Timeline of Nuclear Weapon Timeline of Nuclear Weapon Development, Policy and Development, Policy and UseUse

19451945 Start of plutonium separation at Hanford.Start of plutonium separation at Hanford. Start of operation in the gaseous diffusion Start of operation in the gaseous diffusion

plant using a supply of poorly enriched plant using a supply of poorly enriched uranium to Calutron.uranium to Calutron.

Development of teflon as a sealant.Development of teflon as a sealant. Low altitude incendiary bombing of Japan Low altitude incendiary bombing of Japan

proposed by C.LeMay, Commander of B-29 proposed by C.LeMay, Commander of B-29 bombers corps.bombers corps.

Transport of plutonium239 from Hanford to Transport of plutonium239 from Hanford to Los Alamos as nitric acid solution.Los Alamos as nitric acid solution.

Implosion lens completed by G. Implosion lens completed by G. Kistiakowsky.Kistiakowsky.

Leaders of Manhattan Project including Leaders of Manhattan Project including Groves, Office of Scientific Research and Groves, Office of Scientific Research and Development section head and Harvard Development section head and Harvard President James Bryant Conant, Hans President James Bryant Conant, Hans Bethe, George Kitiakowsky and Richard Bethe, George Kitiakowsky and Richard Tolman met in Oppenheimer's office and Tolman met in Oppenheimer's office and decided tentatively to develop the lensed, decided tentatively to develop the lensed, solid-core Christy implosion design as a solid-core Christy implosion design as a combat weapon.combat weapon.

Over the course of six years, ranging from Over the course of six years, ranging from 1939 to 1945, more than 2 billion dollars were 1939 to 1945, more than 2 billion dollars were spent on the Manhattan Project. The spent on the Manhattan Project. The formulas for refining Uranium and putting formulas for refining Uranium and putting together a working bomb were created and together a working bomb were created and seen to their logical ends by some of the seen to their logical ends by some of the greatest minds of our time. Among these greatest minds of our time. Among these people who unleashed the power of the people who unleashed the power of the atomic bomb was J. Robert Oppenheimer. atomic bomb was J. Robert Oppenheimer.

Oppenheimer was the major force behind the Oppenheimer was the major force behind the Manhattan Project. He literally ran the show Manhattan Project. He literally ran the show and saw to it that all of the great minds and saw to it that all of the great minds working on this project made their working on this project made their brainstorms work. He oversaw the entire brainstorms work. He oversaw the entire project from its conception to its completionproject from its conception to its completion. .

J. Robert OppenheimerJ. Robert Oppenheimer

Casting of a warhead for Casting of a warhead for uranium235 bomb.uranium235 bomb.

Plutonium core arrives at Plutonium core arrives at AlamogordoAlamogordo

Explosive assembly arrival at Explosive assembly arrival at Alamogordo.Alamogordo.

Plans made to drop bombs on Plans made to drop bombs on JapanJapan

Finally the day came when all at Los Alamos would Finally the day came when all at Los Alamos would find out whether or not The Gadget was either going find out whether or not The Gadget was either going to be the colossal dud of the century or perhaps end to be the colossal dud of the century or perhaps end the war. It all came down to a fateful morning of the war. It all came down to a fateful morning of midsummer, 1945. midsummer, 1945.

At 5:29:45 (Mountain War Time) on July 16th, 1945, At 5:29:45 (Mountain War Time) on July 16th, 1945, in a white blaze that stretched from the basin of the in a white blaze that stretched from the basin of the Jemez Mountains in northern New Mexico to the still-Jemez Mountains in northern New Mexico to the still-dark skies, The Gadget ushered in the Atomic Age.dark skies, The Gadget ushered in the Atomic Age.

The light of the explosion then turned orange as the The light of the explosion then turned orange as the atomic fireball began shooting upwards at 360 feet atomic fireball began shooting upwards at 360 feet per second, reddening and pulsing as it cooled. per second, reddening and pulsing as it cooled.

The characteristic mushroom cloud of radioactive The characteristic mushroom cloud of radioactive vapor materialized at 30,000 feet. Beneath the cloud, vapor materialized at 30,000 feet. Beneath the cloud, all that remained of the soil at the blast site were all that remained of the soil at the blast site were fragments of jade green radioactive glass. ...All of fragments of jade green radioactive glass. ...All of this caused by the heat of the reaction. this caused by the heat of the reaction.

Impact on Japan and the Impact on Japan and the Civilian PopulationCivilian Population

Hiroshima, vicinity of ground zero. The Hiroshima, vicinity of ground zero. The ruined dome, now known as the Atomic ruined dome, now known as the Atomic Bomb Dome, has been left standing as Bomb Dome, has been left standing as a memorial. It is 160 meters from a memorial. It is 160 meters from ground zero, near the bare trees to the ground zero, near the bare trees to the left of the domeleft of the dome..

Bombing Hiroshima with Little Boy by Bombing Hiroshima with Little Boy by Paul W. Tibbets, Robert Lewis, Thomas Paul W. Tibbets, Robert Lewis, Thomas Ferebee, William S. Parsons, Morris Ferebee, William S. Parsons, Morris Jeppson, and others, at 08:16: Jeppson, and others, at 08:16:

Explosion equivalent to 12.5 kilotons Explosion equivalent to 12.5 kilotons of TNT from 60 kg uranium235.of TNT from 60 kg uranium235.

Bomb's gross weigh was 4 tons. Bomb's gross weigh was 4 tons. 140,000 civilian citizens were killed.140,000 civilian citizens were killed.

Hibakusya (survivors) more than Hibakusya (survivors) more than 300,000.Physical illnesses due to 300,000.Physical illnesses due to radiation exposure, short term and long radiation exposure, short term and long term effects.term effects.

Fireball and Mushroom Fireball and Mushroom Over Nagasaki Over Nagasaki

Bombing Nagasaki with Fat Man by Bombing Nagasaki with Fat Man by Charles W.Sweeney, Frederick Charles W.Sweeney, Frederick L.Ashworth, and others. L.Ashworth, and others.

Target changed from Kokura to Target changed from Kokura to Nagasaki because of poor visibility.Nagasaki because of poor visibility.

Time 11:02:00. Explosion equivalent to Time 11:02:00. Explosion equivalent to 22 kilotons of TNT, using 8 kg 22 kilotons of TNT, using 8 kg plutonium 239.plutonium 239.

Bomb's gross weight 4.5 tons. 70,000 Bomb's gross weight 4.5 tons. 70,000 civilian citizens were killed.civilian citizens were killed.

Aerial View of Nagasaki Aerial View of Nagasaki Mushroom Cloud Mushroom Cloud

Byproducts of atomic detonations Byproducts of atomic detonations While the mere explosion from an atomic While the mere explosion from an atomic

bomb is deadly enough, its destructive ability bomb is deadly enough, its destructive ability doesn't stop there. doesn't stop there.

Atomic fallout creates another hazard as Atomic fallout creates another hazard as well. The rain that follows any atomic well. The rain that follows any atomic detonation is laden with radioactive particles.detonation is laden with radioactive particles.

