topic 2 pedagogical principles of teaching young learners(lga).docx

8/14/2019 Topic 2 PEDAGOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING YOUNG LEARNERS(LGA).docx

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TOPIC 2 PEDAGOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING YOUNGLEARNERS

2.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 2 introduces you to the factors that influence learning of Literature among

young learners. It provides insights into the factors that motivate and demotivate

young learners.

2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this session, you will be able to:

clarify the concepts of Pedagogical Principals

design different teaching activities based on the pedagogical principles of

young learners.

identify factors that influence learning of young learners

identify factors that motivate/demotivate young learners

2.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS

Clarifying the concepts of Pedagogical Principles of the Young Learners

Pedagogical principles are the fundamental points of orientation for professionals in educational

contexts. They are maxims for action, which, in a defined scope, claim permanent validity for every

concrete situation, be it in pedagogical practice or in educational science as one type of societal

practice (Handbook on Educational Science, (2004, p.122). They are more general than didacticalprinciples which are oriented towards an action and exclusively refer to teaching / learning. Didactic

principles seem to provide a feasible number of orientation points for the very complex field in which

practising teachers work.

According to Castillow (2004) an important characteristic of pedagogical principles is that they arepure, pristine, and packed with pedagogical power. With their generic nature, they can be applied to awide variety of circumstances. For example, learning is facilitated when the instruction demonstrateswhat is to be learned rather than merely telling what is to be learned. Pedagogical principles are also

very pragmatic, in that they synthesize a rich set of practical, instructional experiences and can beused to deal with new practical problems.

Grimmitt (2000) takes the concept of pedagogical principles to a very abstract level, defining them assubstantive hypotheses or statements about teaching and learning. Pedagogical principles facilitatethe process of devising pedagogical strategies which, in turn, determine how pupils will experience,engage with and respond to content. Ideally, pedagogical principles should first be expressed ingeneric terms and then in terms specific to the actual learning environment. Thus, pedagogicalstrategies are the more concrete actions designed to implement pedagogical principles and therebyfulfil or contribute to stated aims. Pedagogical principles are more important than the pedagogical

strategies, because the principles are transferable and invite teachers to invent their own pedagogicalstrategies for implementing them.


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Pedagogical Principles and Objectives

The meaning, scope and applicability of pedagogical principles have always been a serious topic incurriculum theory and in the philosophy of education. Therefore it comes as no surprise that the

differentiation between educational principle and educatio nal goal or aim or objective is not alwaysclear. Landwehr, as early as 1980, identifies pedagogical principles as the highest general

educational aims, because general aims take the form of practical principles. Sosniak (1994,repr.2005, p. 1803) states t hat there is a commingling of principles and objectives. He notes thatstatements of principles, as an alternative to lists of objectives, appear to be growing in popularity in

educational programmes. Because the terms principle and objective are sometimes usedinterchangeably, it seems correct to refer to some educational objectives in order to further clarify the

concept of a pedagogical principle. For Sosniak, objectives can be understood in two ways. The firstis as pre-defined sets, with much time devoted to the pre- defining. In a naturalistic approach toeducational planning, on the other hand, they can be regarded as a platform from which one moves

forward. The most common use for carefully stated objectives is to satisfy administrative orbureaucratic concerns, while their form can change from long lists to a few consistent principlesfocusing on the most important goals. Statements of principles can serve educators as a reminder ofthe values embedded in decisions about objectives (aims) and activities. A pedagogical principle hasa pragmatic dimension (praxis), and a normative dimension (to do it right, to do it in such a way thatensures quality).

In philosophy of education, pedagogical principles are discussed as value principles which describenorms and ideals (values) for the learners. They are indispensable to educational inquiry. Since thesuggestions made by educational philosophers can carry influence for generations, it is vital to

rationally justify or critique of educational aims. There are five types of justification: logical, legal,empirical, discursive, and ethical.

