top down or bottom up? a study of grassroots ngos' approach

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Top Down or Bottom Up? A Study of Grassroots NGOs' Approach

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Top Down or Bottom Up? A Studyof Grassroots NGOs’ Approach

Biswambhar Panda

NGOs deploy multiple approaches to achieve their objectives. These may broadly be classifiedas bottom up and top down. While a bottom-up approach emphasises local decision making,community participation and grassroots mobilisation/movements, the top-down approachfocuses on lobbying and bargaining with the decision-making authorities such as governmentagencies, building up of pressures through various campaign mechanisms, advocacy activities,etc. This article draws insights from the literature and begins with a discussion on approachesundertaken by grassroots NGOs to meet their objectives. At the outset, the article ponders overa set of questions such as whether grassroots NGOs essentially follow a bottom-up approach.If so, why? Do they also intend to establish rapport with the state officials and thereby havesay in the decision-making process? If so, how do they pursue it? This article, however,operationalises the bottom-up approach in terms of an array of indicators such as awarenessbuilding efforts of NGOs, people’s participation in different phases of projects, and people’sinvolvement in creating people’s institutions. Similarly, it defines top-down approach onthe basis of indicators such as NGOs’ participation in advocacy activity, obtaining supportfrom government authority and obtaining favourable court verdicts. Despite the rhetoric,this article conclusively finds that no grassroots NGO practices either a bottom-up or top-down approach exclusively.

Introduction

Of late, there has been spurt of writings on the NGO sector, also called asthird sector, with the state being the first and the corporate the second.There has also been a steady rise of research studies on the NGO sectorboth by academia and NGOs themselves, covering various aspects such asthe programmes, strategies and approaches of NGOs. However, compre-hensive and systematic empirical studies on NGOs approach are meagre.

Journal of Health Management, 9, 2 (2007): 257–273SAGE Publications Los Angeles � London � New Delhi � SingaporeDOI: 10.1177/097206340700900207

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258 Biswambhar Panda

Journal of Health Management, 9, 2, (2007): 257–273

In this study, an effort has been made to understand the complex issue ofNGO approaches. Drawing references and insights from the literature(Finger 1994; Knoke 1990; Korten 1990; Schmale 1993; Srinivas 1998),this article begins with a broad discussion on approaches undertaken byNGOs to meet their objectives. At the outset, the article ponders over variousquestions pertaining to whether grassroots NGOs essentially follow a bottom-up approach, and if so, how. It also asks if they intend to build rapport withthe state officials and thus play a role in decision-making processes.

Apart from presenting the data on top-down and bottom-up approachesof grassroots NGOs, the article also addresses some participatory, innovativestrategies such as the formation of self-help groups (SHGs) and balwadi(preschool training) centres, creation of village corpus fund, herbal andkitchen gardens, etc. considered to be significant bottom-up strategies.

Methodology

The study was carried out in coastal Orissa, a south-eastern state of India.The universe for this study consists of grassroots NGOs registered in theDirectory of Voluntary Organisations organised by the People’s Develop-ment Communication Network (PDC) of Orissa located in Bhubaneswar,the state’s capital. Out of a comprehensive list of 800 NGOs, a sample of40 were selected. The data for the present study were collected in two phases.In first phase data were collected from 40 NGOs, and in the second phasetwo case studies were conducted mostly to collect qualitative data. While asemi-structured questionnaire was used for the first phase of data collection,the second phase was carried out with the help of a checklist. As the unitof the study was the organisation, data were obtained both from chief func-tionaries and staff members of NGOs.

Based on the research problem and objectives of the study, the twin vari-ables of bottom-up and top-down approaches were identified and oper-ationalised with the help of a set of indicators. Data on each indicator wascollected through a set of questions. Each question comprised several options,each being assigned a weightage/value on the basis of intensity and import-ance of the response. A cumulative score index was obtained for each indi-cator by adding up its scores on question items. Thus, a cumulative scorewas calculated for each indicator. Subsequently, a summated score value of




A Study of Grassroots NGOs’ Approach 259


both the indicators of a variable was obtained. If the intensity of the optionswere in increasing order, the weightages assigned were in an ascending order.And if the intensity of the options were in decreasing order, the weightagesassigned was in descending order. A three-point scale has been followed(where the highest score was 3 and the lowest 1) for the purpose. All thescores of these variables were summated to get a cumulative score for eachsample NGO.