Many survivors of the Hiroshima and Many survivors of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki blasts succumbed to radiation Nagasaki blasts succumbed to radiation poisoning due to this occurrence. poisoning due to this occurrence.

The atomic detonation also has the hidden The atomic detonation also has the hidden lethal surprise of affecting the future lethal surprise of affecting the future generations of those who live through it. generations of those who live through it. Leukemia is among the greatest of afflictions Leukemia is among the greatest of afflictions that are passed on to the offspring of that are passed on to the offspring of survivors. survivors.

VictimsVictims

19461946 The Crossroads Series tests. The purpose of the The Crossroads Series tests. The purpose of the

tests was to examine the effects of nuclear tests was to examine the effects of nuclear explosions on naval vessels, planes, and animals.explosions on naval vessels, planes, and animals.

A fleet of surplus and captured ships anchored in A fleet of surplus and captured ships anchored in the Bikini Atoll lagoon in the Marshall Islands were the Bikini Atoll lagoon in the Marshall Islands were used as targets.used as targets.

The weapons used were Mk 3A ("Model 1561") The weapons used were Mk 3A ("Model 1561") Fatman-type atomic bombs, essentially unmodified Fatman-type atomic bombs, essentially unmodified from the wartime designs. from the wartime designs.

Test ABLE at 22:00 30 June 1946, height of burst 160 Test ABLE at 22:00 30 June 1946, height of burst 160 m. Dropped by B-29 "Dave's Dream", Fell 980 ft short m. Dropped by B-29 "Dave's Dream", Fell 980 ft short and 1870 ft left of target.and 1870 ft left of target.

Test BAKER at 21:35 24 July 1946, Mk 3A fission Test BAKER at 21:35 24 July 1946, Mk 3A fission bomb (23 Kt) sub-surface test, depth of burst 27.5 m. bomb (23 Kt) sub-surface test, depth of burst 27.5 m. Wall of intensely radioactive spray contaminates Wall of intensely radioactive spray contaminates target fleet.target fleet.

19471947 Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)

created. In charge of development of created. In charge of development of nuclear weapons, replacing Manhattan nuclear weapons, replacing Manhattan Engineering District (MED). Engineering District (MED).

19481948 Nuclear tests at Eniwetok atoll in Nuclear tests at Eniwetok atoll in

Marshall IslandsMarshall Islands World Conference of Intellectuals World Conference of Intellectuals

against Application to Military Use of against Application to Military Use of Science met in Poland. Issued warning Science met in Poland. Issued warning about the risk of nuclear war.about the risk of nuclear war.

19491949 Recommendation by J.R. Oppenheimer and Recommendation by J.R. Oppenheimer and

J. Manley against development of H-bomb. J. Manley against development of H-bomb.

1952 1952 Lawrence Livermore Laboratories Lawrence Livermore Laboratories

established in Livermore, California, for established in Livermore, California, for production of H-bomb.production of H-bomb.

The first H-bomb explosion: 10.4 MT, 700 The first H-bomb explosion: 10.4 MT, 700 times power of Little Boy, gross weight 65 times power of Little Boy, gross weight 65 tons. Elugelap island in Eniwetok tons. Elugelap island in Eniwetok disappeared. Two new elements, disappeared. Two new elements, einsteinium(99) and fermium(100) were einsteinium(99) and fermium(100) were discovered in the fallout.discovered in the fallout.

19541954 Dry, deliverable H-bomb test, code named Bravo, Dry, deliverable H-bomb test, code named Bravo,

created by members of Livermore Laboratories, on created by members of Livermore Laboratories, on the island of Bikini near the Marshall islandsthe island of Bikini near the Marshall islands

The explosion created a 240 ft. deep and 6,000 ft. The explosion created a 240 ft. deep and 6,000 ft. wide crater. The bomb was created to produce as wide crater. The bomb was created to produce as much fallout as possible. much fallout as possible.

A Japanese fishing boat was located about 100 miles A Japanese fishing boat was located about 100 miles from the island. Two weeks later all 23 crew from the island. Two weeks later all 23 crew members were suffering radiation sickness. members were suffering radiation sickness.

One of them, Aikichi Kuboyama, died of liver and One of them, Aikichi Kuboyama, died of liver and blood damage (hepatitis) on Sept.23, 1954.blood damage (hepatitis) on Sept.23, 1954.

People in Rongelap and Utirik still have not been People in Rongelap and Utirik still have not been compensated adequately. They and others have compensated adequately. They and others have asked the question: Did the U.S. government use the asked the question: Did the U.S. government use the native people as guinea pigs, causing the native people as guinea pigs, causing the malignancies (thyroid cancer and leukemia) and malignancies (thyroid cancer and leukemia) and reproductive problems.reproductive problems.

Above: The March 1, 1954 Bravo hydrogen bomb crater. Photo © Hiro Toyosaki

19551955 The First World Conference Against A-The First World Conference Against A-

H Bomb in Hiroshima.H Bomb in Hiroshima.

19571957 H-bomb test successful at Christmas H-bomb test successful at Christmas

Island. (England)Island. (England) Underground nuclear test in Nevada. Underground nuclear test in Nevada.

An idea by E. Teller suggested by An idea by E. Teller suggested by artificial earthquake experiment.artificial earthquake experiment.

19621962 SLBM with nuclear warhead launching test at SLBM with nuclear warhead launching test at

Christmas island from a Polaris A-2 Christmas island from a Polaris A-2 submarine.submarine.

High altitude nuclear test, 400 km high High altitude nuclear test, 400 km high Johnston island of a 1.4MT H-bomb. Johnston island of a 1.4MT H-bomb.

A large power loss in Oahu island, Hawaii, A large power loss in Oahu island, Hawaii, due to malfunction of electric supply control due to malfunction of electric supply control device caused by electromagnetic pulse device caused by electromagnetic pulse wave emitted during bombardment of wave emitted during bombardment of ionosphere by X-ray and gamma-ray of ionosphere by X-ray and gamma-ray of nuclear explosion. nuclear explosion.

This nuclear explosion destroyed multiple This nuclear explosion destroyed multiple communication systemscommunication systems..

19951995 [France] Nuclear tests in Mururoa atoll under [France] Nuclear tests in Mururoa atoll under

commander Gen. Paul Verice. commander Gen. Paul Verice. The blast was designed to test software so The blast was designed to test software so

France can conduct future tests in France can conduct future tests in computers, without actual detonations. computers, without actual detonations.

In a tunnel bored 1,800 to 3,000 feet below In a tunnel bored 1,800 to 3,000 feet below the surface. The blast equaled less than the surface. The blast equaled less than 20,000 tons of TNT. 20,000 tons of TNT.

In all, France conducted 204 nuclear tests, 17 In all, France conducted 204 nuclear tests, 17 of them in the 1960s in the Sahara Desert and of them in the 1960s in the Sahara Desert and the remainder in French Polynesia.the remainder in French Polynesia.

