, p. 6).

So, what are thinking skills? Alvinoo, in his 1990 "Glossary of Thinking-SkillsTerms," offers a set of definitions which is widely, though not universally,accepted by theorists and programme developers. These include (Cotton, 1991):

(a) Bloom's TaxonomyThis is a popular instructional model developed by prominent educatorBenjamin Bloom. It categorises thinking skills from the concrete to theabstract knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis andevaluation. The last three are considered higher-order skills.

(b) Cognition This focuses on mental operations involved in thinking; the biological/neurological processes of the brain that facilitate thought.

(c) Creative ThinkingThis is a novel way of seeing or doing things that is characterised by fourcomponents fluency (generating many ideas), flexibility (shifting

6.4

Teaching/ learning strategies are selected in the design phase whendesigning instructional materials for effective instruction. Thestrategies chosen may be based on behaviourist, cognitive orconstructivist perspectives depending on the learning outcomes.Discuss and design using a specific teaching/ learning model, forexample, the Needham Model, Problem-based Learning Model(constructivist) or Gagnes Nine Events of Instructions (cognitive), alesson plan for classroom use. You may include some snapshots ofyour storyboard.

ACTIVITY 6.1


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perspectives easily), originality (conceiving something new) andelaboration (building on other ideas).

(d) Critical ThinkingThe process of determining the authenticity, accuracy or value ofsomething; characterised by the ability to seek reasons and alternatives,perceive the total situation, and change one's view based on evidence. It isalso called logical thinking and analytical thinking.

(e) InfusionIntegrating thinking skills instruction into the regular curriculum; infusedprogrammes are commonly contrasted with separate programmes, whichteach thinking skills as a curriculum in itself.

(f) Metacognition This is the process of planning, assessing and monitoring one's ownthinking; the pinnacle of mental functioning.

(g) Thinking SkillsThis is a set of basic and advanced skills and subskills that govern aperson's mental processes. These skills consist of knowledge, dispositions,and cognitive and metacognitive operations.

(h) TransferThis is the ability to apply the thinking skills taught separately to anysubject.

6.4.2 Importance of Thinking Skills

Why do we need thinking skills? According to Teacher Net of United Kingdom(2008), thinking skills will lead to:

Children building their own internal planning systems;

Developing attention; Increased perception;

Enhanced memory skills;

Intellectual development; and

Motivation.

They also think that thinking skills will help to prevent overload due to thequantity of knowledge in the curriculum and solve the problem of difficulty in


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learning. Curriculum Development Centre Malaysia (2008) gave five reasonswhy we should develop thinking skills:(a) We need to produce Malaysian citizens who can think skilfully in order to

achieve the goals of Vision 2020;(b) As stated in our National Philosophy of Education, we need to develop

individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physicallybalanced and harmonious;

(c) One of the objectives of the Integrated Curriculum for Primary Schools(ICPS) is to develop pupils ability to think critically and creatively as wellas make decisions and solve problems;

(d) Thinking skills help in the better understanding of a language; and

(e) Thinking skills are also lifelong skills.

6.4.3 Categories of Thinking Skills

Although various definitions and types of thinking skills have been proposed inthe world of education, most of them are similar as they contain the followingterms (Kizlik, 2008):

(a) ThinkingThinking refers to the process of creating a structured series of connective

transactions between items of perceived information.

(b) Metacognition Metacognition refers to awareness and control of one's thinking, includingcommitment, attitudes and attention.

(c) CriticalthinkingCritical thinking refers to reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused ondeciding what to believe or do. Critical thinkers try to be aware of theirown biases as well as be objective and logical.

(d) Creative thinkingRefers to the ability to form new combinations of ideas to fulfil a need, or toget original or otherwise appropriate results by the criteria of the domain inquestion.


