topic 1 problem solving

� INTRODUCTION

For many students, problem solving is a procedure they carry out on a task assigned by a teacher. They view the problem as something to be completed within a set time so as to avoid punitive consequences. Unfortunately, students, and people in general, have a tendency of critically over-analysing every action or event in their daily lives that they deem problematic without looking at possible outcomes to these problems (Figure1.1). Regardless of what we do for a living or where we live, most of us spend most of our waking hours, at work or at home, constantly trying to solve problems. The problems we face can be small while others may be more complex but regardless, they all need to be solved in a

TTooppiicc

11

�Problem Solving

LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Define what a problem is;

2. Describe how a problem can present an opportunity for improvement;

3. Explain the four stages involved in the process of problem solving;

4. Explain the importance of goal setting in the problem solving process;

5. Describe the general guidelines to effective problem solving;

6. Identify the role of Root Cause Analysis (RCA) technique in the problem solving process;

7. Identify the common constraints faced in the problem solving process; and

8. Compare the different approaches to problem solving.

� TOPIC 1 PROBLEM SOLVING 2

constructive manner rather than approaching them like it is the end of the world.. Hence, problem solving is an important skill in many aspects of our lives; be it professional or personal. Importantly is how we confront these problems that lead to us arriving at an efficient or inefficient solution.

Figure 1.1: How we view a problem is the key to determining its outcome

Source: http://beautybrainsnbeyond.blogspot.com/2010/05/thought-of- day_20.html

WHAT IS A PROBLEM?

Some dictionaries define „problem‰ as:

� A question raised for consideration or solution (WordNet® 2.0, Princeton University 2003).

� A question to be considered, solved or answered (The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Updated 2009).

� Anything, matter, person, etc., that is difficult to deal with, solve, or overcome (Collins English Dictionary (Complete and Unabridged 6th Edition 2003).

� Any question or matter involving doubt, uncertainty, or difficulty (Dictionary.com Unabridged).

1.1

TOPIC 1 PROBLEM SOLVING � 3

Figure 1.2: A negative approach to a problem: "If the problem is too big, just blame it on

someone else!" Depending on the context, some problems may be minor, personal or caused by external factors. Some problems may be too big or too complex and need to be passed on to people who are more capable of dealing with them. Figure 1.2 illustrates how not to go about it! Different authors define a problem differently. Generally, we can define a problem using three approaches:

� A problem is an opportunity for improvement.

� A problem is the difference between your current state and your goal state.

� A problem results from the recognition of a present imperfection and the belief in the possibility of a better future.

1.1.1 A Problem as an Opportunity

Thinking out-of-the-box enables one to view a problem as an opportunity � a chance to open up new ways of looking at and responding to the difficulties being faced. Seen from this perspective, problems are not necessarily the result of external factors or to be perceived as negative or "bad" events. This paradigm shift conjures a new viewpoint or awareness of the problem. New opportunities


for improvement will avail themselves to you, and as they do, they create new challenges that demand a solution from you. Such a situation requires flexibility in approaching the problem at hand. This requirement for flexibility confers a distinct advantage to creative people in the course of problem solving, since changes in the problem necessitate innovative and inventive adjustments in how it is solved. Perceiving problems as opportunities for improvement nurtures a positive mindset, which can transform you into a more confident person with more control of your life. At times a problem can manifest itself in different ways. An example is a situation where we see ourselves in conflict with where we are at present with where we want to be. When we can identify the difference between the situation we are in at present and the situation we desire, we can define the problem, which we can there after attempt to resolve in order to achieve our goal.

WHAT IS PROBLEM SOLVING?

Problem solving and the techniques associated with it are domain-independent reasoning components, which specify patterns of behaviour that can be reused across applications (Fensel and Motta, 1997). This simply means that problem solving is a series of techniques, both cognitive and behavioural , that can be applied in various fields or areas to generate solutions.

1.2

"Each problem has hidden in it an opportunity so powerful that it literally dwarfs the problem. The greatest success stories were created by people who recognised a problem and turned it into an opportunity."

Joseph Sugarman (Inglish, P. 2011).

ACTIVITY 1.1

"There is so far no limit to the rise in food and oil prices, a situation that is leading many consumers and producers to a point where they are carrying an unbearable burden." (The Star, 23 June 2008) Identify one consumer-related problem that can result from the situation reported above. Can you approach this problem as an opportunity? Explain your answer.