19961996 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty: Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty:

Multilateral agreement signed by the Multilateral agreement signed by the US, Russia, UK, and 90 non-nuclear-US, Russia, UK, and 90 non-nuclear-weapon states would ban any and all weapon states would ban any and all nuclear tests, big or small, above and nuclear tests, big or small, above and below the Earth's surface.below the Earth's surface.

It established a worldwide monitoring It established a worldwide monitoring system--including 170 seismic system--including 170 seismic stations--to check air, water and soil for stations--to check air, water and soil for signals that someone set off a nuclear signals that someone set off a nuclear explosion. Not effective because explosion. Not effective because nuclear state India refused to sign the nuclear state India refused to sign the treaty. treaty.

19971997 Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon-free Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon-free

Zone Treaty(Bankok Treaty) enters into Zone Treaty(Bankok Treaty) enters into force. The entire south hemisphere is force. The entire south hemisphere is nuclear weapon-free. Not all nuclear nuclear weapon-free. Not all nuclear nations agreenations agree

subcritical nuclear weapon experiment: subcritical nuclear weapon experiment: NevadaNevada

1997 [Russia] subcritical nuclear 1997 [Russia] subcritical nuclear weapon experiments in 1996 and 1997 weapon experiments in 1996 and 1997 reportedreported

19981998 [India]Nuclear tests in Pokaran, Rajasthan. Two [India]Nuclear tests in Pokaran, Rajasthan. Two

atomic bombs and one hydrogen bomb. Insisting atomic bombs and one hydrogen bomb. Insisting Pakistan threat and protesting against the present Pakistan threat and protesting against the present NPT and CTBT regime.NPT and CTBT regime.

[India]Another nuclear test. Obtaining data for [India]Another nuclear test. Obtaining data for subcritical nuclear weapon experiment.subcritical nuclear weapon experiment.

[Pakistan]Nuclear tests in Baluchistan. 5 tests. [Pakistan]Nuclear tests in Baluchistan. 5 tests. Insisting Indian nuclear threat.Insisting Indian nuclear threat.

[Pakistan]Additional tests for missile war head.[Pakistan]Additional tests for missile war head. [Russia]subcritical nuclear weapon experiments for [Russia]subcritical nuclear weapon experiments for

checking quality of plutonium of nuclear weapons. checking quality of plutonium of nuclear weapons. Further 5 tests from August to December, 1998.Further 5 tests from August to December, 1998.

subcritical nuclear weapon experiment: Nevada. Feb. subcritical nuclear weapon experiment: Nevada. Feb. 9, 1999 6th test. Sept. 30,1999 7th test.9, 1999 6th test. Sept. 30,1999 7th test.

19991999 [U.S.A.] 8th subcritical nuclear weapon [U.S.A.] 8th subcritical nuclear weapon

experiment.experiment.

20002000 [U.S.A.] 8 subcritical nuclear weapon [U.S.A.] 8 subcritical nuclear weapon

experiment. experiment. [Russia] subcritical nuclear weapon [Russia] subcritical nuclear weapon

experiment. 7 times after 1999experiment. 7 times after 1999

2002 [U.S.A.]Nuclear Posture Review 2002 [U.S.A.]Nuclear Posture Review (NPR), released by US Department of (NPR), released by US Department of Defense. US, rather than fulfilling its Defense. US, rather than fulfilling its commitment under the Non-commitment under the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) has Proliferation Treaty (NPT) has reasserted the centrality of nuclear reasserted the centrality of nuclear weapons to its national defense policy.weapons to its national defense policy.

US intends not only to maintain US intends not only to maintain thousands of nuclear warheads well thousands of nuclear warheads well into the middle of this century, but also into the middle of this century, but also to modernize its nuclear forces by to modernize its nuclear forces by adding new types of warheads that will adding new types of warheads that will eventually require a resumption of eventually require a resumption of nuclear testing. nuclear testing.

2002 [U.S.A.] U.S. nuclear plan sees 2002 [U.S.A.] U.S. nuclear plan sees new targets and weapons for striking new targets and weapons for striking targets in Iraq, Iran, North Korea, Syria targets in Iraq, Iran, North Korea, Syria and Libya;and Libya;

stresses need to develop earth-stresses need to develop earth-penetrating nuclear weapons to destroy penetrating nuclear weapons to destroy heavily fortified underground bunkers.heavily fortified underground bunkers.

It argues that US may need to resume It argues that US may need to resume nuclear testing. nuclear testing.

20032003 [U.S.A.] Senate Armed Services Committee [U.S.A.] Senate Armed Services Committee

completes markup of national defense completes markup of national defense authorization bill for fiscal year 2004.authorization bill for fiscal year 2004.

Authorized a provision to repeal the ban on Authorized a provision to repeal the ban on research and development of low yield nuclear research and development of low yield nuclear weapons weapons

Authorized a provision to require the Secretary of Authorized a provision to require the Secretary of Energy to achieve and maintain the ability to Energy to achieve and maintain the ability to conduct an underground nuclear test within 18 conduct an underground nuclear test within 18 months, should it become necessary for the months, should it become necessary for the President to order such a test.President to order such a test.

Authorized $21.0 million for the advance Authorized $21.0 million for the advance concepts initiative, of which $15.0 million is concepts initiative, of which $15.0 million is directed to continue the feasibility study on the directed to continue the feasibility study on the robust nuclear earth penetrator.robust nuclear earth penetrator.

20th subcritical nuclear weapons 20th subcritical nuclear weapons experiment named "Piano" at the experiment named "Piano" at the experimental institution in Nevada. experimental institution in Nevada.

[Russia] The new military doctrine [Russia] The new military doctrine published: Employing preemptive published: Employing preemptive nuclear attack and tactical nuclear nuclear attack and tactical nuclear weapons. weapons.

Focus on the PacificFocus on the Pacific

The Marshall IslandsThe Marshall Islands

May 1946 July Operation Crossroads is launched with May 1946 July Operation Crossroads is launched with

"Able" and "Baker" nuclear tests at Bikini. Both are "Able" and "Baker" nuclear tests at Bikini. Both are Hiroshima-size atomic tests. "Baker", an underwater Hiroshima-size atomic tests. "Baker", an underwater test, contaminates target fleet of World War II ships test, contaminates target fleet of World War II ships in Bikini's lagoon. in Bikini's lagoon.

19471947July - The Marshall Islands and the rest of Micronesia July - The Marshall Islands and the rest of Micronesia

became a United Nations strategic Trust Territory became a United Nations strategic Trust Territory administered by the United States.administered by the United States.

Among other obligations, the U.S. undertakes to Among other obligations, the U.S. undertakes to "protect the inhabitants against the loss of their "protect the inhabitants against the loss of their lands and resources." lands and resources."

December Enewetak Atoll is selected for the second December Enewetak Atoll is selected for the second series of U.S. nuclear tests, and the Enewetak series of U.S. nuclear tests, and the Enewetak people are quickly moved to Ujelang Atoll. people are quickly moved to Ujelang Atoll.

