Title: Emotional Intelligence: is it more relevant than we think?

Author: Nikhita Dost

Affiliation: OPP Ltd

Abstract

The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of Emotional intelligence (EQ)

training at Tesco UK. 361 leaders took part emotional intelligence training using the

Emotional Judgement Inventory tool. Their change in Emotional Intelligence levels

was measured, as well as their MBTI Type, happiness, resilience, Emotional Labour,

Authentic Leadership and customer focus. Results showed that Emotional

Intelligence levels were higher after training than before and that Emotional

Intelligence was linked to the above factors. Findings demonstrate the effectiveness

and relevance of training emotional intelligence for developing leaders. They also

have implications for Human Resource Development: If Emotional intelligence can

be trained and links to wider organisational goals, perhaps there should be an

emphasis on development of staff in other roles, such as customer service roles, not

just leaders.

Keywords: Emotional Intelligence, training, leadership

1. Introduction

1.1 Overview

A major challenge that HRD professionals face is to create the right attitudes,

environment and culture in organisations. The future of HRD will require HRD

professionals to:

Maintain cross-cultural acceptance and understanding of how to work

effectively with those with diverse cultures and styles.

Develop authentic and ethical leadership as a base on which to build a

successful and competitive business.

Build employees’ resilience to adapt to changes, embrace continuous learning

and manage their well-being.

However, in any organisation, HRD professionals need to gain buy-in from

stakeholders and demonstrate the effectiveness of what is considered “soft” skills

training. A key practice that HRD professionals need to develop is to measure the

effectiveness of their interventions.

Not only can this demonstrate the importance of such training, but also it provides

the opportunity to continuously improve those interventions and increase their

effectiveness.

This paper describes an example of assessing the effectiveness of Emotional

intelligence (EQ) training at Tesco UK. It also shows the relevance of EQ in meeting

some of the key HRD issues described above, and suggests that investing in EQ

could be directly relevant to HRD goals.

1.2 Why Emotional Intelligence?

Emotional Intelligence (EQ) was identified as an important factor in helping to meet

the needs of individuals and the organisation. EQ is the ability to identify, manage

and use emotions to improve performance, both one’s own and others’ (Bedwell,

2015). Humans are social creatures and we encounter emotional information often

in our daily lives. How we process and respond to this emotional information

impacts on task performance, relationships, judgements, memory and problem

solving strategies (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1995; Izard, 1991; Palfai & Salovey, 1993;

Zajonc, 1984). This means that understanding, managing and applying emotions

underlies many of our decisions and are likely to be important for a wide range of

people in a wide range of situations.

Emotional Intelligence has recently gained popularity in workplace training

interventions. Research indicates that Emotional Intelligence accounts for variance

in performance at work beyond that explained by personality measures (Mayer &

Salovey, 1997; Landy, 2003). Furnham and Petrides (2003) found that Emotional

intelligence accounted for variance in happiness at work beyond personality. This

suggests Emotional Intelligence is distinct from personality and ability and may be

able to add value over and above these two constructs, in developing both

performance and well-being at work.

In this study, the Emotional Judgement Inventory (EJI) tool was chosen due to its

links with leadership and customer service. For example, a study by IPAT (2002)

using the EJI showed that leaders who attempted to manage their own emotions

and others around them were perceived as being more effective in providing

motivation and encouragement. Emotional Intelligence is also thought to be linked to

authentic leadership (Fusco, Palmer, O’Riordan, 2011). The EJI was also tested in a

sales setting. Kostman & Bedwell (2003) administered the EJI to a sample of sales

personnel responsible for managing relationships with customers, rather than

actively pursuing new business opportunities. They found that Emotional

Intelligence was related to sales performance and demonstrated incremental validity

in predicting sales performance beyond cognitive ability and personality.