Woods (1975) and colleagues suggested that "Problem solving is the process of obtaining a satisfactory solution to a novel problem, or at least a problem which the problem solver has not seen before." As a whole, problem solving involves a series of steps that stems from the identification of a problem, leading to the development of a solution. Problem solving can be seen as a structured, directional-oriented process. However, in determining the direction for the solution, we need to define the problem first, followed by the desired goal or the changes we want.

1.2.1 Stages in Problem Solving

As highlighted in the previous section, to better understand problem solving and to improve your personal problem solving capabilities, it is important to move away from looking at the product of problem solving to viewing problem solving as a process that leads to a positive result. The importance of this approach is that it focuses on the process of attaining the solution rather than the solution itself. This means more emphasis is placed on the steps in reaching the solution than the end result. Thus, it is vital that we understand the various stages involved. The four stages involved are: (a) RRecognising and defining a problem � a problem can only be solved when

its existence is recognised. However, in certain situations, a problem is only recognised when it becomes a serious matter. After recognising a problem, the next action will be to thoroughly define it. A problem can be referred to as a closed-ended problem or an open-ended problem. A close-ended problem involves all circumstances surrounding the deviation from the norm that need to be defined. On the other hand, an open-ended problem involves on both identifying and defining your objectives and any hindrance that can stop you from attaining them. The main differences between close-ended and open-ended problems are summarised in Table 1.1. Analysing a problem thoroughly is important in order for you to fully understand it and subsequently come up with various solutions that can help in achieving your goals. Identifying and bringing together relevant information and presenting it in a meaningful way is an important component of analysing a problem. In addition, analysis also assists you to decide what the best solution would be, which eventually helps to guide your search for solutions.


Table 1.1: Differences between close- and open-ended problems

Close-ended problems Open-ended problems

Have one or limited number of possible solutions.

Can be solved employing many different methods.

Analysing them helps in identifying all the possible causes and confirms the real cause, or obstacle, before looking for a solution.

Analysing them involves looking for information which will help to suggest a range of possible ways to solve the problem.

(b) FFinding possible solutions - generally, coming up with various actions to

solve a problem involves finding out what appropriate actions to take, what are the hindrances and finally working towards achieving your goals. It may be necessary to modify and combine ideas using any creative techniques available in order to devise a workable solution. In truth, the more ideas you have to choose from, the higher the probability of finding an effective solution.

(c) SSelecting the best solution � a decision-making process that is based on a

comparison of the potential outcome of alternative solutions. This step involves:

� Identifying the characteristics of the best deemed solution, including any limitations that might be encountered.

� Eliminating the solutions that cannot overcome the limitations.

� Evaluating the remaining solutions.

� Evaluating the risks linked to arriving at the best solution.

� Coming up with a decision to implement this solution. It is believed that a problem is considered solved when a solution has been implemented. However, in certain circumstances, the selected solution has to be accepted or authorised by other individuals in order for it to be implemented, and this may involve several strategies of persuasion.

(d) IImplementing the solution � three steps are involved in this stage (Table

1.2).


Table 1.2: Steps involved in the implementation of a solution

Steps involved Description

Planning and preparing to implement the solution.

Involves conclusion of all efforts and thorough planning that describes the sequence of actions needed to fulfil the objective, the timescale and the resources required at each stage.

Taking the appropriate action and monitoring its effect.

Problems or potential problems have to be dealt immediately in order to ensure that things are running smoothly.

Reviewing the ultimate success of the action.

Important to estimate its efficacy in solving future similar problems and to make sure that the problem has been solved.

For close-ended problems, the emphasis will be on defining and analysing the problem to indicate possible causes, whereas for open-ended problems, more work at the idea generation stage to come up with a broader range of possible solutions will be required. It may be necessary to go back and adapt the work done earlier, during any stage in problem solving . In all the four steps discussed, we would rely much on our reasoning and thinking skills. These will be discussed in later topics.