In 1947, the Marshall Islands becomes a United Nations In 1947, the Marshall Islands becomes a United Nations strategic Trust Territory administered by the United strategic Trust Territory administered by the United States. States.

Among other obligations, the U.S. undertakes to Among other obligations, the U.S. undertakes to "protect the inhabitants against the loss of their "protect the inhabitants against the loss of their lands and resources." lands and resources."

19481948 March - On the verge of starvation, the March - On the verge of starvation, the

Bikinians are taken off Rongerik Atoll Bikinians are taken off Rongerik Atoll and moved to Kwajalein, where they and moved to Kwajalein, where they stay for six months while a new home stay for six months while a new home is found for them.is found for them.

April Operation Sandstone begins at April Operation Sandstone begins at Enewetak and includes three atomic Enewetak and includes three atomic tests. The Bikini community moves to tests. The Bikini community moves to southern Kill, a single island with no southern Kill, a single island with no protected lagoon or anchorage. protected lagoon or anchorage.

19511951 April - Operation Greenhouse starts at April - Operation Greenhouse starts at

Enewetak. Four atomic tests are Enewetak. Four atomic tests are conducted conducted

19521952 November - Operation Ivy opens at November - Operation Ivy opens at

Enewetak and includes the first test of Enewetak and includes the first test of a hydrogen device. The Mike test a hydrogen device. The Mike test vaporizes one island and is estimated vaporizes one island and is estimated at 10.4 megatons, or some 750 times at 10.4 megatons, or some 750 times larger than the Hiroshima bomb. larger than the Hiroshima bomb.

19541954 January - Preparations commence at Bikini January - Preparations commence at Bikini

Atoll for Operation Castle, to test a series of Atoll for Operation Castle, to test a series of megaton range weapons, including megaton range weapons, including America's first deliverable hydrogen bomb.America's first deliverable hydrogen bomb.

February 28 - 6 p.m. On the eve of the Bravo February 28 - 6 p.m. On the eve of the Bravo test, weather reports indicate that test, weather reports indicate that atmospheric "conditions were getting less atmospheric "conditions were getting less favorable." At midnight, just seven hours favorable." At midnight, just seven hours from the shot, the weather report reports from the shot, the weather report reports there are "less favorable winds at 10,000 to there are "less favorable winds at 10,000 to 25,000-foot levels." Winds at 20,000 feet 25,000-foot levels." Winds at 20,000 feet "were headed for Rongelap to the east.""were headed for Rongelap to the east."

March 1 - Bikini's weather outlook downgraded March 1 - Bikini's weather outlook downgraded to "unfavorable" and Joint Task Force 7 directs to "unfavorable" and Joint Task Force 7 directs several ships to move 20 miles to the south to several ships to move 20 miles to the south to remove them from the expected fallout zone. remove them from the expected fallout zone.

Despite weather reports showing that winds are Despite weather reports showing that winds are blowing in the direction of inhabited islands, the blowing in the direction of inhabited islands, the March 1 Bravo hydrogen bomb test is detonated March 1 Bravo hydrogen bomb test is detonated at Bikini.at Bikini.

At 15 megatons, it is 1,000 times the strength At 15 megatons, it is 1,000 times the strength of the Hiroshima bomb. of the Hiroshima bomb.

Within hours a gritty, white ash is enveloping Within hours a gritty, white ash is enveloping islanders on Rongelap and Ailinginae Atolls. islanders on Rongelap and Ailinginae Atolls.

A few hours later, American weathermen are A few hours later, American weathermen are exposed to the snowstorm of fallout on exposed to the snowstorm of fallout on Rongerik, and still later the people of Utrik and Rongerik, and still later the people of Utrik and other islands experience the fallout "mist". other islands experience the fallout "mist".

Those exposed experience nausea, vomiting Those exposed experience nausea, vomiting and itching skin and eyes. March 3 Rongelap and itching skin and eyes. March 3 Rongelap islanders are evacuated 48 hours later, and islanders are evacuated 48 hours later, and Utrik is evacuated 72 hours after Bravo.Utrik is evacuated 72 hours after Bravo.

Both groups are taken to Kwajalein for Both groups are taken to Kwajalein for observation. Skin burns on the heavily observation. Skin burns on the heavily exposed people begin to develop, and later exposed people begin to develop, and later their hair falls out. their hair falls out.

The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission issues The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission issues a statement to the press calling Bravo a a statement to the press calling Bravo a "routine atomic test", and stating that some "routine atomic test", and stating that some Americans and Marshallese were Americans and Marshallese were "unexpectedly exposed to some "unexpectedly exposed to some radioactivity. There were no burns. All were radioactivity. There were no burns. All were reported well."reported well."

March 7 - Project 4.1, "Study of March 7 - Project 4.1, "Study of Response of Human Beings Exposed to Response of Human Beings Exposed to Significant Beta and Gamma Radiation Significant Beta and Gamma Radiation due to Fallout from High Yield due to Fallout from High Yield Weapons," establishes a secret Weapons," establishes a secret medical group to monitor and evaluate medical group to monitor and evaluate the Rongelap and Utrik people.the Rongelap and Utrik people.

May - Utrik Islanders allowed to return May - Utrik Islanders allowed to return home because, according to U.S. home because, according to U.S. officials, "Their island was only slightly officials, "Their island was only slightly contaminated and considered safe for contaminated and considered safe for habitation." habitation."

19561956 May - Operation Redwing begins at Enewetak May - Operation Redwing begins at Enewetak

and Bikini. and Bikini. A total of 17 nuclear tests, including several A total of 17 nuclear tests, including several

hydrogen bombs, are detonated. hydrogen bombs, are detonated. November U.S. officials give the Enewetak November U.S. officials give the Enewetak

Islanders living on Ujelang $25,000 cash and Islanders living on Ujelang $25,000 cash and a $150,000 trust fund (earning 3 1/3 percent a $150,000 trust fund (earning 3 1/3 percent annually) as compensation. Bikini Islanders annually) as compensation. Bikini Islanders living on Kili are given $25,000 cash and a living on Kili are given $25,000 cash and a $300,000 trust fund (yielding about $15 per $300,000 trust fund (yielding about $15 per person annually). person annually).

Throughout the  1950s, both the Bikinians Throughout the  1950s, both the Bikinians and Enewetakese face food shortages and and Enewetakese face food shortages and repeated bouts of near starvation, as their repeated bouts of near starvation, as their "temporary" islands prove difficult and "temporary" islands prove difficult and inhospitable. inhospitable.

19571957 July - Rongelap is declared safe for July - Rongelap is declared safe for

rehabilitation "in spite of slight lingering rehabilitation "in spite of slight lingering radiation." radiation."

The Rongelap people, who have been living The Rongelap people, who have been living temporarily in Ejit Island, Majuro, return to temporarily in Ejit Island, Majuro, return to Rongelap.Rongelap.