Pedagogical Principles within the Process of Ongoing Change

A pedagogical principle is influenced greatly by national, cultural and contextual circumstances

(Sosniak 2005). Kubanek-German (2003) observes that pedagogical principles are changing within acomplex process of enduring educational innovation, itself due to societal change. Change occursthrough a democratic dialogue or is enforced. The rationales for pedagogical principles change over

time. During periods of innovation, pedagogical principles are refined and adapted based on

experience. This occurs through the perception of day-to-day viability and the influence of the market,competition between authorities, research, parents and new societal developments such as ICT.

A pedagogical principle is expressed at different levels, from the very abstract down to the micro

context of individual teacher beliefs that form the basis for his/her planned and spontaneousclassroom action. Classic writers such as Humboldt, Dewey and Montessori formulated epoch-

transcending Western pedagogical principles, some of which mirror a political consensus. Forexample, a political consensus looks to preserve Europes cultur al richness, as expressed in TheEuropean Charter of Regional and Minority Languages. Language education at the primary level, isdeveloped from the top down in a dialogue with experts and educationalists.

Aligning Pedagogical Principles with Learners


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Pedagogical principles should be aligned with the personality of a learner and cognition. From there,one derives and expands didactical concepts, giving teachers a manageable number of points of

orientation. The next step involves making methodological changes and consulting psycholinguisticinsights to bring the principles closer to the process of instruction and language learning on a day-to-

day basis.

Pedagogical Principles and Teachers

During initial teacher training, students become acquainted with principles both in their generalcourses in education and in seminars on the methodology of foreign language teaching. They discuss

implications and learn to plan lessons that apply the principles that underlie language teaching in theircountry. They also observe model teachers and can come to understand what putting a principle into

practice means. Depending on how they are trained, principles may be discussed explicitly or in thecontext of their transformation into aims, methods and psycholinguistic insight. For example a seminarsession could deal with motivation and the principle Language learning should motivate children as

well as maintain their motivation. Motivation would be explained from a psychological perspective,recent research might be presented and students would be asked to develop concrete lesson plansfor safeguarding young learners motivation. It should be noted that teachers are not necessarily fullyaware that they apply principles, as the principle has already become a teacher belief, perhaps of a

deeply internalised, implicit nature.

Pedagogical Principles and Teachers

During initial teacher training, students become acquainted with principles both in their general

courses in education and in seminars on the methodology of foreign language teaching. They discussimplications and learn to plan lessons that apply the principles that underlie language teaching in their

country. They also observe model teachers and can come to understand what putting a principle intopractice means. Depe nding on how they are trained, principles may be discussed explicitly or in the

context of their transformation into aims, methods and psycholinguistic insight. For example a seminarsession could deal with motivation and the principle Language learning should motivate children aswell as maintain their motivation. Motivation would be explained from a psychological perspective,recent research might be presented and students would be asked to develop concrete lesson plansfor safeguarding young learners motivation. It should be noted that teachers are not necessarily fully

aware that they apply principles, as the principle has already become a teacher belief, perhaps of a

deeply internalised, implicit nature.

Factors of Cognitive Development

The following are factors of cognitive development which are essential for learning

.a) Stimulation is necessary for cognitive development. Children who grew up without

variety of experiences may be three to five years behind othr children in

developing the mental strategies that aid recall.b) Perception the detection, organization and interpretation of information both the

outside world and the internal environment.

c) Memory - the storage and retrieval of the perceived information.


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d) Reasoning - the use of knowledge to make inferences and draw conclusions

e) Reflection the evaluation of the quality of ideas and solutions.

f) Insight the recognition of new relationships between two or more segments of

knowledge.

g) Physical knowledge an important factor which influences learning of young learners. It isgained through observing properties of objects within the childs experience. Th child learns

about the physical environment through observation and experimentation.

h) Logicomathematical ability includes the ability to group or classify or group objects on

some common criterion; to arrange objects according to size or quatity and then comparelikenesses and differences among objects in the same category and order them according to

relative differences; to understand spatial relations interms of direction, distance, andperspective; to understand temporal reltions that allow perception of time sequences and toconceptualize properties of objects.