IMPORTANCE OF GOALS IN PROBLEM SOLVING

Problem solving centres on thinking about goals and ideal states that one would like to achieve. Usually, when a goal is reached, the problem should be concluded. However, this will only happen if the goal originally set was appropriate. Defining a goal is essential to determine how much of a problem exists or whether or not there is a problem in the first place. There are, of course, innumerable problems that need solutions. Do not get carried away and try to

1.3

1. Explain the four stages involved in problem solving.

2. Explain briefly the differences between open-ended and close-ended problems.

SELF-CHECK 1.1


solve every problem you identify and do not let others set goals for you that you will not be capable of achieving (as illustrated in Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.3: Set yourself realistic goals: Do not try to solve all problems and do not let

others set goals for you that you know you cannot meet Robert, H. (1998) in the following excerpt gives a very good example to illustrate the need for a goal to help identify whether a problem exists:

Let's say you have just brought a pizza home from the pizza parlour and it is beginning to cool. If your ideal state is to eat very hot pizza, then you have a problem, whether you define it as how to keep the pizza from cooling, how to heat it back up or how to eat it quickly. On the other hand, if you like moderately warm pizza, then you do not have a problem. Similarly, if your friend comes over an hour later and you offer him a piece of leftover pizza, only to discover that your oven is on the blink, you have a problem: how to heat the pizza up again. But if the friend says, "I really like cold pizza better than hot," you do not have a problem.

Source: http://www.virtualsalt.com/crebook3.htm Retrieved Nov, 2011


As the above example illustrates, in order to determine whether or not a problem exists, and to what extent it does, you must first consider:

� Your goal(s); and

� Your current state. Your goals must be achievable within the boundaries of your capabilities and the tools you possess. Take time to think about your goals and plan your strategy. Remember, failing to plan is planning to fail. Goals are never static. Your priorities will change over time, and so will your goals. The changes may involve a major rethinking of your lifeÊs purpose, or they may be small refinements to your holiday budget. Whatever the changes may be, it is essential that you keep your problems and solutions in tandem with your goals.

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

These guidelines are meant to help you analyse, define and solve problems in an orderly way, and to give some structure to the various problem solving activities you encounter. When using these guidelines, it is important to keep in mind that problem solving does not proceed through a predetermined sequence of steps at all times, nor is it necessarily linear. Rather, problem solving is a recursive process whereby you must continually go back and forth between steps, and repeat some steps. This can best be viewed as a problem solving cycle (illustrated in Figure 1.5) whereby each process can feed into another process through feedback and correction.

1.4


Figure 1.4: The problem solving cycle. Note how problem solving is a recursive process

whereby you must continually go back and forth between steps. Whenever we are faced with a problem, an effective solution to the problem can be developed by the following steps:

� Explore the Problem

� Establish Realistic and Attainable Goals

� Generate Ideas

� Select Ideas

� Implement the Action Plan

� Evaluate and Follow Up These steps can each be broken down into smaller steps to better enable you to carry out the problem solving process. These steps are as shown in Figure 1.6.


Figure 1.5: The steps in problem solving and decision making

We will look further into each step in the following sections:

1.4.1 Explore the Problem

This is the first step in the process of effective problem solving. The problem is investigated and broken down into sub-problems; the terms are defined and the nature of the problem is determined. Some research should be done on whether the problem has been encountered in the past, and if so, how it was resolved, if at all. Obviously, the nature of the problem will determine how much time is spent on problem exploration. Simple problems may not need extensive exploration while complex problems may require extensive exploration. Compare, for example, the amount of exploration needed to determine why a little bulb is not working in your house and why a car is not working properly. Problem exploration may involve some steps which include: (a) PProblem Statement

(i) What is the problem?

� Is the problem multi-faceted? If so, what are its various facets or aspects?


� If the problem was passed on to you from someone else (another individual or another department, for example), it might be useful to have a statement stating the problem as it was given to you and another statement stating the problem in your own words.

� In any problem definition or statement, it is useful to state what the problem is not. By doing this, you will have a clearer idea of what it is.

(ii) Restate it differently

� Restate the problem in a completely different way.

� Do this several different times.

� This helps to separate the real problem from our verbal representations of it.

(iii) Make a broad statement about the problem

� State the problem in abstract terms, perhaps even with a philosophical slant. Often, how a problem is worded reflects a specific instance of a broader issue. By restating the problem in more general terms, one is able to determine if this is so.

� Using general statements allow the issues surrounding the problem to be argued from different perspectives; thereby suggesting solutions that would not otherwise be considered.

