tissue infarction and repair - year 2

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TISSUE INFARCTION & REPAIR Dr R Pathmanathan

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Page 1: Tissue Infarction And Repair - Year 2

TISSUE INFARCTION & REPAIRDr R Pathmanathan 

Page 2: Tissue Infarction And Repair - Year 2

INFARCTION( farcire‐“Stuffed full”)

I h i   i  (d th)  d b   l i   Ischemic necrosis (death) caused by occlusion of either arterial supply or venous drainage in a particular tissuea particular tissue

An important cause of clinical disease and death Myocardial  & Cerebral Particularly vulnerable

Pulmonary IntestinalE t iti  ( ) Extremities (gangrene)

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INFARCTIONINFARCTION

M      d     i l  l i Most cases are due to arterial occlusionusually thrombosis or embolism

l  rarely spasm, hemorrhage, extrinsic compression, torsion  edema  “steal” syndromestorsion, edema,  steal  syndromes

Cases of venous thrombosis raremore likely in ovary and testis  which have single more likely in ovary and testis, which have single venous outflowretina

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THROMBOSISTHROMBOSIS

Th b i   Thrombosis:  Thrombus formation in the circulation (thrombocytes  fibrin  cells)  but not in vitro(thrombocytes, fibrin, cells), but not in vitro

ClotF d f   fl i  bl d Formed from non‐flowing blood

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INFARCTIONINFARCTION

A i d  i h   i fl   Associated with an inflammatory response Gangrene is infarction of mixed tissue in bulk Infarction may also occur from partial vascular occlusion Interplay of diffuse tissue demands and length of ischemia

IRREVERSIBLE

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MECHANISM OF CELL DEATH IN INFARCTION

A i  / h i Anoxia / hypoxia Trigger intracellular mechanisms of apoptosis

Reperfusion injury Reperfusion injury Damage is oxygen dependent Blood enters an area where cell membranes are Blood enters an area where cell membranes are damaged, calcium transport impaired

Trigger and activate O2 dependent free radical   h  b i   h  “ ” system that begins the “mop‐up” process

Recruitment of polymorphs and macrophages inflict  further free radical mediated damageinflict  further free radical mediated damage

Page 7: Tissue Infarction And Repair - Year 2

THROMBOSISTHROMBOSIS

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Virchow’s TriadVirchow s Triad

Endothelial injury  Endothelial injury  Stasis or turbulence of blood flow  (aneurysms, varices, atrial fibrillation, hyperviscosity syndromes )Bl d h l bilit ( i   d  d ) Blood hypercoagulability (primary and secondary) Primary Abnormal clotting Factor V Variations in fibrinogenVariations in fibrinogen Protein C, Protein S deficiency  Antithrombin III deficiency 

Secondaryy Aging: decreased PGI2 synthesis in endothelial cells Heparine‐induced thrombocytopenia antiphospholipid (cardiolipin) antibody syndrome

ki  d    (   ) smoking, drugs, tumors (pancreas cancer)

Page 11: Tissue Infarction And Repair - Year 2

Virchow’s TriadVirchow s Triad

E d h li l i j   Endothelial injury  Stasis or turbulence of blood flow  Blood hypercoagulability (primary and secondary)

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I‐ Endothelial InjuryI Endothelial Injury

Ath l i   d H li id iAtherosclerosis and Hyperlipidemiaarterial intimal damage, irregularity

Trauma or inflammation of vesselsTrauma or inflammation of vesselsesp veins ‐ thrombophlebitis

Hypertension / Hemodynamic forcesHypertension / Hemodynamic forces arterial intimal damage

Cigarette smoke  immune damage/ infections/  Cigarette smoke, immune damage/ infections/ toxins/ irradiation

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Platelet surface Membrane Receptors

Gp Ia‐ binds collagenGp Ib binds vWFGp Ib – binds vWFGpIIb/IIIa‐ binds fibrinogen & vWF

DEGRANULATIONAlpha granulesDense granulesDense granulesLysosomes

CALCIUMADP

ThromboxaneA2

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II‐Stasis or turbulence of II Stasis or turbulence of blood flow 

A• Aneurysms• Persistent abnormal dilation of vessels

• Varices• Varices• Vessel tortuosity, usually venous

• Atrial fibrillationAtrial fibrillation• Inefficient emptying of blood from atria

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III‐Blood hypercoagulabilityIII Blood hypercoagulability(primary and secondary)

PrimaryPrimaryLeyden‐mutation (Factor V). A to G, protein resistant to cleavage by  protein CProthrombin gene mutation ( G to A) increased PTlack of anticoagulants high level of homocysteinehigh level of homocysteine

SecondaryAging: decreased PGI2 synthesis in endothelial cellsHeparine‐induced thrombocytopeniaAntiphospholipid (cardiolipin) antibody syndromeS ki  d  t  (   )Smoking, drugs, tumors (pancreas cancer)

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HISTOLOGY OF A THROMBUS

Arterial thrombus Fibrin meshwork is laid down

Platelets

R d Red Blood cells are trappedpp

FORMATION OF LINES OF ZAHN

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Th b i  i   iThrombosis in arteriesUsually occlusive; heart, aorta: usually mural h bthrombi

Thrombosis in veins thrombophlebitis, phlebothrombosis deep veins (90%), pelvic

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FATE OF THROMBUSFATE OF THROMBUS

L iLysisBlood flow is re‐established

E i  ( th)Expansion (growth)OrganizationS   i   l  d l  f dScar tissue, mural nodule formed

RecanalizationSl   bli h   f bl d  lSlow re‐establishment of blood supply

Embolizationl f f dLocalisation of  fragments in distant sites

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EMBOLISMEMBOLISM

Detached intravascular solid, liquid or gaseous mass that is carried by the blood to a site distant from its point of origin