Furthermore, sales staff with high Emotional Intelligence scores and average

cognitive ability performed better than those with high cognitive ability and low

emotional intelligence. This suggests that higher emotional intelligence may offset

the effect of lower levels of cognitive ability in some jobs. This has implications for

the way in which individuals are hired and developed within organisations. If

Emotional Intelligence can be trained, greater emphasis could be placed on

development to enhance performance than selection based on ability.

Given the theoretical background, Emotional Intelligence was seen to be relevant to

Tesco’s goals. It was expected this would enhance not just personal resilience and

effectiveness as a leader but also the quality of customer and colleague interactions.

There is evidence that emotional intelligence training can improve health, well-being

and management performance (e.g. Slaski & Cartwright, 2002;2003), and that it is

possible to develop emotional intelligence with training (Nelis, Quoidbach,

Mikolajczak & Hansenne, 2009). However, research into whether emotional

intelligence can itself be developed and learned is limited. Therefore, a secondary

aim was to test whether emotional intelligence can be trained, using a longitudinal

study design. The Emotional Intelligence training was incorporated into a customer

service training program, as part of a novel leadership development program.

1.3 Aims of the research and hypotheses

In carrying out the research, Tesco wanted to understand the effectiveness of their

EQ training programme. In particular, Tesco wanted to understand the relevance of

improving EQ for customer focus, resilience and authentic leadership, three aspects

which are directly relevant to Tesco’s Leadership Model. Therefore, the research

questions addressed were: Can Emotional Intelligence be taught? What impact

does training have on Emotional Intelligence? What other impacts might Emotional

Intelligence training have?

Based on the research questions were the following key hypotheses:

1) Emotional Intelligence levels will be higher after training than before training

2) Emotional Intelligence will be linked to MBTI Type

3) Emotional Intelligence will be linked to happiness, customer focus, authentic

leadership, resilience and Emotional Labour. Those scoring higher on

Emotional Intelligence will also score higher on happiness, customer focus,

authentic leadership, resilience and Emotional Labour.

2. Method

361 leaders took part in leadership and customer service training. This included

Emotional Intelligence training to identify, manage and use emotions to improve

performance.

The Emotional Judgement Inventory (EJI) tool was used to measure participants’

levels of Emotional Intelligence both before and after training. The Emotional

Judgement Inventory (EJI) measures the extent to which a person notices, manages

and applies emotions, both their own (intrapersonal) and others’ (interpersonal). It is

a measure of Emotional Intelligence and was designed to aid professional

development by increasing a person’s self-awareness.

The EJI has 7 scales of Emotional Intelligence, briefly defined below (figure 1). The

can be divided into noticing, managing and applying Emotions or more broadly into

focusing on your own emotions or others’ emotions.

Scores are interpreted as compared to a large comparison group of people who

have taken the questionnaire before. The comparison or norm group for the EJI is a

group of 1736 adults, representative of the U.S. population.

Figure 1: Descriptions of the 7 EJI scales

On each scale, individuals are given a standardised score between 20 and 80, called

a T-score. Below is an indication of how these can be interpreted:

20-29 Low

30-39 Below Average

40-60 Average

61-70 Above Average

71-80 High

It should be noted that there are no generally ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ profiles. However,

some may be more appropriate than others depending on the situation or role.

Importantly, Emotional Intelligence can change during a person’s life and can be

developed.

In addition to completing the EJI, participants completed surveys both before and

after attending training, measuring the following aspects:

MBTI Type

Happiness

Resilience

Authentic Leadership

Customer Focus

Emotional Labour

The questionnaire results were analysed to understand the links between these and

therefore, understand the impact of the Emotional Intelligence training.

Participants were 361 people working as leaders at Tesco, aged between 22 and 57,

with an average (mean) age of 38 years. 53% of the sample was female and 47%

male. 58% of the sample identified their nationality as British, 38% as Scottish or

Welsh and 1.6% as other European. 2.4% did not state their nationality.

Because the data was collected over a period of one and a half years between 2014

and 2015, there was a significant drop out rate of participants of 60%. As such, post-

training sample sizes are smaller than that of the initial sample.