Approaches Undertaken by NGOs

Korten’s (1990) formulation of generation strategies of NGOs suggests thatthey follow different strategies to achieve their objectives. NGOs that deliverservices to meet the problems created by natural disasters and tragediesfollow Generation I strategies. Generation II strategies are centred on devel-oping capacity building mechanisms and efforts to make people self-reliant.In other words, these can be termed community development strategies.NGOs deploy various empowerment programmes under this form of strat-egy. Generation III strategies highlight building sustainable forms of devel-opment by looking beyond individual communities. It focuses on creatingpolicies and institutional settings through effective advocacy programmes.Under Generation IV strategies, NGOs are involved in fomenting socialmovements through people’s mobilisation programme and their effectivenetworking (Table 1).

According to Srinivas (1998: 219), third-sector organisations (NGOs)follow a three-fold strategy. First, they tend to create an alternative meansof providing goods and services; second, is maintaining sustainable returnon investment; and third, ensuring active participation of users and members.The strategies may broadly be classified under the two broad categories ofbottom-up and top-down. The bottom-up approach emphasises commu-nity participation, grassroots movements and local decision making (Finger1994: 32). This facilitates the participation of target population in imple-menting development activities, thereby promoting participatory develop-ment. It argues that community participation and grassroots initiatives suchas creating sustained community groups, that is, mahila samitis, youth clubsand self-help groups, which promote participatory decision making and






Tab

le 1

Stra

tegi

es o

f D

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ent-

orie

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NG

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Fou

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Prob

lem

def

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NG

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agem

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I:R

elie

f an

d w

elfa

re

Shor

tage

Imm

edia

te

Indi

vidu

al o

r fa

mily

NG

O

Doe

r

Logi

stic

s m

anag

emen

t

Star

ving

chi

ldre

n

Gen

erat

ion

II:

Com

mun

ity

deve

lopm

ent

Loca

l ine

rtia

Proj

ect

life

Nei

ghbo

urho

od o

r vi

llage

NG

O p

lus

com

mun

ity

Mob

ilise

r

Proj

ect

man

agem

ent

Com

mun

ity

self-

help

Gen

erat

ion

III:

Sus

tain

able

syste

ms

deve

lopm

ent

Inst

itut

iona

l an

d po

licy

cons

trai

nts

10 t

o 20

yea

rs

Reg

ion

or n

atio

n

All

rele

vant

pub

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ndpr

ivat

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utio

ns

Cat

alys

t

Stra

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c m

anag

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t

Con

stra

inin

g po

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s an

din

stit

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ns

Gen

erat

ion

IV:

Peop

le’s

mov

emen

ts

Inad

equa

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obili

sing

vis

ion

Inde

finit

e fu

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Nat

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l or

glob

al

Loos

ely

defin

ed n

etw

orks

of

peop

le &

org

anis

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ns

Act

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t/E

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and

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gisi

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lf-m

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Spac

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p ea

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Sour

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n (1

990:

117

).






local self-reliance ultimately pay dividends. Contrary to the bottom-upapproach, top-down one emphasises lobbying and bargaining, with decision-making authorities at different platforms, obtaining support from the gov-ernment, building up pressures through various campaign mechanisms,actively engaging in advocacy activities, etc.

It is perceived that grassroots and smaller national NGOs mostly followa bottom-up approach, whereas bigger national and international NGOsdeploy top-down ones in their activities.

What is the Bottom-up Approach?

This approach can be seen as one of learning. It provides a platform tointroduce key issues, and widens the scope for participants and practitionersto discuss issues with open mind. It helps identify local problems, and chalksout local innovative strategies and methods to mitigate these. This approachtaps the indigenous knowledge bases and local expertise. It synthesises andsystematises the lessons learned and disseminates those among the masses.

In this article, the bottom-up approach has been defined and operation-alised in terms of a set of indicators such as: (a) awareness building effortsof NGOs; (b) people’s participation in projects and (c) NGOs’ efforts increating people’s institutions.