2.2.1 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE LEARNING OF YOUNG LEARNERS

The role of the teacher

The teacher is called upon to perform several functions in foreign language learning. These are thefollowing:

Teacher as director and manager

Teacher as counsellor and a language resource

Teacher as a model

Teacher as director and manager

One of the main concerns of the teacher as a director and manager is to create a warm, stimulatingatmosphere in which the students will feel secure and confident. It is very important for learners to feelvery much at home with both their teachers and fellow-learners, if they are to be expected to venture

out into the deep waters of foreign language learning, to experiment with new and strange sounds,and to role-play in a language which they have barely begun to learn. Apart from assisting in creating

the right atmosphere, the teacher should also make decisions on the materials to be used, as well asthe activities and games which will best accord with the learners' needs and abilities. In as much as

learners do not necessarily share the same cognitive and linguistic abilities, or interests andmotivation, it is incumbent on the teacher to choose a wide variety of materials and teachingtechniques and strategies in order to respond to the students' interests and capacities. To this end,

the teacher is supposed to organize the class, deciding whether a specific role-play or game will besimulated in pairs or in groups. Bearing all this in mind, the teacher may help develop a learner-centred approach to foreign language learning, as he / she takes into account the learners'preferences, tailoring the materials and strategies to their needs.


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Preparing To Teach

Lesson Planning

Before you start designing worksheets and wordlists, make sure that you know where you're

going. Think about your teaching objective, consider how much time you have to spend with

the book, and then create a plan so that you have a systematic approach in mind as you

design materials.

Allow Enough Time

Spending enough time with the book is very important. In order for young students to fully

absorb an English language book, they must interact with it extensively. Dr. Seuss's The

Foot Book contains 131 words, 47 of which are the word feet or foot, yet spending five or six

hours on a simple book like this is appropriate with young, beginning learners. Even more

advanced young learners need plenty of time. We're Going on a Bear Hunt, a book based on

a popular children's summer camp song, is very short and simple by adult standards, but my

second grade EFL students spent over ten hours and sixteen class periods studying it. They

were never bored, and, in fact, their enthusiasm for the book seemed to increase in

proportion to the time they spent studying it. This observation is supported by Sabrina Peck

(2003, p. 141), who advises teachers of young learners that, "Many children do not tire of

practicing a repetitive and rhythmic text several times a day, many days a week."

Use What You Find

Look for features of the book that you can highlight in the classroom. For example, The Foot

Book uses opposites and counting. You can work these two concepts into your supplemental

activities. We're Going on a Bear Hunt is a great springboard for teaching vocabulary about

nature (forest, river, cave, mud, snowstorm) and prepositions (over, under, through). Inside a

Barn in the Country provides an obvious focus on animal names and sounds.

Developing Materials

Developing materials yourself, while challenging and time-consuming, can be veryrewarding. Not only is it a good learning experience which may help give you insight

into your teaching, it also allows you to target the types of activities that will be most

valuable to your students, and to tailor them exactly to fit their needs. To go a step

further, Brian Tomlinson (1999, Introduction section, para. 2), asserts that the most

meaningful learning takes place when students are "involved intellectually,

aesthetically, and emotionally" in their own education. When teachers choose to use

student-created materials, instead of pre-fabricated, one-size fits all published ones,they can begin to accomplish goals like these.


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Workbook Young students need hands-on activities. A teacher-created workbook can act as a

basis for one of those types of activities. Keep things simple. The workbook need be

nothing more than a collection of papers stapled together. On the first day of

teaching a new book, allow students to illustrate the covers of their own workbooks.

This can provide a personal connection to the story at the outset of their study. You

can use the pages as a place for students to draw artistic responses to the story. For

example, if they've learned "house/mouse/train/rain" in class, then the lesson wrap-

up may include time for them to draw a picture featuring the vocabulary words and

labelled in English.