(b) PProblem Clarification

(i) What are the key terms of the problem?

� Use words with similar meanings.

� Define the terms recursively, making them more general or more specific, until the problem is articulated as best as can be.

� With this technique, the problem is broken down into its attributes, components and general features, so that possible solutions can be more readily apparent.

� Anything that is ambiguous or uncertain about the problem must be clarified. It is not uncommon that problem statements originally written are vague and fuzzy, and need to be fine-tuned.

(ii) What are the assumptions made about the problem? Under what

circumstances would a solution work?


� This step involves the conscious listing of all assumptions that can be identified. The listing must be impartial, without prejudice or judgment.

� It is important when listing assumptions to list the obvious ones because often it is those that later turn out to be alterable.

� Many assumptions are necessary while some are not.

(iii) Obtain further information about the problem

� Get ideas for solving the problem by researching how similar problems were approached or solved in the past.

� Often you may discover alternative solutions used previously to solve very similar problems faced at present.

(c) EExplanation of the Problem

(i) Brainstorm with others the issues surrounding the problem

� Articulate it carefully and listen to your own explanation; then try to visualise how someone else may see the problem.

� Discussion may help you find a solution from someone else who has encountered a similar problem or has a different perspective.

� Generally, when discussing a problem or idea, listen to yourself as well as to the other people you talk to.

(ii) View the problem from different perspectives.

� Would your problem look different to different people? How would the issue you consider a problem look like when viewed from a different perspective(s)?

� To get the best perspective, the problem should be looked at from the points of view of those who cause it, those who suffer from it, those who have to fix it, those who have to pay for it, etc.

(iii) Ask a series of clarifying "Whys?"

� Asking "Why?" can serve a purpose similar to that of broadening the definition of the problem, which can lead to new ways of looking at the problem and at possible solutions.

� You could also ask yourself if the problem is a symptom or result of another problem. For example, at first glance the production of


low-quality cars appears to be a problem of quality control. A deeper analysis, however, may reveal it to be a symptom of a bigger underlying problem, such as poor management, sloppy work habits, unreliable parts and materials, old machinery, bad maintenance and so on.

(d) PPut the Problem in Context

(i) What is the history and historical context of the problem?

� It helps to know the history of a problem. By knowing what has worked and not worked before, you can concentrate your efforts on solutions that are more likely to succeed.

� Even if the problem appears to be the same, the context in which the solution worked (or not worked) previously will put a different spin to the solution now.

(ii) What is the problem environment?

� What are the contexts surrounding the problem?

� What factors contribute to the cause of the problem and causes it to continue being a problem?

� By understanding the contributing or perpetuating factors, you will be able to take steps to prevent a problem from recurring.

(iii) What are the circumstances affecting the problem?

� Is the problem affected by specific conditions?

� Would different conditions or circumstances worsen the problem or make it lighter?

� Would removing the conditions or circumstances eliminate the problem?

(iv) What are the constraints?

� Constraints are the limitations imposed or the requirements that must be observed in solving the problem. They are part of the solution framework that must be kept in mind. It is therefore important to identify the constraints.

� Examples of constraints are legal obligations, contractual requirements, environmental concerns, physical circumstances,


financial and budgetary considerations, factors beyond your control and so on.

1.4.2 Establish Your Goals

Now, let us look at the second step of problem solving - goal setting. (a) WWhat goals would you consider ideal?

(i) Very often, instead of considering what an ideal solution to a problem would be, we simply settle for a quick solution.

(ii) We may reduce our expectation for practical reasons like the constraints discussed above but we need not do this until we have envisioned the ideal scenario.

(iii) Sometimes the ideal scenario, after discussion and analysis, may seem more achievable than previously thought.

(b) EEstablish Realistic and Practical Goals

(i) In order for goals to be measured, they must be clear, definite and precise. A list of such goals can be used to monitor the progress of problem solving attempts.

(ii) Setting up goals gives direction to problem solving tasks and gives the problem-solver an objective to aim for.

(iii) The goals must be realistic, otherwise achieving the goals will seem an insurmountable task.

(iv) Try to be as specific as possible in describing your goal; do not hesitate if your goals remain vague or unquantifiable.

ACTIVITY 1.2

Problems constrained by budgetary or legal realities are constantlyencountered by governments and large industries. Can you think of a few examples from real life? Can you find one or two examples in thenewspapers?