Awareness Building

The wider contention among grassroots NGOs is that the people shouldbe aware of their problems and share the responsibility for the benefit oftheir community and locality. Awareness campaigns are an effective way ofspreading the message across the masses. They are among the most effectivemechanisms to make people realise their role and responsibility for variousdevelopmental activities meant for them. For NGOs, which operate in re-mote, inaccessible areas and work with mostly illiterate, ill-informed people,winning the trust and confidence of the population is the first step. Hence,awareness building efforts of NGOs have been considered an importantindicator of the bottom-up approach. Tables 1 to 8 display the various typesof popular involvement in NGO efforts. These are demonstrations of NGOspractising a bottom-up approach.






To effectively carry out their awareness campaigns, NGOs employ dif-ferent tactics. They organise street plays, cultural shows, puppet shows, audio-visual shows, debates on relevant themes in schools and colleges, trainingcamps, workshops, rallies, etc. They build local popular institutions andsupport groups such as village committees, youth clubs, etc. to ensure alasting awareness campaign. As evident in Table 2, the efforts of the sampleNGOs in involving people in their awareness building campaigns seem tohave been reasonably successful as 24 NGOs (60 per cent) fall into highscore category.

Table 2People’s involvement in Awareness Building Campaigns

Scores on awareness building campaigns No. of NGOs

Low 16High 24Total 40

Mobilisation of the People

Voluntary organisations are a well known social foci for mobilising peopleto participate both in internal organisational governance and in the affairsof the local community (Knoke 1982, cited in Knoke 1990: 1041–63).Mobilising people to stage protests against various government decisionsthat hamper the local interests is another major strategy adopted by NGOs.They not only encourage people to participate in the activities and pro-grammes carried out by them, but also to mobilise resources both in cashand kind. They convince people about the need and importance of popularsupport. The mobilisation of the people results in the expressions of popu-lar protests in various ways such as silent protest marches, peaceful protestmarches, and staging dharnas and gheraos. Though most NGOs prefer peace-ful ways of protesting and usually involve themselves in awareness campaigns,some do not hesitate to mobilise the masses against government decisionseven if it turns violent. NGOs acting as pressure groups organise people tostage protest against adversarial decisions and the policies that go againstlocal interests, their environment and habitat.

The study observed that NGOs have followed different measures toorganise and mobilise the people (Table 3). While some have confinedthemselves to peaceful protests, some have organised marches (padyatras)






and gheraos that have turned violent. Some have also faced government re-pression on their way to demonstrations.

Table 3Measures Undertaken by NGOs to Mobilise People

NGOs measures for mobilising people No. of NGOs

Strikes (bandh/boycott) 14Gheraos 8Rallies 34Other (peaceful silent protest marches, dharnas, hunger strikes, etc.) 18

As has been mentioned earlier, the mobilisation of people leads to expres-sions of popular protest. Based on the scores assigned in terms of frequencyand intensity of these protest campaigns, our observation shows that a major-ity of the sample NGOs (25; 62.5 per cent) are successfully engaged in thepeople’s mobilisation process and have consequently figured in the highcategory. Fifteen (37.5 per cent) NGOs are found to be less successful intheir efforts to mobilise the masses (Table 4).

Table 4Popular Participation in Protest Campaigns

People’s participation in protest campaigns No. of NGOs


Project Activities

Projects are the mainstay of NGOs. It is through the implementation ofprojects that they carry out their developmental activities. It is believed thatby sheer commitment and sustained efforts, an NGOs can manage to imple-ment projects in a cost-effective basis and involve beneficiaries (target popula-tion), making it a joint venture. Given their limited resources, the sociallyvulnerable groups they work with and the hostile logistics/landscapes inwhich they operate, people’s participation and support in NGO projectsand programmes become very crucial in achieving their desired success.By encouraging people to participate in their projects, NGOs build a rapport






with the local people and seek to understand their problems. They tend toinvolve people in the different stages of the projects, starting from the projectinitiation to project implementation and maintenance (Table 5).

Table 5People’s Participation in NGO Activities

Obtaining popular participation in various stages of projects No. of NGOs

Project initiation 23Project implementation 32Project maintenance 27

Project Initiation Local feedback and prior knowledge about the projectsite is considered very important for the smooth execution of the project.The present study explores the efforts and initiatives that NGOs could un-leash before formally launching a project. In the formulation and implemen-tation process NGOs have often invited local stakeholders for their inputand suggestion. The involvement of local stakeholders is also encouragedfor the workshops and forums organised by them. Some NGOs have carriedout preliminary survey exercises about the feasibility of the projects andpopular involvement. Eventually, they have identified bottlenecks and ac-cordingly sought help from the people, officials and existing local bodiesprior to taking up projects.