3. Results

3.1 Emotional Intelligence Levels

Participants had higher Emotional Intelligence levels after the training than before

the training, for 5 out of 7 of the EJI scales. This suggests that, at the very least,

individuals who went through the programme had a heightened understanding of

how to identify, manage and apply emotions.

The graph below (figure 2) shows the difference in EQ before and after training.

Figure 2: EQ levels before and after training

The group also had relative strengths in identifying and managing their own and

others’ emotions, whilst their development areas included Being Aware of Emotions,

Using Emotions in Problem Solving and Expressing Emotions Adaptively.

3.2 Emotional Intelligence and MBTI Type

Personality type was assessed using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI®)

model of personality (Myers et al, 1998). This looks at four aspects of personality, as

shown in Figure 3 below.

Where do you get your energy from?

Extraversion (E)

Outside world of people and things or

Introversion (I)

Inner world of thought and reflection

What kind of information do you prefer to use?

Sensing (S)

Realistic, specific, factual or

Intuition (N)

Possibilities, connections, big picture

What process do you use to make decisions?

Thinking (T)

Logical, objective, impersonal reasoning or

Feeling (F)

Using values and seeking harmony

How do you deal with the world around you?

Judging (J)

Makes plans, structured, seeks closure or

Perceiving (P)

Flexible, spontaneous, unstructured

Figure 3: The four dimensions of the MBTI model

The questionnaire and associated feedback process allows the respondent to sort

themselves to one type within each dichotomy – E or I, S or N, T or F, and J or P.

These four areas are combined to describe an individual’s whole personality type;

there are, therefore, 16 possible types (ISTJ, ISFJ, INFJ, ISFJ, ISTP, ISFP, INFP,

INTP, ESTJ, ESFJ, ENFJ, ESFJ, ESTP, ESFP, ENFP, and ENTP).

Findings showed several links between MBTI Type and Emotional Intelligence.

Those with Extraversion showed higher Emotional Intelligence than those with

Introversion overall, except for “Managing Own Emotions”. This could be due to their

external focus on others.

Those with a Feeling preference place greater importance on emotions, shown by

the higher score on “Being Aware of Emotions”. Those with Feeling also

demonstrate higher “Managing Others Emotions”, “Using Emotions in Problem

Solving” and “Expressing Emotions Adaptively” which may be a result of them

understanding that emotions can be valuable. Interestingly, those with a Thinking

preference scored similarly and sometimes better on identifying emotions and

managing their own emotions, suggesting that they are able to understand emotional

information, but tend not use it as much to aid their performance. It’s possible that

the development needs of those with either preference may differ. Positioning

Emotional Intelligence training as a way to improve their own and others’

performance at work, may appeal more to the Thinking preference.

3.3 Emotional Intelligence and happiness

Participants’ EJI scores were compared to their responses on a measure of

Happiness at Work before training (iPPQ Happiness at Work measure: Edmunds,

Lindsay & Pryce-Jones, 2009). Figure 4 shows the results split into three groups:

those less happy, those in an average range and those who were happiest.

Managers who had lower levels of Emotional Intelligence were also less happy at

work. This suggests that Emotional Intelligence may be relevant for happiness and

mental well-being at work, and may have implications for absence management and

staff retention. Those who are happier at work are less likely to leave for another job

and less likely to take time off work.

3.4 Emotional Intelligence and Resilience

Resilience is the ability to cope with life’s demands and bounce back from difficulties.

The Resilience Scale for Adults (RSA) (Friborg et al., 2005) was used to measure

three aspects, shown in figure 5.

Figure 5: Descriptions of three aspects we used to measure Resilience with the Resilience Scale

for Adults

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

EJI Scale

Figure 4: Emotional Intelligence scores in relationship to Happiness at Work

1

3

5

7

2

4

6

Predictions were that those who had higher Resilience would also be better able to

identify, manage and express their own emotions. This is because recognising

positive and negative emotions and being able to manage them is likely to help

individuals deal with difficulties in their day to day lives and maintain a positive

outlook. Expressing emotions is also thought to be a useful way to deal with negative

emotions.