1.4.3 Generate Ideas

For problems to be solved, we need to generate ideas to look for possible solutions. The following paragraphs can give you ideas on how to find possible solutions. Generate Ideas for Possible Solutions

(i) Read, research, think, ask questions and discuss.

� Start by gathering information about your problem, and this includes reading, discussing, brainstorming, asking questions and seeking opinions. Be curious, look for ideas and learn as much as you can about the problem.

(ii) Use idea generation techniques such as brainstorming, forced relationships, random stimulation and so on (these will be discussed in more detail in the next topic).

� Generate as many ideas of all kinds as possible. This will give you a vast pool of ideas from which you can choose, adapt or stimulate other ideas.

(iii) Allow time for ideas to develop during various stages of idea generation.

� The major cycle of creativity has several stages, namely:

� Preparation: initial thought, research, study, work;

� Incubation: time to let the unconscious work;

� Insight: the flash of recognition of a solution path, also called the eureka experience or the eureka moment;

� Implementation: working out the solution; and

� Evaluation.

1.4.4 Select Your Ideas

Now, based on the ideas you have found, evaluate and choose the best solution. (a) EEvaluate the possible solutions for likelihood of success

(i) Evaluate the ideas and possible solutions that you have collected so far.

(ii) Set up another possible solution that can be implemented („Plan B‰) in case your main plan does not work.


(iii) Your evaluation will involve finding the solution that will be the most effective (works best), efficient (costs the least, in terms of money, time, etc), and has the fewest side effects.

(iv) Establish a ranking order for the possible solutions. (b) CChoose the Solution(s)

(i) Select one or more solutions to try.

� From the solutions ranked near the top of your evaluation list, choose one or more to try. (The solution chosen for implementation is not always, or even necessarily, the very top-ranked one).

(ii) Allow others to see and criticise your selected solution and to suggest improvements or alternatives.

� It is important to let others criticise and evaluate your solution because you will have a chance to improve it.

� Do not let criticisms affect your confidence in ideas you believe are good, but also don't be blind to criticisms that legitimately point out your weaknesses. Always be willing to incorporate new ideas.

1.4.5 Implement Your Action Plan

Once you have selected a solution, you can implement the action plan. However, it is best for you to try out the solution and make necessary changes before the actual implementation. (a) TTry out the solution(s)

Experiment with the idea; test it on something closely resembling the real-life scenario you are facing. This is especially vital in solutions that may affect people's health or life.

(b) MMake adjustments or changes as needed during implementation

(i) Always remain flexible in this application phase. Practically every solution needs some modification when put into effect.

(ii) Remember that the goal is to solve the problem, not to implement the solution; don't expect that your solution will be exactly as you originally proposed.


1.4.6 Evaluate and Follow up

Now, after you have completed all the earlier steps in problem solving, it is time for you to evaluate whether or not the steps that you have taken are effective. (a) IInvestigate whether the solution(s) worked and to what extent

(i) Do you require modifications? Do other solutions need to be tested? Is a different approach needed?

(ii) One of the most frequent failures of problem solving is the lack of evaluation of the implemented solution. The solution may not have worked or not worked completely or it may have caused other problems in the process.

(b) DDo not deal in absolutes (success or failure only)

(i) Remember that many solutions are better described as partially successful or unsuccessful, rather than a total success or failure.

(ii) In many cases, an incomplete remedy is better than none at all. Next, let us learn about a popular mechanism in exploring a problem.

ROOT CAUSE ANALYSIS

Root Cause Analysis (RCA) is a popular and frequently employed technique that assists individuals in finding out why the particular problem happened in the first place. Basically, its main aim is to investigate the origin of a problem which is carried out using a specific set of steps together with associated tools. By identifying the main cause of the problem, you can determine what happened, why it happened and also find out the steps that should be taken to avoid its recurrence in the future. In general, RCA works on the principle that systems and events are interrelated. According to this technique, a symptom can be traced back right to the initial action that had actually triggered the cascade of events leading to the current problem. The three basics types of causes that are usually looked at include;

(a) PPhysical causes � tangible, material items that failed in certain ways.

(b) HHuman causes � a mistake committed by an individual, or a certain task that was not carried out accordingly by an individual.