People’s involvement in project initiation has been measured on the basisof the efforts undertaken by NGOs to obtain support and feedback prior tothe launching of the projects. Data have been gathered on whether NGOshave taken beneficiaries’ views into consideration before the implementationof projects, whether they have received suggestions and remedial measuresfrom the people, and whether they have received technical advice and soon. Considering all these responses, the cumulative performance shows that19 (47.5 per cent) NGOs were in the low category in this respect, whereas21 (52.5 per cent) figured in the high category in obtaining people’s involve-ment and support in various forms and capacity (Table 6).

Project Implementation For the smooth and effective implementation ofprojects, NGOs depend largely on local popular participation. The successof their developmental initiatives rests on the effective implementation ofprojects.






People’s participation in project implementation has been observed fromwhether NGOs collaborate with people in the project areas, whether NGOsimplement projects with less of their staff and more with the local people,and whether they have sought and made use of local indigenous knowledgebases in implementing their projects. As far as the sample NGOs’ efforts inobtaining people’s support and participation in project implementation isconcerned, it is observed that a majority of the NGOs (24) fall in the highcategory. Sixteen (40 per cent) NGOs are found in the low category, implyingthat they have not been able to muster enough popular support from thepeople at the areas of operation (Table 7).

Table 7People’s Involvement in Project Implementation

Scores on project implementation No. of NGOs


Further, in an attempt to explore the nature of people’s involvement inproject implementation, it is found that 12 (30 per cent) NGOs implementprojects with the help of the target population alone. Fifteen (37.5 per cent)NGOs have obtained help of people at the project site as well as at the areaof their establishment. Most significantly, 29 (72.5 per cent) NGOs havesuccessfully sought technical and remedial advice form the local people,and made use of their local experiences and traditional knowledge bases.To know whether NGOs have entertained the criticisms/suggestions of peopleapart from their participation in project implementation, it is found thatonly 17 (42.5 per cent) have received suggestions, while 13 (32.5 per cent)have entertained constructive criticism as well. Ten NGOs (25 per cent)

Table 6People’s Involvement in Project Initiation

Scores on project initiation No. of NGOs







have had no hesitation in accepting critical suggestions of the people, thoughthey have not received any.

People’s participation in NGOs’ project maintenance activities is alsoconsidered another indicator of the bottom-up approach. According to anNGO personnel, ‘Local communities have valuable experience and a specialunderstanding of their own environment. When the responsibility for pre-serving and maintaining the projects bestowed on them, it invites dedicationand commitment from them. And they discharge their responsibility withgreat honesty.’

Before withdrawing from a project, NGOs form different popular localinstitutions for follow-up activities to ensure its sustained impact. To examinethe measures undertaken by NGOs for the maintenance of projects, datawas collected on their efforts in creating local institutions, beneficiaries’participation in the projects, and so on. It was found that as many as 26(65 per cent) NGOs figured in the high score category. Fourteen NGOswere found to be involving people to a lesser extent in project maintenance(Table 8).

Table 8People’s Involvement in NGOs’ ProjectMaintenance and Follow-up Activities

Scores on maintenance and follow-up No. of NGOs


Another indicator to measure bottom-up approach is to know the extentto which NGOs involve or take the help of local existing institutions, andwhether they create new grassroots institutions, that is, village groups, youthclubs, mahila samitis, self-help groups, forest protection committees andvillage watershed management committees, to further local efforts and miti-gate local problems. Because local institutions effectively carry forward theefforts initiated by NGOs, being native to the region they understand localconditions, strength and constraints better and accordingly help NGOs inmeeting their objectives. It was observed that 17 (42.5 per cent) NGOswere found more keen in taking the help of existing local bodies withoutgiving much importance to the creation of new. Only four (10 per cent)






NGOs say that they have not been successful in getting the help of localbodies, but have created quite a few grassroots organisations. Nineteen (47.5per cent) NGOs not only took the help of the existing bodies, but also havecreated new grassroots organisations to look after their problems.