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Kizlik (2008) listed other terms of thinking skills based on the functions ofinstruction. He stated that instruction is a conglomeration of decisions andactivities that are made and carried out in order to procure the desired outcomes

for learners. Some of these decisions and activities are as follows: Activating prior knowledge

Analysing skills

Attention

Attitudes

Classifying

Commitment

Comparing Composing

Comprehending

Concept formation

Conditional information

Core thinking skills

Creative thinking

Critical thinking Curriculum

Decision making

Declarative information

Defining problems

In this topic, we will only discuss three of the most important and commonthinking skills critical and creative thinking, problem solving and decisionmaking.


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6.4.4 Critical and Creative Thinking

Curriculum Development Centre Malaysia (PPK, 2008) noted that criticalthinking skills are required in order to skilfully assess and analyse data andinformation. Making an analysis means breaking up data and information intoparts and studying each part in more detail.

Skilful analysis involves the skills of comparing and contrasting, classifying,arranging and sequencing, identifying facts and opinions, identifying biasedstatements, giving causes, predicting, making inferences and generalisations,interpreting and summarising.

Creative thinking skills are the skills of generating many, varied and new ideas.The skills involved in making inventions and innovations may be classed undercreative thinking skills. PPK suggested a model for critical and creative thinkingskills as shown below:

Figure 6.2: Model of critical and creative thinking skillsBased on the model of Critical and Creative Thinking Skills as shown above, PPK(2008) created the types of thinking skills as the following:


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Figure 6.3: Types of thinking skills

6.4.5 Problem Solving

Foshay and Kirkley (2003) stated that for much of the 20th century, educatorshave devoted their attention to defining and teaching problem-solving skills. Inthe early 1900s, problem solving was viewed as a mechanical, systematic, andoften abstract (decontextualised) set of skills, such as those used to solve riddlesor mathematical equations. These problems often have correct answers based onlogical solutions with a single correct answer (convergent reasoning).

However, under the influence of cognitive learning theories, problem solvingshifted to represent a complex mental activity consisting of a variety of cognitiveskills and actions. Garofalo & Lester (1985) stated that problem solving includedhigher-order thinking skills such as "visualisation, association, abstraction,comprehension, manipulation, reasoning, analysis, synthesis, generalisation each needing to be managed and coordinated."


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There are various problem-solving models now. One example of a generalproblem-solving model in the 1960s and 1970s is Bransford's IDEAL model:

Identify the problem;

Define the problem by thinking about it and sorting out relevant information;

Explore solutions by looking at alternatives, brainstorming and checking outdifferent points of view;

Act on the strategies; and

Look back and evaluate the effects of your activity.

The problem-solving model given by Kreger (2002) consisted of seven steps:

(a) Read and analyse the problem scenario;

(b) List what is known;

(c) Develop a problem statement;

(d) List what is needed;

(e) List possible actions;

(f) Analyse information; and

(g) Present findings.

Cognitive research done in the last 20 years has led to a different model ofproblem solving. Today, we know problem solving includes a complex set ofcognitive, behavioural and attitudinal components (Foshay and Kirkley, 2003). In1983, Mayer defined problem solving as a multiple-step process where theproblem solver must find relationships between past experiences (schema) andthe problem at hand and then act upon a solution. Mayer suggested threecharacteristics of problem solving:

(a) Problem solving is cognitive but is inferred from behaviour;

(b) Problem solving results in behaviour that leads to a solution; and

(c) Problem solving is a process that involves manipulation of or operations onprevious knowledge (Funkhouser and Dennis, 1992).

Figure 6.4 (Gick, 1986) shows a problem-solving model which is frequently used,according to Foshay and Kirkley (2003):


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Figure 6.4: Problem solving model

6.4.6 Decision Making

According to the Oxford Dictionary (2004), decision is a choice or judgement thata person makes after thinking and talking about what is the best thing to do; anddecision making is the process of deciding about something important especiallyin a group of people or in an organisation.

So, when do we need to make a decision? Some conditions must exist before wecould claim that a decision is required. First, there must be two or more possibleconsequences of a taken action. Secondly, there are values added as the result ofthe taken action. Thirdly, there are variations in effectiveness of the taken action.