(c) OOrganisational causes � a faulty system, process, or policy that people employ to make decisions.

1.5


RCA has been found to be effective in investigating the patterns of negative effects, identifying hidden flaws in a particular system, and also uncovering specific actions that have contributed to the problem. Thus RCA can be applied to practically all types of problems as long as one is determined to go far in his or her investigation with a good judgment and common sense. The steps involved in the RCA process include.

(a) DDefining the problem � in this step you are to observe what is happening and at the same time look out for specific symptoms.

(b) CCollection of data � this step is important to prove that the problem exists, or that the problem has been there for a period of time and has created a particular impact. In this step, assistance from individuals who understand the situation and are most familiar with the problem will help you in tackling the problem better. CATWOE is a useful tool that can be employed at this stage in order for you to look at the problem from different perspectives [the Customers, the people (Actors) who implement the solutions, the Transformation process affected, the World view, the process Owner, and Environmental constraints].

(c) IIdentification of possible causal factors � this stage allows you to recognise the sequence of events that led to the problem, the conditions that permitted the problem to occur and the other problems that surrounded the occurrence of the main problem. The most important fact is that one should always look for as many causal factors as possible.

(d) IIdentification of the root cause(s) � this step is carried out to find out the reason behind the existence of the causal factor and the occurrence of the problem.

(e) RRecommendation and implementation of solutions � in this final step, you are supposed to come up with ideas to prevent the problem from occurring again, planning the implementation of a solution by the assigned individuals, and identifying the risks that may arise with the implementation of the chosen solution.

You are encouraged to plan ahead to predict the effects of your solution in order for potential failures to be spotted even before they occur using tools such as Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA), Impact Analysis and Kaizen.


CONSTRAINTS

According to Dörner & Wearing (1995) and Funke (1991) some of the constraints faced in solving difficult problems include:

� Lack of clarity of the situation � in this case, one may face difficulty in either initiating or continuing in the problem solving.

� Polytely � this involves complex problem-solving characterised by the presence of several goals or endings.

� Complexity � problems with a large number of items, interrelations and decisions.

� Dynamics � problems that cannot be solved due the insufficient time frame provided. In certain cases, the exact time required to solve the problem is unpredictable.

Finally, we will explore the term solution again and relook at planning of the solution.

WHAT IS A SOLUTION?

In everyday life, our understanding of solving a problem is by eliminating the problem. This is just one approach to solving problems. There are problems, however, that cannot simply be eliminated. These include things like waste, wear and tear, or the occurrence of illness. Often, such "problems" are related to the laws of nature and are therefore an integral part of our existence. When faced with such problems, our main task is to make them less disruptive to the process of reaching our goals. For this purpose, Harris, R. (1998) defines „solution‰ as the management of a problem that successfully meets the goals established for treating that problem. Harris goes on to clarify that "sometimes the goal will be to eliminate the problem entirely; sometimes the goal will be only to treat the effects of the problem. As such, it is vital to realise that your goal as a problem solver will be shaped by various factors that include your ambitiousness, resources, values and expectations, as well as the possibilities inherent in the problem itself. Problems can be solved by applying two basic approaches:

(a) Addressing the cause or source of the problem; and

(b) Addressing the effects or symptoms of the problem. Harris conveniently calls these the „stop it‰ and the „mop it‰ approaches respectively. Each of these approaches has three basic forms.

1.7

1.6


1.7.1 The “Stop It” Approach

When we use the stop-it approach, we tackle the problem in such a way that, for all intents and purposes, the problem no longer exists. There are three ways in which the problem may be tackled:

� Prevent the problem

� Eliminate the problem

� Reduce the problem (a) PPrevent the Problem

(i) Preventing a problem from occurring (or recurring) in the first place is probably the ideal solution.

(ii) This is often done by approaching any task with the desire for utmost quality, regardless of cost or time.

(iii) The prevention approach is often difficult to apply because it requires predictive foresight (the ability to foresee a problem before it occurs).

(iv) However, most problems appear unexpectedly.

(v) Similarly, by preventing misunderstandings, the need for lots of damage control and emotional healing can be avoided.

(b) EEliminate the Problem

(i) An excellent way of dealing with a problem is to eliminate it.

(ii) There is no recurrence of the problem if elimination is properly done.