Brookhaven National Laboratory scientists Brookhaven National Laboratory scientists report about Rongelap: "Even though the report about Rongelap: "Even though the radioactive contamination of Rongelap Island radioactive contamination of Rongelap Island is considered perfectly safe for human is considered perfectly safe for human habitation, the levels of activity are higher habitation, the levels of activity are higher than those found in other inhabited locations than those found in other inhabited locations in the world. The habitation of these people in the world. The habitation of these people on the island will afford most valuable on the island will afford most valuable ecological radiation data on human beings." ecological radiation data on human beings."

19581958 May - Operation Hardtack begins at May - Operation Hardtack begins at

Enewetak and Bikini, with 32 tests, Enewetak and Bikini, with 32 tests, including several hydrogen bombs. including several hydrogen bombs. August The last nuclear detonation in August The last nuclear detonation in the Marshall Islands takes place on the Marshall Islands takes place on August 18, bringing to 66 the total of August 18, bringing to 66 the total of nuclear weapons tests at Bikini and nuclear weapons tests at Bikini and Enewetak. Enewetak.

19631963 The first thyroid tumors begin The first thyroid tumors begin

appearing among the Rongelap people appearing among the Rongelap people exposed to the Bravo test in 1954.exposed to the Bravo test in 1954.

Also, a higher than normal incidence Also, a higher than normal incidence of growth retardation among young of growth retardation among young Rongelap Islanders is noted by U.S. Rongelap Islanders is noted by U.S. doctors. doctors.

19661966 January - The U.S. Congress approves a January - The U.S. Congress approves a

payment of $950,000 (about $11,000 per payment of $950,000 (about $11,000 per capita) to the exposed Rongelap people for capita) to the exposed Rongelap people for injuries resulting from their exposure in injuries resulting from their exposure in 1954. 1954.

19691969 October - Bikini Atoll is declared safe for October - Bikini Atoll is declared safe for

rehabilitation by U.S. officials. "There's rehabilitation by U.S. officials. "There's virtually no radiation left and we can find no virtually no radiation left and we can find no discernible effect on either plant or animal discernible effect on either plant or animal life," says the AEC. life," says the AEC.

19721972 October - Because it is not satisfied with information provided by the October - Because it is not satisfied with information provided by the

AEC, the Bikini Council votes not to return to Bikini as a community, AEC, the Bikini Council votes not to return to Bikini as a community, but says it will not prevent individuals from returning. Several Bikini but says it will not prevent individuals from returning. Several Bikini families move back to Bikini into newly built homes.families move back to Bikini into newly built homes.

November - John Anjain's son, Lekoj, who was one year old when November - John Anjain's son, Lekoj, who was one year old when exposed to fallout on Rongelap in 1954, dies of leukemia at the exposed to fallout on Rongelap in 1954, dies of leukemia at the National Cancer Institute in Bethesda, Maryland. National Cancer Institute in Bethesda, Maryland.

19731973 AEC draft report, not publicly released, concludes that Bravo fallout AEC draft report, not publicly released, concludes that Bravo fallout

may have contaminated as many as 18 atolls and islands, including may have contaminated as many as 18 atolls and islands, including Kwajalein and Majuro. Kwajalein and Majuro.

19751975 June - During regular monitoring at Bikini, radiological tests show June - During regular monitoring at Bikini, radiological tests show

"higher levels of radioactivity than originally thought" and it "appears "higher levels of radioactivity than originally thought" and it "appears to be hotter or questionable as to safety," states a Department of to be hotter or questionable as to safety," states a Department of Interior official.Interior official.

August - AEC surveys suggest some Bikini ground wells are too August - AEC surveys suggest some Bikini ground wells are too radioactive for safe use, and that the consumption of pandanus, radioactive for safe use, and that the consumption of pandanus, breadfruit and coconut crabs needs to be prohibited.breadfruit and coconut crabs needs to be prohibited.

October - The Bikinians file suit in U.S. federal court demanding a October - The Bikinians file suit in U.S. federal court demanding a complete scientific survey of Bikini and other northern Marshall complete scientific survey of Bikini and other northern Marshall Islands be conducted. Islands be conducted.

19761976 July - The U.S. Congress approves $20 July - The U.S. Congress approves $20

million and military logistic support for a million and military logistic support for a nuclear cleanup of Enewetak Atoll.nuclear cleanup of Enewetak Atoll.

A Brookhaven National Laboratory report on A Brookhaven National Laboratory report on Rongelap shows that 20 of 29, or 69 percent Rongelap shows that 20 of 29, or 69 percent of the Rongelap children who were under 10 of the Rongelap children who were under 10 years old in 1954 have developed thyroid years old in 1954 have developed thyroid tumors. tumors.

The people of Utrik, whose original exposure The people of Utrik, whose original exposure in 1954 of 14 rads of radiation was less than in 1954 of 14 rads of radiation was less than one-twelfth that of Rongelap, suddenly show one-twelfth that of Rongelap, suddenly show a higher rate of thyroid cancer than the a higher rate of thyroid cancer than the Rongelap people, indicating the long latency Rongelap people, indicating the long latency period before health problems develop from period before health problems develop from low level radiation exposurelow level radiation exposure. .

19771977 May - The nuclear cleanup at Enewetak Atoll begins. May - The nuclear cleanup at Enewetak Atoll begins.

About 700 U.S. Army personnel carry out the About 700 U.S. Army personnel carry out the cleanup's first phase, which includes scraping and cleanup's first phase, which includes scraping and collecting 100,000 cubic yards of radioactive soil and collecting 100,000 cubic yards of radioactive soil and debris, and 125,000 cubic yards of uncontaminated debris, and 125,000 cubic yards of uncontaminated debris and dumping it in a bomb crater on Runit debris and dumping it in a bomb crater on Runit Island to be sealed with a cap of cement.Island to be sealed with a cap of cement.

June - A Department of Energy study reports: "All June - A Department of Energy study reports: "All living patterns involving Bikini Island exceed Federal living patterns involving Bikini Island exceed Federal (radiation) guidelines for 30 year population doses." (radiation) guidelines for 30 year population doses." About 100 Bikinians continue living on Bikini. About 100 Bikinians continue living on Bikini.

The U.S. Congress approves about $1 million in The U.S. Congress approves about $1 million in compensation for Rongelap and Utrik ($100,000 each compensation for Rongelap and Utrik ($100,000 each goes to the Rongelap, Utrik and Bikini for building goes to the Rongelap, Utrik and Bikini for building community facilities; $1,000 each to the 157 exposed community facilities; $1,000 each to the 157 exposed Utrik people; and from $25,000 for people with Utrik people; and from $25,000 for people with thyroid tumors to 100,000 for people the families of thyroid tumors to 100,000 for people the families of those who have died). those who have died).

19781978 May - Interior Department officials describe May - Interior Department officials describe

the 75 percent increase in radioactive cesium the 75 percent increase in radioactive cesium found in the Bikini people as "incredible." found in the Bikini people as "incredible." Plans are announced to move the people Plans are announced to move the people within 90 days.within 90 days.