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Th b b li ( %) Thromboembolism (99%) Pulmonary thromboembolism (half of autopsies)

S  d i  ili f l i   l i i   Source: deep veins, iliofemoral veins, pelvic veins, right ventricle

Size: saddle → death; smaller (60‐80%) → infarct, Size: saddle  death; smaller (60 80%)  infarct, pleuradynia, hemoptysis, pleural effusion, dyspnoea, cough

l resolution, organisation

Paradoxical embolism (r →l)l b lArterial embolism

Page 28: Tissue Infarction And Repair - Year 2

Types of EmbolismTypes of Embolism

Ai   b li Air embolism trauma (neck injury, hemodialysis), decompression sickness (caisson disease) >100ml decompression sickness (caisson disease) >100ml 

Amniotic fluid embolismth b l ti DIC thromboplastin DIC

Fat embolism(b f ) trauma (bone fracture)

bone marrow embolism

T   b li Tumor embolism

Page 29: Tissue Infarction And Repair - Year 2

DISSEMINATED INTRAVASCULAR DISSEMINATED INTRAVASCULAR COAGULATION (DIC) Acute  subacute  chronic thrombohemorrhagic disorder   Acute, subacute, chronic thrombohemorrhagic disorder, 

secondary to many diseases  (obstetric complications infections, tumors, extensive tissue injury, 

others)d h l l Sepsis, endothelial injury, extensive tissue injury

Release of tissue factor, thrombocyte aggregation Extensive microvascular thrombosis Occlusion of vessels (ischemic tissue injury)( j y) Consumption of clotting factors and thrombocytes Plasmin activation (fibrinolysis, cleavage of clotting factors)

BleedingP i Prognosis Different, depends mainly on the causative disease

Therapy:  Nightmare Nightmare

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Types of InfarctTypes of Infarct

Cl ifi d b d    Classified based on color  ( red/ white )± infection ( septic / bland)

Actually stages of the same process, so the division may be meaninglessy g

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Red InfarctsRed Infarcts

H h i   Hemorrhagic eg. venous occlusion

i  t iovarian torsionloose parenchymal tissue

l    b ilung, gut, braintissue with dual circulation

l    lung , gutPassively congested organs

fRe‐perfusion injury

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White infarctsWhite infarcts

O l i   f bl d  l  i   lid    i h  Occlusion of blood supply in solid organs with end‐arterial circulation

H   l  kid Heart, spleen, kidney

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Morphology of infarctsMorphology of infarcts

W d h d Wedge‐shaped Occluded vessel at apex, periphery of organ forms basebase Fibrinous exudate on surface Hyperemic bordersHyperemic borders

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Factors influencing the Factors influencing the Development of an Infarct

N   f V l  S l Nature of Vascular Supply Rapidity of development of ischemia Tissue vulnerability to hypoxia Heart, CNS Bone, muscles – generally resistant

(Tissue demand for oxygen may be reduced by cooling

Oxygen content of blood

Page 40: Tissue Infarction And Repair - Year 2

Nature of Vascular  SupplyNature of Vascular  Supply

O   d if d l bl d  l /  d  Organs protected if dual blood supply/ good collaterals

L  li  h d  f Lung, liver, hand, forearm

Susceptible organs are those with end arterial i l ticirculations Spleen, kidney

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Rapidity of development of Rapidity of development of ischemia

Sl l  d l i   l i Slowly developing occlusions Less likely to cause infarction

D l   f  ll l Development of collaterals

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Tissue vulnerability to hypoxiaTissue vulnerability to hypoxia

C ll  ibili    h i   i Cell susceptibility to hypoxia varies Neurons ‐ 3 to 4 minutesM di l  ll       i Myocardial cells – 20 – 30 minutes

Fibroblasts – Many hours

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Infarction from Reduced Blood Flow or Oxygenation

“Water shed Areas” “Water‐shed Areas” Subendocardium Splenic flexure of colonSp e c e u e o co o Watershed areas in cerebral hemispheres

Portal vasculature / peculiarities of microvasculature Tissue perfused by blood already passaged through 

one set of capillariesone set of capillaries Anterior pituitary Renal tubular epitheliumP i   f  i   Portions of exocrine pancreas

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Watershed Areas of the BrainWatershed Areas of the Brain

Parts of the brain located at the ends of the  Parts of the brain located at the ends of the distribution areas of the vascular systems are called the watershed areas.

“ A tertiary brain area located peripheral to primary distribution areas for anterior, posterior, 

d  iddl   b l  i  i  d i  bl d  i  and middle cerebral arteries; it derives blood via the branches of all three cortical arteries."  Because they are at the extreme ends of arterial Because they are at the extreme ends of arterial 

distribution they are particularly vulnerable to ischemia and infarction in those who have circulation problems  problems. 

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Oxygen content of bloodOxygen content of blood

P i l  l i     l  l i Partial occlusion vs. total occlusion

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Sequelae and Natural History‐1Sequelae and Natural History 1

I   lid  In solid organs Extravasated blood cells lysed

H id i  l d   h Hemosiderin laden macrophages

Dominant feature is ischemic coagulative necrosis Instantaneous death Instantaneous death No changes may be visible

12‐ 18 hours 12‐ 18 hours Only hemorrhage

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Sequelae and Natural History‐ 2Sequelae and Natural History 2

I fl t   Inflammatory response Commences within hours ( reaction to dead cells) Well defined by 48 hrs Well defined by 48 hrs Reparative response Demolition phase (phagocytosis)p p g y

Fibrosis Scar tissue formation

Regeneration Stable and labile cells under some circumstances

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Special situationsSpecial situations

B i   ff  li f i   i Brain suffers liquefactive necrosis If there is superadded infection, abscesses 

f ( b l )may form ( septic embolism)