Flashcards

Again, materials do not need to be professionally produced to be effective. Assign differentkey vocabulary words to different students and have them help make flashcards. You cancollect and laminate the drawings and use them for various activities in follow up lessons. Itis amazing to see the rapt attention students are willing to give materials they createdthemselves.

Cassette TapesMany books are available with a companion cassette tape, which often includes versions of

the story set to music or with sound effects. These tapes are well worth the investment and,

if possible, students will benefit from purchasing their own copy as well so they can listen at

home. The story set to music is more entertaining for your students.

Teaching Ideas Sequencing Activities

Young learners in particular need a very active classroom and variety throughout the

lesson. Ten minutes is probably the maximum length of time you can expect

students of this age to focus their attention before you need to change gears. One

guideline that works well with young learners is to assure that, in any given lesson,

there is always a little enthusiastic singing, a little quiet listening, a little enthusiastic

dancing, and a little quiet artwork.

The following approach is one that works very well:

Sing . Students sing, recite, or read a passage from the story in teams.

Listen . Students listen to the story from beginning to end.

Dance . Students get out of their chairs for some physical activity. Often, this can be acting out the

actions from the story, but there are unlimited possibilities.

Draw . Students sit back down and illustrate new vocabulary.


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While considering how you will allocate class time, don't underestimate the students' enthusiasm forlistening to a story again and again. In fact, according to Anne Burns (2003, p. 22), a surprising result

from her study of second-language learner attitudes toward literacy learning included the insight that"students were almost unanimous in their desire for teachers to read aloud to them." She credited the

value of hearing fluent reading in English, listening to the written words, hearing correct stress andintonation patterns, as well as providing a model for imitation as possible reasons.

Types of Activities

Listen to the story on tape/as read by the teacher without looking at the text.

Listen to the story and read along.

Listen to the story and put illustrations depicting parts of the story in order.

Read the book silently.

Read the book to a partner, then switch.

Write your favorite words/new words/words starting with A from the story in your notebook.

Write a portion of the story in the workbook.

Answer (or practice asking) simple who, what, when, where, and why questions about the story.

Divide students into teams. One member of the team draws a picture on the board while teammembers try to guess what it is within a limited time period.

Speed reading game. Call out a word from the text, then let students race to find it. The first one tofind it reads the sentence aloud. A word of caution: this game is rather hard on books.

Have students display the flashcards they made, let them be the teacher and ask the class, "Whatis this?"

Make up a dance or do actions to the words of the story. A good example of this kind of story isThe Foot Book. The text repeats, "Left Foot/Left Foot/Right Foot/Right." Students can get out oftheir chairs and jump from left to right as suggested by the text.

Do the opposite of dancing. Have students "freeze" a moment of the text by acting out exactly whatis described in the text at some specific moment, and holding perfectly still. You could photographthese moments if you have a digital camera.

Do a verbal fill-in-the-blank exercise. As you read, stop at random and have students shout outwhat word comes next.

Allow them to recite what they've memorized in teams.

The pupils

Locatio n: urban, rural

Generally, urban pupils have greater exposure to English. They have more opportunities to hear itbeing used and to use it themselves, for example, in shopping centres, offices, etc. They are likely tohave a more positive attitude towards English. Some may come from home where English is spokenat all times or most of the time. Rural pupils, on the other hand, usually have limited exposure toEnglish. The television and radio may be the only source of English.

Learning ability: slow, average and fast/ high -flyers

There are adjectives used to describe the intelligence and levels of emotional, development and

academic competence. Slow learners are those with lower intelligence scores; they need more time tograsp a concept or to complete a task but they are not retarded. They need individual attention and


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assistance in order to perform satisfactory. Average pupils form the majority in schools. They have noextraordinary talents or skills. There are great individual differences in their needs, interests and

experiences. They are the regular mainstream pupils. Fast learners or high-flyers are intelligent andcapable. They obtain high scores in aptitude and intelligence. They are usually very motivated and

creative. Generally, classroom activities are designed for the average, as they make up the majority ofthe class.