The analysis showed significant positive correlations between Managing Own

Emotions and Perception of Self (r=0.529, p<0.001, n=81); Managing Own Emotions

and Perception of Future (r=0.356, p=0.001, n=81); Expressing Emotions Adaptively

and Social competence (r=0.370, p=0.001, n=81) Using Emotions in Problem

Solving and total Resilience score (r=0.341, p=0.002, n=81).

This means there were the following significant relationships between the Resilience

Scale for Adults and the EJI:

Those better at managing their own emotions had a better perception of self and

a better perception of the future

Those who expressed their emotions adaptively reported higher Social

Competence. This confirms that social support and skills are related to being

able to express emotions to others, and perhaps that expressing emotions to

others may be a strategy to cope with stress.

Those who reported higher Use of Emotions in Problem Solving had higher

overall Resilience levels.

These findings suggest that the EJI has relevance for developing Resilience,

particularly the aspects of Managing Own Emotions, Expressing Emotions

Adaptively and Using Emotions in Problem Solving. Although we cannot conclude

that having a higher Emotional Intelligence causes Resilience, the findings provide

evidence that the two are linked.

3.5 Emotional Intelligence and Authentic Leadership

Many of the leadership failures in modern organisations are seen to be ethical in

nature (Beddoes-Jones & Swailes, 2015). Authentic Leadership encompasses

qualities that underpin all positive leadership styles.

Authentic Leadership means being ethical, true to one’s self, consistent with one’s

own values and being able to adapt behaviour to different situations whilst

maintaining personal standards.

The Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (Beddoes-Jones & Swailes, 2015)

measured three aspects, which were seen as three pillars on which to build any

positive leadership style:

Self-Awareness: an understanding of one’s own beliefs, values and feelings

and an understanding of how one comes across to others.

Self-Regulation: the tendency to regulate one’s own behaviour and be even-

tempered, acting consistently and in accordance with one’s own beliefs and

values.

Ethics: the tendency to consider ethics in one’s decisions, openly discuss

moral issues and to be clear about one’s ethical responsibility as a leader.

We predicted that the Emotional Intelligence training would enhance both Self-

Awareness and Self-regulation. In this study, we measured Authentic Leadership

before and after training, as well as asking colleagues to rate the leaders’ Emotional

Intelligence.

The results showed that, firstly, levels of Self-awareness were higher after training

than before training. A t-test showed a significant difference between Self-

awareness after training (mean=0.86) and Self-awareness before training

(mean=0.72). Both these scores are out of a maximum of 1. (t (56)=-6.97, p<0.001,

SD=0.15, d=-1.86). Although the questionnaires used before and after training were

slightly different (US and a UK version of the same questionnaire), it is likely that the

difference is due to a real increase in Self-regulation. Had the same questionnaire

been used it is possible that this differences would be larger.

Secondly, those higher on certain aspects of Emotional Intelligence also showed

higher Self-awareness and Self-Regulation as an Authentic Leader (figure 6).

The findings show that being self-aware is linked to Being Aware of Emotions as well

as identifying and managing one’s own emotions. Those who say they are more self-

aware are more likely to say they use emotions in problem solving. However,

interestingly, expressing emotions is linked to neither Self-Awareness nor Self-

Regulation. This might be because Self-Regulation as a leader refers to modifying

behaviour than modifying and changing one’s emotions. Self-regulation requires a

person to act consistently well irrespective of how they feel, which may instead mean

hiding or resisting expressing certain emotions.