As is evident in Table 9, the majority of NGOs (22; 55 per cent) havebeen highly successful in establishing local institutions/groups. However,18 NGOs are found in the low category in their efforts in this sphere.

Table 9NGOs’ Efforts in Creating People’s Institutions (1995–99)

Scores on creating peoples’ institutions No. of NGOs

Low (5–10) 18High (10–20) 22Total 40

Our data further reveals that 19 (47.5 per cent) of the sample NGOshave managed to get government support in the form of training and moni-toring. Local government officials have helped in providing ideas and feed-back. Similarly, some NGOs (11 of the sample organisations) have takenthe help of government officials in project execution. As far as projectimplementation is concerned, only five (12.5 per cent) are reported to haveobtained the support and cooperation of government officials. The rest ofthe NGOs have been unable to muster any governmental support to expeditetheir cause. Some NGOs are not enthusiastic at all to get governmentalsupport as a matter of principle and ideology. The approach of NGOs whohave taken up this mode of intervention, that is, taking the help of govern-ment bodies from time to time without involving the people in large num-bers, is considered as top-down. The data reveals that only five (12.5 per cent)NGOs may be considered as exclusively top-down, with minor variations/exceptions. Of the remaining 35 NGOs favouring a bottom-up approach,25 (62.5 per cent) are found to be minimally top down and highly bottomup in their functioning. Thus, there are nearly 10 (25 per cent) NGOs thatare likely to be exclusively bottom up in their functioning, with minor vari-ations/exceptions.

Therefore, we may say that there are three categories of NGOs in termsof their functional approaches. First are those that follow a purely bottom-up approach; second, those that follow a purely top-down approach; and






finally, those that follow a combination of both. Leaving aside NGOs thatare exclusively top-down oriented, within those that are exclusively andpartially bottom-up oriented a further categorisation has been made toaccommodate the complex data pattern that is generated in the course ofthe data analysis. These are classified as radical, conformist and proactive.The radical approach could be defined as one where NGOs basically mobilisepeople to take up the violent forms of collective action, for example, strikes,demonstrations, protests, etc. to meet their demands. These could be ideo-logically anti-establishment NGOs. The conformist approach can be definedas one that encourages and engages people in project activities, that is, projectformulation, implementation and maintenance, without necessarily beinganti-establishment. These NGOs believe in functioning based on co-operation. In the course of the completion of projects, these NGOs createvarious people’s institutions that sustain their efforts after their withdrawalfrom projects. On the contrary, the proactive approach could be defined asa form of bottom-up approach that advocates prompt and sweeping action.It encourages people to stage protests, demonstrations, strikes, etc., but notin a violent way. Creating awareness is another important strategy for a pro-active bottom-up approach. Awareness building mechanisms such as streetplays, padyatras, poster/banner/post card campaigning, etc. can be seen as apart of a proactive strategy. These NGOs show no hesitation to obtain helpfrom government organisations, and believe in making a louder and sustainedimpact by involving people in large numbers in their activities.

On the basis of this conceptualisation, it is observed that of the total 35,12 (34.28 per cent) NGOs were proactive, 16 (45.71 per cent) conformistsand seven (17.5 per cent) NGOs are radicals (Panda and Pattnaik 2005:52–53). There are studies that have found that the organisations whichespouse bottom-up approaches and concepts may not practice them in thefield (Schmale 1993). However, this study observes that grassroots NGOsindeed practice bottom-up approach and strategies, though not exclusively.

In the next section we discuss some of the bottom-up strategies employedby two grassroots NGOs—Gram Vikas (GV) and Sambandh. They operatein tribal-dominated areas of Orissa, and are predominantly active in Ganjamand Mayurbhanj districts respectively. With people’s support and their activeparticipation, both these NGOs continue to work for the development ofthe downtrodden and vulnerable sections of society by addressing issues re-lating to health, environment and livelihood.






GV Projects: Strategy with a Difference

GV at the outset follows a five-prong strategy. First, it places emphasis onthe spread of education and awareness among the local people. Second, ittries to ensure community participation and gender equality in implementingprogrammes. Third, it emphasises building of local institutions. Fourth, itconsiders local culture and ethos while implementing its programmes. Fifth,it takes up income generating activities to make itself self-sufficient, andpromotes and supports village agro-based activities and industries.