Awareness of pupils background enables teachers to prepare lessons that contain content that willbroaden pupils intellectual, creative and experiential horizons and are within their intellectual ability.

At the same time, teachers need to cater to the needs of the slow and fast learners.

Affective factors

Affective factors also play an important role as they may facilitate or preclude learning. It is acommonplace that an atmosphere that fosters and promotes confidence and emotional stability will

produce better students. Harmony in the classroom helps relieve tension and keeps the door tolanguage processing open. A teacher's task is like "that of an orchestra conductor, who tends to fly

into higher spheres, and has a tendency to fly and pull himself and the others above everyday'sproblems towards a more creative reality" (Papaconstantinou, 1991: 65). In this "reality" the learnermay easily identify with the teacher and venture out into new aspects of the target language, dealing

with it in her own, individual way. Unless she feels at ease with her teacher and her fellow-students,she will not learn. If she feels rejected and is afraid of being told off or scoffed at whenever she makes

a mistake, she will withdraw from the educational process and lag behind, both cognitively andemotionally. "Consequently, the content of materials for classroom use as well as classroom practicesshould be compatible with the affective variables influencing learners" (Papaefthymiou-Lytra, 1993:90).

Learners' needs and interests

Indubitably, a successful course should consider learner needs. For this reason, the concept of needsanalysis has assumed an important role in language learning. Needs analysis has to do with the aims

of a course, as these are determined by the uses to which the target language will be put oncompletion of the program. For example, is our aim to achieve a high level of language proficiency orare we called upon to respond to the needs of, say, adult learners who need to master specific skills,such as academic writing or note-taking? All these parameters will have to inform the methods andtechniques we use in class, as well as the materials design we are supposed to implement in order toachieve the best results. With regard to learner's interests , it is worth noting that we, as teachers,

should be cognizant of the differences between children and adolescents. For instance, the formerare interested in body movement and play, whereas the latter want to learn about humanrelationships in general and achieve a deeper understanding of their abilities, with the aim of

developing a sound personality and character.

Extrinsic factors

Such issues as infrastructure and limited school budgets have not received much attention in ELTarticles and books, yet contribute significantly to the outcome of the educational process. One couldsay that they constitute the extra -linguistic context of the teaching-learning situation. A situation where

the school has no lighting or heating, and classrooms are packed with a great number of students,with whom the teacher seems unable to familiarize himself, is not a promising one. Furthermore,


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limited or no access to school libraries and educational seminars or programs makes inroads intostudents' and teachers' progress. All these potential shortcomings, coupled with the teacher's

"authority," may severely inhibit the learning process. Equally detrimental - albeit in more subtle ways- may prove seating arrangements in class. For example, in a classroom where desks are arranged in

such a way that students look towards the teacher rather than their classmates, learners and teachersalike are unable to interact through role-play and other activities or through paralinguistic features

such as eye-contact and non-verbal communication, in general. Conversely, in a situation wheredesks are arranged in a circle or in groups or pairs, learners are provided with the opportunity todevelop warm and constructive interpersonal relationships.

2.2.2 Factors that motivate young learners

Attractive materials

Among children's books, there are many advantages in using picture books for language learning.Firstly, the advantage of using picture books is that the pictures offer the students a way to

understand what the teacher is reading, even if they do not know the word in the story context (Nantz,2002). Furthermore, picture books contain rich language because they are usually well designed soas to be read aloud to children long before they are read individually by children (Cullinan & Galda,1994). Thus, linguistically, picture books can help students master the vocabulary and grammar aswell as the four language skills: reading, writing, listening, and speaking (Stern, 1991). In addition,picture books can not only provide authentic materials but also support curriculum and understand theother cultures (Allen, 1989; 1994). Lastly, pictures can elicit students' interest, excitement anddiscussion. Therefore, picture books should be effective for teaching EFL young learners.