How to make a good decision? Decision making consists of complicated stagesowing to its characteristic as a process leading to an event. Since decisionmaking is a process, we must be clear on what is the problem. Then, we need tolist all possible alternatives and ask ourselves what we are going to do. Then, wemust state the factors that we have to weigh in making the decision. There aremany types of frameworks or processes to simplify the process of makingdecisions. The most common decision making consists of five stages, aspresented in the Figure 6.5:

Figure 6.5: Decision making process


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The five stages of decision making are:

(a) Define the problem;

(b) Analyse the problem;(c) Identify available alternatives;

(d) Choose the best alternative after appraising all the alternatives; and

(e) Implement the alternative in the situation.

THINKING TOOLS

Thinking tools are used to assist learners in organising their thinking. There is asignificant relationship between the type of tool and the way that a skill, concept,process or disposition is best learned. In this module, we will discuss three typesof thinking tools mind map, graphic organiser and CoRT I.

6.5.1 Mind Map

A mind map is a diagram used to represent words, ideas, tasks or other itemslinked to and arranged radially around a central key word or idea. It is used togenerate, visualise, structure and classify ideas, and as an aid in studying,organisation, problem solving, decision making and writing (Wikipedia, 2008).

Basically, a mind map is an image-centred diagram that represents semantic orother connections between portions of information. According to Buzan (2002), a

mind map is the ultimate organisational thinking tool. Figure 10.1 shows theuses and users of mind map. It is usually used for learning, brainstorming,memory, visual thinking and problem solving. The target group of mind mapusers includes educators, engineers, psychologists and people in general.

6.5

ACTIVITY 6.2

1. Discuss what are thinking skills.

2. State the steps in a simple problem-solving method


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Figure 6.6: Uses and Users of Mind MapAccording to Wikipedia (2008), some of the earliest mind maps were developed

by Porphyry of Tyros, a noted thinker in the third century. He graphically

visualised the concept categories of Aristotle. Ramon Llull also used structures ofthe mind map form. But it was British popular psychology author Tony Buzanwho popularised the use of mind maps.

The characteristics of mind map are as follows:

Use key words or images;

Use a lot of colours;

Use interesting forms, shapes, styles and patterns;

Use arrows or codes; and

Are very creative and delightful.

6.5.1a Roles of Mind Map

According to Buzan (2002, p9), a mind map will:

Give an overview of a large subject or area;

Enable you to plan routes or to make choices and will let you know whereyou are going and where you have been;

Gather large amounts of data in one place;

Encourage problem solving by allowing you to see new creative pathways;and

Be enjoyable to look at, read, muse over and remember.

According to Buzan (2002), those who use mind maps will be more creative, savetime, solve problems, concentrate, organise and clarify their thinking. They willremember better, study faster and more efficiently, thereby passing exams with


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good grades. In short, mind maps make studying a breeze. Mind maps alsoenable people to see the whole picture, plan, communicate, survive and savetrees.

Simply, mind map is used as a:

Technique of writing notes for speeches, briefings, lectures or readingmaterials;

Technique of forming the framework for writing reports, essays orpresentations;

Technique of writing synopses or summaries after literature review;

Tool for presentations (more simple and interactive); and

Guideline to remember something without referring to the original material.

6.5.1b How to Do a Mind Map

Four important things are required in order to create a mind map (Buzan, 2002):

Blank unlined paper;

Coloured pens and pencils;

Your brain; and

Your imagination.

Buzan suggests using the following foundation structures for mind mapping(Wikipedia, 2008):

(a) Start in the centre with an image of the topic, using at least three colours;

(b) Use images, symbols, codes and dimensions throughout the mind map;

(c) Select key words and print using upper or lower case letters;

(d) Each word/ image must be alone and sitting on its own line;

(e) The lines must be connected, starting from the central image. The centrallines should be thicker, organic and flowing, becoming thinner as theyradiate out from the centre;

(f) Make the lines the same length as the word/ image;

(g) Use colours your own code throughout the mind map;

(h) Develop your own personal style of mind mapping;

(i) Use emphasis and show associations in your mind map; and


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(j) Keep the mind map clear by using radial hierarchy, numerical order oroutlines to embrace your branches.