GV has deployed a collaborative strategy with the local people in imple-menting projects. In every project people are encouraged not only to partici-pate, but also share the responsibilities. The beneficiaries contribute in cashor kind, making the project a joint venture. For example, in GV’s housingscheme, which includes construction of houses, schools, cattle sheds, etc.,the organisation provides raw materials such as cement, iron, wood andbamboo, as well as technical expertise, while the labour is provided by thepeople.

Disclosing its strategy, a GV programme coordinator said that it formsvarious village committees with equal representation of men and women tosustain programmes at village levels. For example, each family needs to con-tribute an affordable amount towards the endowment fund under the Inte-grated Tribal Development Programme (ITDP). The money collected is keptfor the maintenance of the programmes that GV carries out in that particularvillage.

Sambandh on the other hand focuses on people’s mobilisation and aware-ness programmes. It mobilises target populations such as youth, womenand other socio-economically deprived group, including all sections—higher(rich, landlord), middle (educated group, teachers, professionals) and lowerpoor land less, needy)—in its operational areas. Pointing out the import-ance of taking the help of higher class, a Sambandh personnel says thatthere are the influential persons in the region and their support is importantat the entry level. Sambandh utilises the resources of the ‘middle class’ ofthe region, and makes use of their skill and knowledge for the benefit oftheir projects. They also take their help in fomenting innovative ideas. Thebeneficiary group, the target population, forms the unprivileged, vulnerablesection of the region. Sambandh seeks labour power and cooperation fromthem. Therefore, Sambandh achieves its objective—which is to work for theunprivileged section of the region—by winning the support and cooperation






of the other communities in the region. Some of the major initiatives under-taken by these two NGOs have been discussed.

Balwadi Centre

Balwadi centres are set up in villages not only to prevent malnutrition andundernourishment among children, but also to prepare them for formalschooling in a natural setting. This is very essential in rural tribal settings asboth men and women are engaged in earning their livelihood and find littletime to look after their children during daytime. Therefore, GV has takeninitiatives to enroll children between the age of 6 months to 6 years in thesecentres. The village committees in consultation with GV appoint balwadimothers. The responsibilities of the balwadi mothers include cleaning andbathing the children, providing midday meals, and teaching alphabets, songs,etc. Each household contributes according to its capacity towards the smoothfunctioning of the centres. GV arranges exposure and training programmesfor balwadi mothers regularly. On occasion balwadi children, their mothers,along with balwadi mothers participate in awareness raising programmesorganised by GV. They also periodically perform issue-based cultural activities.

Corpus Fund

GV feels that to overcome the exploitation of moneylenders, which is stillprevalent, people should create their own corpus fund and seek loans fromit at the time of need. With this objective, GV took the initiative and per-suaded villagers to save money in the corpus according to their capacity.The NGO with its village volunteers explained and encouraged the peopleto participate in this micro-finance effort, which in turn can empower andmake them financially sustainable. GV believes that women’s active partici-pation in this scheme can make the difference, as it firmly believes that womencan manage to save some money by guarding the household expenditure.Hence, the responsibility was thrust upon mothers to save the requiredamount and build the corpus fund.

GV has formed a corpus fund in a village to meet any immediate financialcrisis. For building a corpus fund, it had set certain terms and conditions.The village community must ensure participation of all households in thevillage. For this, the village community holds evening meetings frequently.






A GV representative is deputed to explain the importance of this scheme.On an average, each household has to contribute Rs. 1,000 towards thevillage corpus fund. It is up to the community to decide how to compensatepoor households who cannot afford to contribute the fixed amount. Whilethe corpus remains untouched, the interest accrued from it is utilised formaintenance of sanitation and extension of essential services in the village.Besides the household contribution to the fund, the corpus amount is alsogenerated from other sources such as individual contribution and returnsfrom community assets like the village pond, forests, etc. The corpus fundis deposited in the bank for investment. Two members of the executivecommittee of the village and executive director of GV are the joint signatoriesto the account (Gram Vikas 1999: 38–39).

Group Savings

GV also promotes community savings. Under this programme, a group offive to 15 villagers save an affordable amount regularly. The saved amountis invested in the nearest post office and is used for development of the vil-lage. Interestingly, villagers themselves maintain the records and files withoutassistance from GV. However, GV provides all the possible assistance as andwhen sought by the villagers.