Authentic

Leadership

scale

EJI scale

Self-Awareness Self-Regulation

Being Aware of

Emotions

0.343** -

Identifying Own

Emotions

0.241* 0.548**

Managing Own

Emotions

0.324** 0.487**

Using Emotions in

Problem Solving

0.382** -

Expressing

Emotions

Adaptively

- -

* correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

** correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Figure 6: correlations between self-reported Emotional Intelligence (EJI score) and

self-reported Authentic Leadership (ALQ score) after training (n=81)

3.6 Emotional Intelligence and Customer Focus

A main focus of the training was to improve Customer Focus. Therefore, leaders

were asked to rate their Customer Focus using the Sales Personnel Customer

Performance Scale (Liao & Chuang, 2004). Results showed that those who rated

themselves as having higher Customer Focus tended to score themselves higher on

certain aspects of Emotional Intelligence (figure 7).

EJI scale Correlation with

Customer Focus

Being Aware of

Emotions

-

Identifying Own

Emotions

0.277 *

Identifying Others’

Emotions

0.397 **

Managing Own Emotions 0.279 *

Managing Others’

Emotions

0.304 **

Using Emotions in

Problem Solving

0.233 *

Expressing Emotions

Adaptively

-

N=81

* correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

** correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Figure 7: correlations between self-reported Customer Focus and EJI scales after

training

There was no correlation between Customer Focus and Expressing Emotions

Adaptively. A possible explanation for this might be that when interacting with

customers, individuals sometimes need to behave in an even–tempered way,

sometimes hiding their negative emotions even if they are angry, frustrated or upset.

Therefore good Customer Focus may not always involve expressing emotions.

Leaders might also have to disregard the importance of emotions at that point in

time, which is linked to Being Aware of Emotions. Acting out of accordance with a

person’s own feelings is known as Emotional Labour and is discussed below.

It is worth noting that the two scales (Being Aware of Emotions and Expressing

Emotions Adaptively) that were not linked to Customer Focus were the two that did

not show an improvement after training as compared to before training. This is likely

to reflect the nature of the training which included customer service training. By

attending the training, leaders’ levels of Customer Focus should have improved,

along with associated characteristics. If Being Aware of Emotions and Expressing

Emotions Adaptively are not relevant for customer service, they may not have

improved as much as the other aspects.

3.7 Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Labour

Emotional labour involves a person acting or behaving differently to how they feel

inside. Roles that require more emotional labour are often customer service roles.

For example, an individual may be required to present a calm and professional

demeanour, even when faced with an angry customer and feeling embarrassed or

upset.

Emotional Labour can involve either surface or deep acting. Surface acting involves

presenting a positive attitude whilst actually feeling differently. This might involve

hiding emotions or putting on a “mask”. Deep acting involves controlling or changing

how a one feels in order to act in the desired way. This might involve mood

management, Resilience or use of strategies to deal with a person’s own emotions.

Emotional Labour was measured using the Emotional Labour Scale (Brotheridge &

Lee, 1998; Diefendorff & Richard, 2003). Overall, the leaders’ levels of Emotional

Labour were within the mid-range. Interestingly there was not a significant correlation

between self-reported and peer reported Emotional Labour. This might suggest that

the extent to which a leader displays emotions appropriate to his or her work might

not be obvious to others.

Emotional labour was linked to Customer Focus and to Self-Awareness as a part of

Authentic Leadership. Analyses showed significant positive correlations between

Emotional labour and Customer Focus (r=0.211, p=0.029, n=107) and Emotional

Labour and Self-awareness (r=0.328, p=0.001, n=107). However, contrary to

expectations, it was not linked to Emotional Intelligence or the other aspects of

Authentic Leadership.

The findings are consistent with the idea that there are two ways of dealing with

emotions: surface and deep acting. Whilst both are important for Customer Focus

and Authentic Leadership, they are different skills. Being able to act differently to

how you feel (surface acting) requires Emotional Labour, whilst Emotional

Intelligence is helpful for changing your feelings to help you in a situation (deep

acting). Developing strategies of mood management and behaviour management

together are therefore likely to contribute to excellent Customer Focus.