Folktales: Repetitive Sentence Patterns, Rhythmic Refrains, and Predictable

Folktales always play very important roles in the processes of language learning because folktalesusually contain repetitive language patterns, phrases, or questions, refrains, strong rhythm andrhyme, sequences of numbers or days of the week (Cooper & Collins, 1992; Cullinan & Galda, 1994;

Hill, 1999; Kowalski, 2002; Mallan, 1992; Nodelman, 1996). For example, repetitive patterns can bethe schema for students' comprehension of the children's stories and predicting the action in the plot

and the ending (Allen, 1989; Nodelman, 1996). In addition, folktales make it easy for students toremember the vocabulary and grammatical structures contained in them (Kowalski, 2002).

Additionally, with repeated refrains, it's natural for learners to join in enchanting rhyming and that can

help them be familiar with sound patterns and thus increase their listening ability. Among

folktales, The Gingerbread Man is a good, cumulative story, because the important feature ofcumulative stories is that elements (things, people or experiences) are added as the story progresses,through stories, with a degree of familiarity students naturally have certain expectations of storystructure, language and patterns (Mallan, 1992). For example, the cumulative story with a repetitivepattern is like The Gingerbread Man :

I've run away from a little old woman, a little old man, and a cow...I've run away from a little old woman, a little old man, a cow, and a horse .

The recurring phrases or events can aid their understanding and memory (Mallan, 1992). Because of

their particular story patterns, cumulative stories can also offer children the chances to engage inlanguage play by chanting or singing the repeated story events as follows: Run, run, as fast as you can


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psychological background. He is an arrogant automaton who asserts his authority over hissocially unauthorized , impotent and inferior students in a most undemocratic, uncivilized way; an

"educated" person who supposedly strives to inculcate values and ideals but who is "conspicuous byher absence" when it comes to fostering feeling and creative thinking.

This arrogant, unapproachable figure, with his high-falutin ideas and pompous language, is as oftenas not a formidable barrier to language learning. Not only his personality and his intellectual and

linguistic abilities but also such paralinguistic features as facial expressions and bodily position in theclassroom may exert an immensely negative influence on the student's cognition and affect.Experiments have proved that four bodily positions of the teacher, i.e. left /right , front / back , elevated /

non-elevated , and standing / seated , have each been associated with a certain degree of socialdominance. For example, a teacher who, most of the time in class, is standing, elevated and occupies

the foreground on the right side, is perceived to be dominant.

The data indicated that 75% of the time the elevated person was perceived as dominant and only

29% of the time the non-elevated person was considered so. Similarly 61% of the time the standingperson was perceived as dominant (Schwartz, Tesser and Powel, 1981).

We can imagine what a real strain on the pupils this must be. Consciously or unconsciously, theteacher's posture and facial expressions exude a certain air or mood which often builds up tensionand aggravates interaction between teachers and students, and among students themselves. Thisdiscrepancy between "bad mood" and the educational objectives relating to cognitive developmentand emotional equilibrium is in itself pernicious and unprepossessing to cope with, mainly on the part

of the student. How can the student feel secure and confident in a hostile, unpredictable environment,in which he / she is to be "seen but not heard"?

Rote learning

The traditional mode of education has stressed rote learning and a rather authoritarian role for theteacher. It may therefore not be part of the students culture to discuss their own opinions andfeelings in an educationatal context.

Social factors

Students in class may face social problems inhibiting them from expressing themselves.

For example, students maybe of different status or rank(e.g. a manager and one of the peopleworking under her). Students may also be individually sensitive to particular issues raised in a text.

Feeling remote from the material

Students may have problems understanding the language of the text. There may not be anything inthe text which has the core of a human situation which occurs cross- culturally. Our students

comprehension is frequently impeded by cultural features in a text


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