(iii) You should always consider elimination solutions as possible solutions.

(iv) Elimination solutions, however may not always be feasible. For example, the AIDS problem might be solved by eliminating unwanted social behaviours, such as sexual practices and drug use. Parties with vested interests would expectedly resist the implementation of such a solution. Therefore, the mop-it approach is the usual approach taken to solve the AIDS problem.


(c) RReduce the Problem

(i) There are problems, such as garbage production, that cannot be eliminated entirely. When faced with such a situation, reducing the problem can prove to be highly effective.

(ii) We can lessen the impact of practically any problem by reducing its size. A real-life example is the current approach to the flow of illegal drugs into many countries. Most governments use reduction strategies to approach the illegal drug problem. The flow of drugs cannot be eliminated as long as demand continues, so law enforcement agencies work to reduce as much as possible the routes of entry, the middlemen dealing the drugs on the street and the number of end-users.

1.7.2 The “Mop It” Approach

A mop it approach focuses on the effects of a problem rather than on the problem itself. There are three forms of the mop it approach:

� Treat the problem

� Redirect the problem

� Tolerate the problem (a) TTreat the Problem

(i) In this form, the damage caused by the problem is repaired or treated.

(ii) Note, however, that by itself, a „treat it‰ solution is not going to be nearly as effective as some form of „stop it‰ solution.

(b) RRedirect the Problem

(i) In this approach, the problem is deflected, either physically by moving it to another locality (a common solution in garbage problems) or by postponing its solution by redefining it as not a problem.

(ii) Remember that a problem is a problem only when someone defines it as such.

(c) TTolerate the Problem

In this form, the effects of the problem are tolerated. It is debatable whether this can be considered a form of "problem solving" but for the sake of


completion, we will leave it in the list. Basically, in this scenario, the effects are taken for granted and measures are taken to endure them.

The best approach is, of course, the stop-it approach. However, this is not always possible in all cases, and it may be that the only solution to a problem at hand is the mop-it one. Nevertheless, an effective problem-solver will always consider stop-it solutions before exploring mop-it alternatives. It is also important that problems be solved by treating the root (or underlying) causes rather than merely addressing the symptoms.

IDENTIFYING POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

It is believed that „the best way to have a good idea is to have a lot of ideas‰. Thus identifying possible solutions to a particular problem is also known as looking out for „optional solution‰ due to the fact that the main objective is to bring to an end the list of all possible alternatives to the particular problem. A wide range of conceivable solutions can be generated using a variety of creative techniques. This works best where a team is concerned. Every team member should contribute one or more suggestions in order for all ideas to be taken into account. This is important because when all viewpoints are thoroughly considered by the team, members have a sense of direct ownership in the decision making process. Eventually, this can assist the team in coming up with a consensus later in the decision making process.

PLANNING THE SOLUTION

It is often vital to plan the solution before you can proceed to solve it or choose the most suitable tool for it. Planning your solution can be approached in the following way:

(a) Defining four or five key causes of the problem, followed by identifying the intervention needed to resolve them.

(b) There may be several alternatives, with the best one depending on the cost, effectiveness and forces that favour or impede it.

(c) You can determine the best approach in the following manner:

(i) Write down clearly what you expect your results to be.

(ii) Evaluate possible alternatives. Are the alternatives doable, practical and feasible? The following techniques are helpful:

1.9

1.8


� Generate ideas by brainstorming.

� Identify how forces can affect the viability of alternatives by using the force field analysis.

� Identify and explore the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats of the alternative solutions using the SWOT analysis.

� Benchmark your processes with another similar organisation and look for learning opportunities.

(iii) Follow the analysis process to resolve the most important causes of the problem:

� Compare the effectiveness and viability of the alternative solutions by using the prioritization matrix.

� For the strategies selected, use the hierarchical flow chart to determine which activities are the major focus, and what the chronological order of their execution is.

(iv) As part of your implementation plan, use the programme matrix to define your goals and allocate the resources (human, material, financial, time) that you need.

These techniques are explored again in later topics.