August - A Department of Energy survey of August - A Department of Energy survey of the northern Marshall Islands reveals that in the northern Marshall Islands reveals that in addition to Bikini, Enewetak, Rongelap and addition to Bikini, Enewetak, Rongelap and Utrik, 10 other atolls or islands "received Utrik, 10 other atolls or islands "received intermediate range fallout from one or more intermediate range fallout from one or more of the megaton range tests." These included of the megaton range tests." These included inhabited atolls and islands of Ailuk, Likiep, inhabited atolls and islands of Ailuk, Likiep, Mejit, Ujelang and Wotho.Mejit, Ujelang and Wotho.

September - The 139 people living on Bikini September - The 139 people living on Bikini Atoll are evacuated by U.S. officials. The U.S. Atoll are evacuated by U.S. officials. The U.S. government funds a $6 million trust for the government funds a $6 million trust for the Bikini people. Bikini people.

19801980 March - The U.S. Defense Nuclear Agency announcesMarch - The U.S. Defense Nuclear Agency announces that that

the Enewetak nuclear cleanup is completed. The estimated the Enewetak nuclear cleanup is completed. The estimated cost of the cleanup and rehabilitation was $218 million. cost of the cleanup and rehabilitation was $218 million. Enewetak Islanders begin returning home to the southern Enewetak Islanders begin returning home to the southern islands in the atoll. islands in the atoll.

19811981 The Bikinians file a class action law suit against the U.S. The Bikinians file a class action law suit against the U.S.

government in U.S. courts seeking $450 million in government in U.S. courts seeking $450 million in compensation. Attorneys for the Marshall Islands Atomic compensation. Attorneys for the Marshall Islands Atomic Testing Litigation Project file lawsuits on behalf of several Testing Litigation Project file lawsuits on behalf of several thousand Marshall Islanders seeking about $4 billion in thousand Marshall Islanders seeking about $4 billion in compensation from the United States for personal injuries compensation from the United States for personal injuries from the nuclear testing. from the nuclear testing.

19821982 The U.S. establishes a second trust fund of $20 million for The U.S. establishes a second trust fund of $20 million for

the Bikini people. Later, it will increase this with an the Bikini people. Later, it will increase this with an additional $90 million appropriation in the late1980s. additional $90 million appropriation in the late1980s.

19831983 Compact of Free Association is approved in a plebiscite by about 60 Compact of Free Association is approved in a plebiscite by about 60

percent of Marshal Islands voters. The Compact includes a Section 177 percent of Marshal Islands voters. The Compact includes a Section 177 trust fund of $150 million that is to provide $270 million in trust fund of $150 million that is to provide $270 million in compensation payments over the 15 year life of the Compact (Bikini compensation payments over the 15 year life of the Compact (Bikini $75 million; Enewetak $48; Rongelap $37 million; Utrik $22 million; $75 million; Enewetak $48; Rongelap $37 million; Utrik $22 million; Nuclear Claims Tribunal $45 million; $2 million annually for medical Nuclear Claims Tribunal $45 million; $2 million annually for medical care for the "four atolls" 53 million for a nationwide radiological care for the "four atolls" 53 million for a nationwide radiological survey; etc.). survey; etc.).

19851985 March - In a statement delivered to Rep John Seiberling, chairman of March - In a statement delivered to Rep John Seiberling, chairman of

the subcommittee on public lands and national parks, Dr. Thomas the subcommittee on public lands and national parks, Dr. Thomas Hamilton states: "I have performed examinations on over 7,000 people Hamilton states: "I have performed examinations on over 7,000 people from the northern atolls and from three southern atolls...There are from the northern atolls and from three southern atolls...There are several northern atolls in which the prevalence rates of thyroid several northern atolls in which the prevalence rates of thyroid neoplasia (benign and malignant) are equal to or greater than those neoplasia (benign and malignant) are equal to or greater than those observed by Brookhaven on Utirik Atoll where the radiation dose is observed by Brookhaven on Utirik Atoll where the radiation dose is known."known."

May - Rongelap people evacuate their atoll, moving to Mejatto, a small May - Rongelap people evacuate their atoll, moving to Mejatto, a small island in the northwestern section of Kwajalein Atoll. Rongelap leaders island in the northwestern section of Kwajalein Atoll. Rongelap leaders say they fear that continued residence on Rongelap will expose them say they fear that continued residence on Rongelap will expose them to dangerous levels of radiation. to dangerous levels of radiation.

19861986 The U.S. Congress approves the The U.S. Congress approves the

Compact of Free Association. Compact of Free Association. The Compact includes an espousal The Compact includes an espousal

provision, prohibiting Marshall provision, prohibiting Marshall Islanders from seeking future legal Islanders from seeking future legal redress in U.S. courts and dismissing redress in U.S. courts and dismissing all current court cases in exchange for all current court cases in exchange for a $150 million compensation trust fund.a $150 million compensation trust fund.

October The Compact between October The Compact between America and the Marshall Islands goes America and the Marshall Islands goes into effect. into effect.

19911991 August - The Nuclear Claims Tribunal approves its August - The Nuclear Claims Tribunal approves its

first compensation awards, based on a list of health first compensation awards, based on a list of health conditions presumed to be caused by radiation, and conditions presumed to be caused by radiation, and therefore eligible for compensation. Because of therefore eligible for compensation. Because of concerns that the $45 million available may not be concerns that the $45 million available may not be adequate to pay all claims, the Tribunal limits initial adequate to pay all claims, the Tribunal limits initial payments to 25 percent of the total awards. payments to 25 percent of the total awards.

19941994 January - U.S. Rep. George Miller writes to President January - U.S. Rep. George Miller writes to President

Bill Clinton: "Some Rongelapese have said they Bill Clinton: "Some Rongelapese have said they believe they were used as 'guinea pigs' to further believe they were used as 'guinea pigs' to further U.S. understanding of the effects of radiation on U.S. understanding of the effects of radiation on humans. In light of recent disclosures regarding humans. In light of recent disclosures regarding actual radiation experimentation in the United States actual radiation experimentation in the United States during this period, that possibility cannot be during this period, that possibility cannot be ignored.“ignored.“

He also comments on an ongoing thyroid He also comments on an ongoing thyroid study in the Marshalls. "The findings of the study in the Marshalls. "The findings of the thyroid survey are disturbing. The Committee thyroid survey are disturbing. The Committee has been informed that even if only 50 has been informed that even if only 50 percent of the survey results are verified...the percent of the survey results are verified...the incidence rate is still significantly higher, by incidence rate is still significantly higher, by a factor of 100, than the rate of thyroid a factor of 100, than the rate of thyroid cancer found anywhere else in the world." cancer found anywhere else in the world."

The U.S. Department of Energy begins The U.S. Department of Energy begins releasing thousands of previously classified releasing thousands of previously classified nuclear test era documents, many of which nuclear test era documents, many of which confirm the wider extent of the fallout confirm the wider extent of the fallout contamination in the Marshall Islands.contamination in the Marshall Islands.