The following is a simple way to do a mind map:(a) Write the title in the centre of the paper. Form a unique shape;

(b) Draw a few lines that match the title and write the important subtitle on thedrawing lines; and

(c) Create a few characters in categories at the end of each line.

Figure 6.7 is an example on types of television programmes:

Figure 6.7: Mind Map on Types of Television Programmes

6.5.2 Graphic Organiser

Graphic tools and organisers help students to organise their ideas and presentinformation. They also help students to clarify their thinking and to process,organise and prioritise information. Visual organisation of information supportsstudents by revealing patterns and relationships. Consequently, they canunderstand concepts by describing and remembering the relationships betweendifferent ideas and concepts (LTAG, 2006).


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Graphic organisers can help to motivate, increase recall, assist understanding,create interest, combat boredom and organise thoughts. So, what is a graphic

organiser? According to Gotoscience.com (2008), a graphic organiser is a: Visual representation of knowledge;

Semantic map;

Structured overview;

Concept map;

Semantic organiser;

Story map;

Scaffolding; Way of structuring information into organisational patterns;

Way to facilitate pre-reading, post-reading, pre-writing, revising, discussingand reasoning;

Way to promote active learning;

Highly effective tool for improving social interaction and collaboration;

Framework for what is to be learned; and

Way to access students previous experience and knowledge.

6.5.2a Guidelines to Help Students in Creating GraphicOrganisers

Gotoscience.com (2008) provides some guidelines to help students in creatinggraphic organisers. These guidelines are given below:

Discuss with students what are graphic organisers and how to use them;

Show students examples and non-examples of graphic organisers;

Use a completed graphic organiser to teach a lesson or fill in graphicorganisers while teaching a lesson;

Let students help the teacher fill in a blank on the overhead projector;

Give students a partially completed graphic organiser. The teacher has thesame graphic organiser on the overhead. Teacher and students fill in togetheror students may fill in by working in small groups or individually;

Students are given a blank graphic organiser to fill in by working in smallgroups or individually;


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Give students opportunities to create their own graphic organiser. Let themdesign their own format. They may work individually or in small groups;and

Let students present their graphic organiser to the class to teach a mini-lessonor to explain why they chose a particular format.

6.5.2b Types of Graphic Organisers

There are many types of graphic organisers used to illustrate a students or class'prior knowledge about a topic or section of text, such as a star, a tree, a Venndiagram or a flowchart. The process of converting a mass of data, information orideas into a graphic map gives the student increased understanding and insight

into a topic. Thus, in choosing a graphic organiser, we must know the functionsof each type of organiser. Table 10.1 shows some examples of graphic organisersand their functions.

Table 6.3: Examples of Graphic OrganisersDescribing ComparingContrasting Classifying Sequencing Causal DecisionMaking

Webbing

BrainstormingWeb

Money Web

Double CellDiagram

HierarchyDiagram

ResearchCycleClusterDiagram

DesktopFolderSystem

SquirrelsWeb

ConceptMapping

Concept Map Simile School is


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Matrix

Venn

VennExpanded

ComparisonMatrix

KWHL Thinkinggrids

FlowChart

DesktopFolderSystem

LinearString

ExpandedLinearString

DominoEffect

(Cited from: http://www.graphic.org/goindex.html)

Besides knowing the functions of each type of graphic organiser, we need toidentify our purpose or the skills we want our students to develop. Generally,graphic organisers could be used to develop the following skills:

Comparison

Categorise

Explain

Investigate

Prediction

Assumption

Decision making

Problem solving

The daily practice of the majority of teachers during the teaching and learningprocess is to use a verbal organiser. A verbal organiser involves putting keyinformation in text form on a piece of paper. The difference between a verbalorganiser and a graphic organiser is that a verbal organiser will state theinformation in text form or sentences while a graphic organiser presentsinformation in figures with some key words. Figure 10. 3 shows how a verbalorganiser and a graphic organiser have been applied for the purpose ofcomparing. Figure 10.4 shows how a verbal organiser and a graphic organiserhave been applied for the purpose of categorising.