3.8 Summary of results

Not only were Emotional Intelligence levels higher after training than before training,

but also Emotional Intelligence levels were linked to customer focus, authentic

leadership, happiness and resilience. In summary, those with higher Emotional

Intelligence showed:

Enhanced happiness at work

Better customer focus

More authentic leadership

Higher resilience

These findings show direct links between the Emotional Intelligence training and

Tesco’s wider organisational aims.

Interestingly Emotional Labour was not linked to Emotional Intelligence, suggesting

that these are two distinct skills, but that both are linked to good customer focus.

4. Discussion and Implications

4.1 Effectiveness of Emotional Intelligence training

Overall, the research demonstrated the effectiveness of the training in improving

emotional intelligence. These findings build on previous findings in the literature that

Emotional Intelligence can be trained. In this study, training was done in a group

setting as part of a wider leadership program. However, the effectiveness of

different training methods could be another avenue to explore. For example, might a

one-to-one setting, online e-learning or on the job learning work just as well or better

in helping individuals to develop their emotional intelligence?

4.2 Wider impact of Emotional Intelligence training

The findings also indicate that Emotional Intelligence is relevant for developing

Resilience, well-being Authentic Leadership and Customer Focus (Figure 21).

Although we cannot conclude that Emotional Intelligence causes these effects, we

can conclude that they are linked and are likely to be relevant for developing these

skills. This suggests Emotional Intelligence can have a personal impact as well as a

wider organisational impact. Resilient and happy leaders are more likely to stay in

the company, thus increasing retention. They are also less likely to take time off

work, thus impacting on the level of absence in an organisation.

Interestingly, different aspects of Emotional Intelligence may be useful in developing

different skills. For example, key factors relevant to customer service were

identifying and managing own and others’ emotions, and Using Emotions in Problem

Solving. Whilst Being Aware of Emotions and Expressing Emotions may not be as

valuable in providing excellent customer service, they do seem to be important in

developing Authentic Leadership and Resilience. This suggests the EJI may be

useful as a diagnostic tool to identify areas for growth in different roles. If HR

practitioners aim to develop Emotional Intelligence training, they should therefore

tailor the training to the role. Certain aspects may be more important than others.

A contrasting result was that Emotional labour, which involves acting differently to

how you feel inside, was not linked to Emotional Intelligence. However, it was linked

to Customer Focus. This suggests both Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Labour

are linked to Customer Focus but are two very different skills. They might need to be

learned in different ways and require different types of training.

Therefore, a recommendation to Tesco was that customer service training focus on

using both these techniques in order to improve interactions with customers (Figure

8). For example, leaders may benefit from understanding situations in which it may

be beneficial to try and change the way they feel about a situation (Emotional

Intelligence), instead of “putting on a mask” (Emotional Labour), and vice versa. This

would lead to a more conscious choice about how they deal with their own emotions

when interacting with difficult customers.

It is worth noting that the above suggestions are not independent. Although leaders

need to act differently to how they feel, this Emotional Labour takes energy. If

overdone, this can lead to stress and impact negatively on well-being. It is likely that

developing Resilience will help leaders to deal with this challenge, thus indirectly

contributing to an excellent level of customer service.

4.3 Conclusions and implications

Overall, assessing and developing Emotional Intelligence is likely to impact on many

skills that are necessary to be a successful leader at Tesco, and most probably at

other similar organisations. If leadership development activities are focused on

specific aspects of Emotional Intelligence that are most relevant for this group of

leaders, this can help to build successful leadership. In turn, this can aid retention,

improve customer service and help to create a happy and productive workforce.

Figure 8: Our research showed that both Emotional Intelligence

and Emotional Labour are related to excellent Customer Focus

The research highlighted that Emotional Intelligence was linked to Tesco’s goal of

providing excellent customer service in 2015. Therefore, this type of training was

considered important not only for leaders in the organisation but also customer

service staff. The addition of emotion management training to existing induction

programs could be valuable in preventing absence and raising productivity amongst

this group of individuals. Although Emotional is widely recognised as an important

“soft” skill, the findings highlight the importance of EQ as a key building block for a

resilient, productive workforce and a proactive organisational culture.

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