19951995 February - Marshall Islands officials testify before President Clinton's February - Marshall Islands officials testify before President Clinton's

Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments in Washington, Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments in Washington, D.C. stating that fallout exposed many more than the four atolls D.C. stating that fallout exposed many more than the four atolls acknowledged by the U.S. government, and that islanders were acknowledged by the U.S. government, and that islanders were purposefully resettled on contaminated islands so the U.S. could study purposefully resettled on contaminated islands so the U.S. could study the long-term effects of radiation.the long-term effects of radiation.

October - The U.S. Advisory Committee on Human Radiation October - The U.S. Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments issues its final report, including observations and Experiments issues its final report, including observations and recommendations on the Marshall Islands. The report recommends recommendations on the Marshall Islands. The report recommends that at least two more atolls, Ailuk and Likiep, be included in a medical that at least two more atolls, Ailuk and Likiep, be included in a medical program, and that the Department of Energy's program "be reviewed to program, and that the Department of Energy's program "be reviewed to determine if it is appropriate to add to the program populations of determine if it is appropriate to add to the program populations of other atolls to the south and east of the (Bravo) blast whose other atolls to the south and east of the (Bravo) blast whose inhabitants may have received exposures sufficient to cause excess inhabitants may have received exposures sufficient to cause excess thyroid abnormalities.“thyroid abnormalities.“

December - The Nuclear Claims Tribunal reports that it has awarded December - The Nuclear Claims Tribunal reports that it has awarded $43.2 million, nearly its entire fund, to 1,196 claimants for 1,311 $43.2 million, nearly its entire fund, to 1,196 claimants for 1,311 illnesses. illnesses.

19961996 August - The Nuclear Claims Tribunal August - The Nuclear Claims Tribunal

projects that it will have $100 million in projects that it will have $100 million in personal injury claims by 2001, when personal injury claims by 2001, when the Compact ends. the Compact ends.

Land claims for Bikini, Enewetak and Land claims for Bikini, Enewetak and other northern islands are also pending other northern islands are also pending before the Tribunal. The Tribunal's before the Tribunal. The Tribunal's claim claim fund, however, is limited to claim claim fund, however, is limited to $45 million. $45 million.

July - U.S. Representatives George Miller and Ron de July - U.S. Representatives George Miller and Ron de Lugo write to Dr. Ruth Faden, chairperson of the Lugo write to Dr. Ruth Faden, chairperson of the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments: "...There is no doubt that the AEC Experiments: "...There is no doubt that the AEC intentionally returned (Marshallese) to islands which intentionally returned (Marshallese) to islands which it considered to be "by far the most contaminated it considered to be "by far the most contaminated places in the world,' but which it told the people places in the world,' but which it told the people were safe. Nor is there any doubt that the AEC, were safe. Nor is there any doubt that the AEC, through the Brookhaven National Laboratory, then through the Brookhaven National Laboratory, then planned and conducted test after test on these planned and conducted test after test on these people to study their bodies' reaction to life in that people to study their bodies' reaction to life in that contaminated environment. "contaminated environment. "

December - A five-year study of 432 islands in the December - A five-year study of 432 islands in the Marshall Islands shows that 15 atolls and single Marshall Islands shows that 15 atolls and single islands -almost half of this nation were dusted by islands -almost half of this nation were dusted by radioactive fallout from the U.S. nuclear weapons radioactive fallout from the U.S. nuclear weapons tests of the 1950s. tests of the 1950s.

On March 5, 2001, the Nuclear Claims Tribunal On March 5, 2001, the Nuclear Claims Tribunal handed down a decision on a seven year lawsuit the handed down a decision on a seven year lawsuit the Bikinians had brought against the United States for Bikinians had brought against the United States for damages done to their islands and their people damages done to their islands and their people during the nuclear testing on Bikini.during the nuclear testing on Bikini.

The Tribunal gave them a total award of The Tribunal gave them a total award of $563,315,500.00 [loss of value $278,000,000.00, $563,315,500.00 [loss of value $278,000,000.00, restoration costs $251,500,000.00, suffering and restoration costs $251,500,000.00, suffering and hardship $33,814,500.00], which is the final amount hardship $33,814,500.00], which is the final amount after deducting the past compensation awarded by after deducting the past compensation awarded by the U.S. government [see above three trust funds]. the U.S. government [see above three trust funds].

The problem is that the Nuclear Claims Tribunal, The problem is that the Nuclear Claims Tribunal, which was created by the Compact of Free which was created by the Compact of Free Association of 1986, was underfunded and does not Association of 1986, was underfunded and does not have the money to pay for this claim. have the money to pay for this claim.

It is now up to the people of Bikini to petition the It is now up to the people of Bikini to petition the U.S. Congress for the money to fulfill this award. U.S. Congress for the money to fulfill this award. This is expected to take many years and it is This is expected to take many years and it is uncertain if the United States will honor their claim.uncertain if the United States will honor their claim.

Nuclear Weapons in the Nuclear Weapons in the PacificPacific A wide variety of nuclear weapons and delivery A wide variety of nuclear weapons and delivery

systems began arriving in the Pacific region starting systems began arriving in the Pacific region starting in 1956. in 1956.

Army, air force, and navy nuclear weapons were Army, air force, and navy nuclear weapons were deployed to Guam, Okinawa, and Hawaii.deployed to Guam, Okinawa, and Hawaii.

From 1957 to 1958, South Korea, Taiwan, and the From 1957 to 1958, South Korea, Taiwan, and the Philippines became new locations for President Philippines became new locations for President Eisenhower's nuclear weapons dispersal policy. Eisenhower's nuclear weapons dispersal policy.

Beginning in January 1958, U.S. nuclear-armed Beginning in January 1958, U.S. nuclear-armed Matador cruise missiles were deployed on Taiwan, Matador cruise missiles were deployed on Taiwan, less than 200 miles from mainland China. less than 200 miles from mainland China.

Also, in early 1958, the United States deployed Also, in early 1958, the United States deployed atomic artillery, Honest John missiles, bombs, and atomic artillery, Honest John missiles, bombs, and atomic demolition munitions to South Korea. atomic demolition munitions to South Korea. Matador missiles were also sent to South KoreaMatador missiles were also sent to South Korea

At the end of the Eisenhower At the end of the Eisenhower administration, U.S. nuclear administration, U.S. nuclear deployments on shore in the Pacific—deployments on shore in the Pacific—at Okinawa, Guam, the Philippines, at Okinawa, Guam, the Philippines, Korea, and Taiwan (but not Hawaii)—Korea, and Taiwan (but not Hawaii)—totaled approximately 1,600 weapons. totaled approximately 1,600 weapons.

There were about a dozen weapons on There were about a dozen weapons on Taiwan, 60 in the Philippines, 225 on Taiwan, 60 in the Philippines, 225 on Guam, and 600 in Korea. Guam, and 600 in Korea.

The lion's share—nearly 800 weaponsThe lion's share—nearly 800 weapons—were located at Kadena airbase, —were located at Kadena airbase, Okinawa, the location of SAC's Okinawa, the location of SAC's strategic bombers.strategic bombers.