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Figure 6.8: Graphic and Verbal Organisers for Comparisons

Figure 6.9: Graphic and Verbal Organisers for Categorisation


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6.5.3 CORT

CoRT is the short form for Cognitive Research Trust, which was proposed by

Edward de Bono, a cognitive researcher. He was the proponent of lateralthinking. He also advocated the teaching of thinking as a skill. According to deBono, there are six parts in a CoRT lesson:

CoRT I - Breadth

CoRT II Organisation

CoRT III Interaction

CoRT IV Creativity

CoRT V Information and Feeling

CoRT VI - Action

However, in this topic, we will only discuss tool CoRT I. CoRT I consists of seventechniques to guide us in the thinking process. These techniques are shown inthe figure 10.5:

Figure 6.10: Seven Techniques in CoRT I (Module HBEF3103, OUM)

6.5.3a CoRT I

Below are the details of CoRT I techniques:

PMI (Plus, Minus, Interesting) The treatment of ideas

CAF (Consider All Factors) The factors involved

C&S (Consequence and Sequel) Focus on the consequences

AGO (Aims, Goals, Objectives) Focus on the purpose


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FIP (First Important Priorities)

APC (Alternatives, Possibilities, Choices) Focus on alternatives

OPV (Other People's Views) The other people involved

(a) PMIP stands for Plus, which refers to good things about an idea and why youlike the idea. M stands for minus, which refers to bad things about an ideaand why you do not like it. I is interest, which refers to what you findinteresting about an idea. The steps of using PMI are:

(i) Listen to the issue or problem;

(ii) Say: Lets do a PMI;

(iii) Give the good points;(iv) Give the bad points;

(v) Give the points which are neither good nor bad, but are interesting;and

(vi) Make a decision based on the collected information.

(b) CAF CAF is the short form for consider all factors. You use CAF when you haveto choose, make a decision or think about something and there are many

factors that you have to consider. If you leave out some of these factors inmaking a decision, it might seem right at the time but later turn out wrong.Thus, before making a decision, you could see what factors have been leftout. The steps of CAF are:

(i) Listen to the issue or problem;

(ii) Say: Lets do a CAF;

(iii) State all the factors that have to be considered;

(iv) Make a judgement for each factor; and

(v) Make a decision.

(c) C SC&S means consequence and sequel. This technique helps us to identify theeffect if we take some actions. There are four types of consequence:

Immediate consequence;

Short-term consequence (15 years);

Medium-term consequence (525 years); and


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Long-term consequence (over 25 years).

The steps of C&S are:

(i) Listen to the chosen action;

(ii) Say: Lets do a C&S;

(iii) State the immediate consequence;

(iv) State the short-term consequence (5 years);

(v) State the long-term consequence;

(vi) Repeat C&S for other alternative action; and

(vii) Evaluate the consequence and make decision.

(d) AGO AGO stands for aims, goals and objectives. According to De Bono (1973),AGO can help your thinking if you know exactly what you want to achieve.It also helps you to understand other peoples thinking if you can see theirobjectives. The steps of AGO are:

(i) State the issue or problem;

(ii) Say: Lets do a AGO;

(iii) Start the discussion session;

(iv) Remind yourself or all the members of group discussion by repeatingWhat are our AGO?; and

(v) Continue until the decision is made.

(e) FIP FIP stands for first important priorities. This technique helps you to pickout the most important points, the ones you have to give priority to anddeal with first after doing the PMI, CAF, AGO and C&S. The steps of FIPare:

(i) Make the decision according to priority. Voice out the issue orproblem;

(ii) Say: Lets do a FIP; and

(iii) List all the important things.