TAKING RESPONSIBILITY

Finally, it is crucial to take responsibility of a problem should we want to bring about constructive change to the situation. When we deflect ownership and blame only external circumstances for the problems we face, it can lead to a feeling of helplessness which will undermine our capability to find a way out of the problem. ÂExternal locus of controlÊ refers to a person who believes that his problems are caused and determined by external stimulus, which are beyond their own personal control and hence there is nothing he or she can do to change a situation. This mindset can be unhealthy in the context of positive thinking. We should not succumb to defeat with the belief that forces outside of ourselves affect our ability to succeed.

1.10


� A problem exists when there is a mismatch between what actually happens with what we want or expect to have happened.

� A problem can be defined as an opportunity for improvement.

� Problem solving is the process of obtaining a satisfactory solution, preferably in a novel way.

� Problem solving can be seen as a structured or directional. The stages in problem solving are:

� Recognising and defining a problem;

� Finding possible solutions;

� Selecting the best solution; and

� Implementing the solution.

� Defining a goal is essential in determining how much of a problem exists or whether or not there is a problem in the first place. It is vital to realise that goals change with time and so do the problems you face.

� Whenever faced with a problem, an effective solution can be developed by following these steps:

� Problem Exploration;

� Goal Establishment;

� Idea Generation;

� Idea Selection;

� Implementation; and

� Evaluation or Follow Up.

� Root Cause Analysis (RCA) involves the following processes;

� Defining the problem;

� Collection of data;

� Identification of possible causal factors or root causes; and

� Recommendation and implementation of solutions.


� Constraints faced in problem solving include lack of clarity, polytely, complexity and dynamics.

� Two basic approaches to solving problems can be tackling it at the source, or tackling its symptoms or effects.

� It is important to plan the solution for the problem before proceeding to the actual process of solving it.

Close-ended problems

External Locus of Control

"Mop It" Approach

Open-ended problems

Problem Solving Cycle

Root Cause Analysis (RCA)

"Stop It" Approach

SWOT Analysis

Thinking out-of-the-box

1. Based on your understanding, explain what is a „problem‰? 2. A problem can be seen as both an opportunity for improvement and a

yardstick showing the difference between your current state and your ideal state. Can you elaborate on both of these states?

3. Elaborate on the process of problem solving. 4. Explain briefly the steps involved in implementing the solution to a

problem. 5. Problem solving centres on thinking about ideal states that one would like

to achieve. How is goal setting useful in enhancing the problem solving process?

6. Whenever faced with a problem, an effective solution to the problem can be

developed by following these steps:

� Problem Exploration

� Goal Establishment


� Idea Generation

� Idea Selection

� Implementation

� Evaluation or Follow Up

Briefly explain the processes involved in each of these steps. 7. What are the three types of causes that are usually looked at in the Root

Cause Analysis RCA) technique? 8. List the common constraints faced in difficult problems. 9. There are two basic approaches to solving problems:

� Where the cause or source of the problem is attacked;

� Where the effects or symptoms of the problem are attacked.

Can you elaborate on these approaches? 10. Describe briefly how to use the SWOT Analysis approach in solution

planning

Adair, J. (2010). Decision making and problem solving strategies: Learn key problem solving strategies; Sharpen your creative thinking strategies; Make effective decisions. (2nd ed.). London, UK: Kogan Page.

Bedell, J.R., & Lennox, S.S. (1997). Handbook for communication and problem solving skills training: A cognitive-behavioural approach. (1st ed.). Canada: John Wiley and Sons.

Dörner, D., & Wearing, A. (1995). Complex problem solving: Toward a (computer-simulated) theory. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke (Eds.), Complex problem solving: The European Perspective (pp. 65-99). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Fensel, D., & Motta, E. (2001). Structured development of problem solving methods. IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering. (913-932). Retrieved from http://people.kmi.open.ac.uk/motta


Funke, J. (1991). Solving complex problems: Human identification and control of complex systems. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch (Eds.), Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms (pp. 185-222). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Harris, R. (1998). Introduction to problem solving. Retrieved August 2008 from http://www.virtualsalt.com/crebook3.htm

Sternberg, R.J. (1998). Thinking and problem solving (Handbook of Perception and Cognition). (2nd ed). San Diego, California: Academic Press.

Woods, D. R. (1975). Teaching problem-solving skills. Engineering Education, 66 (3), 238-243.

Woods, D. R. (1980). Problem solving workshop. Annual Conference of American Society for Engineering Education. University of Massachusetts, Amherst.

topic 1 problem solving

Documents