New dispersals to the Pacific region New dispersals to the Pacific region began with the Kennedy administration. began with the Kennedy administration.

By the beginning of 1963, on- shore By the beginning of 1963, on- shore deployments—to Guam, Okinawa, the deployments—to Guam, Okinawa, the Philippines, and Taiwan— grew to Philippines, and Taiwan— grew to about 2,400, a 66 percent increase from about 2,400, a 66 percent increase from 1961 levels. 1961 levels.

The on-shore stockpile in the Pacific The on-shore stockpile in the Pacific peaked in mid-1967 at about 3,200 peaked in mid-1967 at about 3,200 weapons, 2,600 of which were in Korea weapons, 2,600 of which were in Korea and Okinawa.and Okinawa.

Several unusual deployments, which have Several unusual deployments, which have yet to be fully explained, took place in the yet to be fully explained, took place in the South Pacific during the mid-1960s.South Pacific during the mid-1960s.

From 1963 to 1966, the army stationed a From 1963 to 1966, the army stationed a Nike Zeus anti-ballistic missile system with Nike Zeus anti-ballistic missile system with W50 nuclear warheads on Kwajalein Atoll in W50 nuclear warheads on Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands.the Marshall Islands.

Also, from 1964 to 1971, nuclear-armed Also, from 1964 to 1971, nuclear-armed Thor intermediate-range ballistic missiles Thor intermediate-range ballistic missiles were deployed on Johnston Island in were deployed on Johnston Island in support of "Program 437," an anti-satellite support of "Program 437," an anti-satellite system based on the island.system based on the island.

Beginning in 1967, Pacific on-shore Beginning in 1967, Pacific on-shore deployments began to decrease.deployments began to decrease.

By the end of the Nixon administration in By the end of the Nixon administration in 1974, the total was cut to half of peak levels1974, the total was cut to half of peak levels—from 3,200 to 1,600.—from 3,200 to 1,600.

By 1977 it had fallen to about 1,200 By 1977 it had fallen to about 1,200 warheads. Politically sensitive warheads warheads. Politically sensitive warheads were withdrawn from Japan, and the were withdrawn from Japan, and the Philippines was denuclearized, virtually in Philippines was denuclearized, virtually in secret. SAC reduced its presence in the secret. SAC reduced its presence in the Pacific and U.S. warheads were withdrawn Pacific and U.S. warheads were withdrawn from Okinawa soon after it reverted to Japan from Okinawa soon after it reverted to Japan in 1972.in 1972.

By the end of the 1970s, only South Korea By the end of the 1970s, only South Korea remained a forward base for U.S. nuclear remained a forward base for U.S. nuclear weapons. (The last weapons were withdrawn weapons. (The last weapons were withdrawn from Korea in 1991.)from Korea in 1991.)

Impact on Other Native Impact on Other Native GroupsGroups

DinetahDinetah

Uranium MinesUranium Mines

By 1958, there were 7,500 By 1958, there were 7,500 reports of uranium finds in the reports of uranium finds in the United States with over 7,000,000 United States with over 7,000,000 tons of ore identified. tons of ore identified.

During the peak in the mid-During the peak in the mid-1950's, there were about 750 1950's, there were about 750 mines in operation. The Navajo mines in operation. The Navajo Reservation is situated on one Reservation is situated on one corner of the uranium-mining belt corner of the uranium-mining belt and was greatly affected by the and was greatly affected by the mining boommining boom

More than 1000 abandoned More than 1000 abandoned uranium mines shafts are now uranium mines shafts are now estimated to lie on Navajo land estimated to lie on Navajo land

1959 report found radiation levels ninety 1959 report found radiation levels ninety times acceptable limits . Of the 150 times acceptable limits . Of the 150 Navajo uranium miners who worked at Navajo uranium miners who worked at the uranium mine in Shiprock, New the uranium mine in Shiprock, New Mexico until 1970, 133 died of lung Mexico until 1970, 133 died of lung cancer or various forms of fibrosis by cancer or various forms of fibrosis by 1980 1980

Over 1,000 of these unsealed tunnels, unsealed Over 1,000 of these unsealed tunnels, unsealed pits and radioactive waste piles still remain on pits and radioactive waste piles still remain on the Navajo reservation today, with Navajo the Navajo reservation today, with Navajo families living within a hundred feet of the mine families living within a hundred feet of the mine sites. sites.

The Navajo graze their livestock here, and have The Navajo graze their livestock here, and have used radioactive mine tailings to build their used radioactive mine tailings to build their homes.homes.

Navajo children play in the mines, and uranium Navajo children play in the mines, and uranium mine tailings have turned up in school mine tailings have turned up in school playgrounds playgrounds

Church Rock DisasterChurch Rock Disaster Church Rock, New Mexico , July 16, 1979Church Rock, New Mexico , July 16, 1979 eleven hundred tons of radioactive mill wastes and eleven hundred tons of radioactive mill wastes and

ninety million gallons of contaminated liquid pouring ninety million gallons of contaminated liquid pouring toward Arizona toward Arizona

Residues of radioactive uranium, thorium, radium, and Residues of radioactive uranium, thorium, radium, and polonium, as well as traces of metals such as cadmium, polonium, as well as traces of metals such as cadmium, aluminum, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, aluminum, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, sodium, vanadium, zinc, iron, lead and nickel, selenium, sodium, vanadium, zinc, iron, lead and high concentrations of sulfates. The spill degraded the high concentrations of sulfates. The spill degraded the western Rio Puerco water source. It carried toxic metals western Rio Puerco water source. It carried toxic metals already detectable at least seventy miles downstream. already detectable at least seventy miles downstream.

Termination PolicyTermination Policy

1953 House Concurrent Resolution 1081953 House Concurrent Resolution 108 1954-1962 61 tribes terminated1954-1962 61 tribes terminated Relocation programRelocation program Urban Indian issuesUrban Indian issues Uranium Mining: Navajo HistoryUranium Mining: Navajo History Nuclear Testing: Shoshone HistoryNuclear Testing: Shoshone History Nuclear Waste: “Radioactive Rez’s”Nuclear Waste: “Radioactive Rez’s”

California Urban IndiansCalifornia Urban Indians

Indian Non IndianIndian Non Indian College 2% 10%College 2% 10% 8th grade 43% 28%8th grade 43% 28% $ 2,800 $7,600$ 2,800 $7,600 Unemployment 25% 6%Unemployment 25% 6% Living Conditions:Living Conditions: 51% Housing unsafe, 65% poor sewage51% Housing unsafe, 65% poor sewage 45% contaminated water45% contaminated water

Urban IndiansUrban Indians

Friendship House Association of American Friendship House Association of American IndiansIndians

Native American Health ClinicNative American Health Clinic American Indian Public Charter SchoolAmerican Indian Public Charter School American Indian Family Healing CenterAmerican Indian Family Healing Center Services, Programs and SuccessServices, Programs and Success