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(f) APC APC stands for alternatives, possibilities and choices. This technique trainsus to search for more alternatives and choose before we make a decision. It

also trains us to think together with the choices and possibilities we have.The steps of APC are:

(i) Voice out the problem;

(ii) Say: Lets do an APC;

(iii) Generate as many alternatives as you can; and

(iv) Choose and make the decision.

(g) OPV OPV stands for other points of view. Many thinking situations involveother people, who may have very different viewpoints. This technique isvery effective when a discussion cannot end with a decision. However,when we use this technique, we must be open minded and listen to otherpeoples opinions and ideas because they could be our guide in makingdecisions. The steps of OPV are:

(i) State the problem;

(ii) Mention the alternative which will be taken;

(iii) Identify the individuals whose priorities could be affected because of

the taken alternative;(iv) Ask the individuals for their opinion on the alternative that will be

taken;

(v) Decide after investigating the viewpoint of the individuals; and

(vi) Repeat the process if the decision is not applicable.

6.5.4 Question and Questioning

Effective questioning is considered a vital component of adult education and anintegral part of teaching in the medical profession. Questioning can do thefollowing (UAB, 2008; cited from www.uab.edu):

Clarify concepts;

Reinforce student understanding;

Arouse curiosity;

Emphasise key points;

Stimulate interest; and


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Promote higher-order thinking in students.

The process of skilful questioning includes (UAB, 2008; cited from

www.uab.edu): Establishing an appropriate environment by creating a climate that is

conducive to learning;

Using the right mix of questions;

Accurately phrasing questions;

Allowing sufficient time for responses; and

Using probes to further explore students responses.

There are many types of questions and questioning skills. In this topic, we willonly discuss Blooms Taxonomy questions. According to the taxonomy, there aresix levels of questions, as shown below:

(a) Basic Order Question: KNOWLEDGE

(b) Basic Order Question: UNDERSTANDING/ COMPREHENSION

(c) Middle Order Question: APPLICATION

(d) Middle Order Question: ANALYSIS

(e) Higher Order Question: SYNTHESIS

(f) Higher Order Question: EVALUATION

The table below shows the definition of each level and the trigger words oractivities that could be used for that particular level.

Table 6.4: Trigger Words or Activities According to Blooms TaxonomyLevels Definition Trigger Words orActivities

KNOWLEDGE Ability to remembersomething previously learned

Tell, Recite, List, Memorise,Remember, Define, Locate

COMPREHENSION Demonstrate basicunderstanding of concepts &curriculum

Translate to other words

Restate, Give Example,Explain, Summarise,Translate, Show symbols,Edit


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APPLICATION Transfer knowledge learnedin one situation to another

Demonstrate, Use guides,maps, charts etc., Build,Cook

ANALYSIS Understand how parts relateto a whole

Understand structure andmotive

Note fallacies

Investigate, Classify,Categorise, Compare,Contrast, Solve

SYNTHESIS Re-form individual parts tomake a new whole

Compose, Design, Invent,Create, Hypothesise,Construct, Forecast,

Rearrange parts, ImagineEVALUATION Judge value of something vis-

-vis criteria

Support judgment

Judge, Evaluate, Giveopinion or viewpoint,Prioritise, Recommend,Critique

(Cited from: http://www.hoover.k12.al.us/dves/Enrichment/new_page_2.htm)

Below are examples of each level:

(a) KNOWLEDGE Name the states in Malaysia.

(b) COMPREHENSION Match the vocabulary with the correct pictures.

(c) APPLICATION Sketch the face of the thief as described in the story.

(d) ANALYSIS Compare animals and plants; in what ways are they similar and different?

(e) SYNTHESIS Design your own instruction for Lesson 1 in English Language class.

(f) EVALUATION Defend the results of your research.


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Active Learning

Cooperative Learning

CoRT I

Critical and creative thinking

Decision making

Graphic organiser

IDEAL model

Laurillards ConversationalFramework

Mind map

Problem solving

Problem-based Learning.

Questioning techniques

topic 6 teaching and learning strategies (1)

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