Sambandh’s Mobilisation Programmes

Sambandh mobilises its target population, that is, youth and women. Believ-ing that youth (students) can really contribute towards growth and develop-ment, it continues to involve students in its programmes, seek their help increating awareness among the people on different social and environmentalissues. It also elicits innovative ideas and views from them to incorporate inits programmes.

As a functionary puts it, ‘We extract ideas from the bright young mindsand apply it in our programme activities.’ Sambandh mobilises womenthrough its various empowerment programmes. Through the formation ofvarious women’s self-help groups, it encourages them to participate in variousinitiatives undertaken by it. Women have been participating in large numbersin various livelihood programmes and popular campaigns such as alcoholprohibition and provision of safe drinking water.






Empowerment Programmes

Through its cultural forum Sabdhan, Sambandh carries forward variousawareness programmes. Its cultural groups establish rapport by mixing withthe community. With the help of women’s self-help groups, this culturalwing has successfully campaigned against prohibition. It has also engagedin popularising adult literacy programmes. It carries out programmes tosensitise schoolchildren about health and environmental issues. This in turnhelps create awareness among the people and the community as a whole.Besides, it also organises picture rallies, and encourages children to popularisevarious messages among the masses. By making herbal gardens preservingrare medicinal plants the NGO has revived traditional practices and alsoprovided livelihood to traditional herbal medical practitioners. Sambandhmobilises and organises these practitioners and takes them on various ex-posure trips. They are themselves encouraged to preserve traditional medi-cinal plants.

Self-help Groups

Sambandh has fomented the idea of forming self-help groups in the areas ofits operation to look after its projects. By forming these groups, it ensuresthe participation of vulnerable sections in solving their problems. Sambandhbelieves that since problems such as poverty, ecological hazards and healthissues cannot be solved by individual effort, it is necessary that villagerscome together and chalk out strategies to find solutions to these problems.Hence, the roles and functions of SHGs become paramount.

Through SHGs, people share ideas, develop new strategies and, mostimportantly, motivate each other to build group solidarity. This in turnhelps achieve desired objectives. Sambandh has formulated different SHGson different issues, such as watershed development, women’s empowermentand environment. There are both men’s and women’s SHGs. There are anumber of SHGs in each cluster. Sambandh plays the role of coordinator aswell as facilitator.

Conclusion

NGOs today not only vary in nature, size and operation, but also deployvarious strategies that suit them to achieve their objectives. Maybe to survive






as an organisation compels them to follow different strategies at times. Sincethey have to survive and compete with fellow NGOs, they draw out theirstrategies accordingly. No grassroots NGO follows a completely top-downpractice as they carry local community with them. They also take supportand help from the existing people’s institutions in the areas of their operation.No grassroots NGO functions exclusively as a bottom-up organisation, asassistance/directives from local governments become inevitable in some formor the other from time to time. Hence, it is difficult to categorise NGOs onthe basis of their strategy and approach. At times the distinction betweenthe bottom-up and top-down approaches becomes blurred. From the presentstudy it is conclusively found that no grassroots NGO practices either atop-down or bottom-up approach exclusively, though they are inclined tofollow bottom-up strategies.

References

Finger, M. (1994). NGOs and transformation: Beyond social movement theory. In T. Princenand M. Finger (eds.), Environmental NGOs in world politics: Linking the local andthe global (pp. 48–66). London: Routledge.

Gram Vikas (1999). Annual report, 1998–99. Ganjam, Orissa: Gram Vikas.Knoke, D. (1990). Networks of political action: Toward theory construction. Social Forces,

68(4), pp. 104–63.Korten, D. (1990). Getting to the 21st century: Action and the global agenda. Kumarian Press.Panda, B. and B.K. Pattnaik (2005). Effectiveness of grassroots NGOs: An empirical explora-

tion. Man & Development, June, 39–66.Schmale, M. (1993). The role of local organizations in third world development. UK: Avebury

Press.Srinivas, N. (1998). ‘Third sector organizations and their strategies. In R.N. Kanungo (ed.),

Entrepreneurship and Innovation, Models for Develop-ment (pp. 215–44). New Delhi:Sage Publications.

Biswambhar Panda is Lecturer, Department of Sociology, North-Eastern Hill University,Shillong. E-mail: [email protected]




top down or bottom up? a study of grassroots ngos' approach

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