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Timeline of Global Christianity 30s The ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth; after the Day of

Pentecost, followers of Jesus begin carrying the gospel throughout the known world

47-58 Missionary travels of the Apostle Paul, during which he writes many of the

letters of the New Testament (1 Thessalonians, Philippians, Philemon, 1 Corinthians, Galatians, 2 Corinthians, and Romans)

48 The Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15:1-21) approves of Gentile conversion to faith

in Jesus as Messiah without observing Jewish ceremonial law 52 The Apostle Thomas begins missionary work on the Malabar coasts in

southwestern India; converts and their descendants are known as “Thomas Christians”

64-68 Roman Emperor Nero persecutes Christians as the cause of the Great Fire in

Rome; likely the apostles Peter and Paul are martyred 66-73 The First Jewish Revolt against Rome; the Dead Sea Scrolls are hidden in a

Judean cave, and were not discovered until 1945 69 James the Just, leader of the Jewish-Christian community in Jerusalem is killed 70 The Jerusalem Temple is destroyed; the center of the Christian movement shifts

to Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome 70s & 80s The gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke take written form 80s & 90s Other canonical letters are written by followers of Paul (Ephesians, Colossians, 2

Thessalonians) 81-96 Roman Emperor Domitian revives the emperor cult; Christians who do not

worship the emperor suffer persecution 90s The canonical Johannine works take written form (Gospel of John, 1, 2, and 3

John, and Revelation); the churches begin to take institutional form, modeled after the municipal government of the Roman Empire

100s The pseudepigraphic “pastoral letters” are written (1 and 2 Timothy, Titus);

other later canonical books are written (Hebrews, James); the Didache (Teaching of the Twelve Apostles) is composed

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105 Ignatius of Antioch uses the term “catholic” (meaning “general” or “universal”) to refer to the church beyond the local congregation

110s Probable date for the composition of the Gospel of the Hebrews 120s Gnostic Christianity begins to flourish, and produces the Nag Hammadi

manuscripts; the church begins baptizing by “triple infusion,” i.e., in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit

132-135 Second Jewish Revolt against Rome; the distinction between Christianity and

Judaism sharpens further in terms of belief, ritual practice, and organization 140s Gnostic teachers Marcion and Malentius flourish; most likely date of

composition for the Gospel of Thomas and the Gospel of the Egyptians 140s-170s Montanus spreads a vigorously charismatic Christianity throughout Phrygia and

Asia Minor known as the “New Prophecy” or “Montanism;” Tertullian of Carthage defends the Montanists against charges of heresy

150s Justin Martyr writes his First Apology and his Dialogue with Trypho, the Jew 161-180 Widespread persecution of Christian under the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius 170 Melito of Sardis argues that a canon of Jewish Scriptures is authoritative for

Christians as well; his list includes the 39 books now in the Christian Old Testament

170s Tatian compiles a harmonized version of the four canonical gospels called the

Diatessaron; for two centuries it is the preferred version of the gospel among Syriac-speaking Christians

185 Irenaeus of Lyons writes Against Heresies, an important anti-Gnostic treatise 193-211 Widespread persecution of Christian under the Roman Emperor Septimus

Severus; the churches of Rome come under the leadership of a single bishop 195 The so-called Muratorian Canon includes four gospels, Acts, 13 letters attributed

to Paul, and several general epistles. The list, however, is fragmentary. 212 Origen writes his On First Principles, an important early work of Christian

systematic theology 215 Hippolytus writes his Apostolic Traditions, an important early treatise on moral

conduct, liturgy, and church structure; it contains a form of the Apostles Creed

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(slightly different from the modern version) 218 Origen establishes a Christian catechetical school in Alexandria; the school

teaches the allegorical interpretation of Scripture and the “ransom theory” of the atonement

220s The anonymous Acts of Thomas is written in Syriac, describing the mission work

of the Apostle Thomas in India 248 Origen writes Against Celsus, an apologetic work defending the supernatural

origins and exclusivist claims of Christianity 250 Gregory Thaumaturgus writes his Exposition of the Faith, including a claim that

he has seen the Virgin Mary, the earliest known Marian apparition 250s-270s Mani spreads a quasi-Christian, Gnostic religion throughout Persia; after his

execution, “Manicheanism” spreads throughout the Roman Empire and the Far East

249-251 Severe persecution of Christians under the Roman Emperor Decius 254? Cyprian of Carthage writes On the Unity of the Church, the first sustained

argument for the pre-eminence of the bishop of Rome (pope) 260-300 Between the persecutions by Valerian and Diocletian, Christianity grows

dramatically, especially in the cities of the Roman Empire 268 A synod held in Antioch affirms the collegial authority of the bishops over the

catholic church, but recognizes the bishop of Rome as first among equals 270 Anthony of Egypt establishes the first monastic order; highly ascetic, the

tradition is known as anchoritic (literally, “withdrawal”) monasticism 301 Tiridates III declares that Christianity is the official religion of the Kingdom of

Armenia 303-305 The “Great Persecution” of Christianity under the Roman Emperor Diocletian 311-321 The Donatist Controversy rages throughout the churches of North Africa,

threatening the unity of the new imperial Church 313 The Emperor Constantine issues the Edict of Milan, legalizing Christianity in the

Roman Empire

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320s-340s The Egyptian ascetic Pachomius establishes cenobitic (communal) monasteries throughout the Nile River valley

323 Eusebius of Caesarea completes his Ecclesiastical History, the main source for

the history of the earliest Christian movement 325 The first ecumenical Council of Nicaea convenes in part to settle the

Christological Controversy; the council produces the Nicene Creed declaring that the Son is “of the same substance” (homoousios) as the Father

330 Constantine relocates the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to

Constantinople in the wake of “barbarian” invasions throughout the western provinces

339-379 Emperor Shapur II vigorously persecutes Christians throughout the Persian

Empire, believing that they were collaborators with the Roman Empire 340s Aphraates, the “Persian Sage,” composes his Demonstrations, an important

theological treatise for Syriac-speaking Christians in the East 340s-360s Ulfias undertakes missionary work among the Goths, then living on the eastern

borders of the Roman Empire; the Goths convert to Arian Christianity en masse out of tribal loyalty

350s The missionary Frumentius converts the royal family of the Kingdom of Abyssinia

(Ethiopia); Christianity becomes the state religion, claiming a tradition dating to the conversion of the Ethiopian eunuch (Acts 8:26-40);

357 Athanasius writes his Life of Anthony, describing the life and work of Egyptian

monk Anthony the Great (ca. 215-356); the biography helped spread monasticism throughout the West

367 Athanasius of Alexandria defines the canon of the New Testament in a festal

letter to the churches; his list includes the exact number and order of today’s New Testament

381 The second ecumenical Council of Constantinople convenes and approves an

expanded version of the Nicene Creed (325) 390? The anonymous Coptic Sayings of the Desert Fathers is published, collecting the

wisdom of developing monasticism in Egypt 397 Augustine of Hippo writes his Confessions, an autobiographical account of his

spiritual journey in the form of a confession to God

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398 Jerome produces the Editio Vulgata (or, Vulgate), the Latin translation of the Bible that will be the standard for the Western churches for more than a thousand years

409 Shah Yazdegerd I issues an edict of toleration for Christians in the Persian Empire 410 Led by Alaric I, the Visigoths invade and overtake Rome 413-426 Augistine of Hippo’s most productive period of writing; he completes The City of

God, On the Trinity, and The Enchiridion 431 The third ecumenical Council of Ephesus condemns Nestorianism and declares

Mary to be theotokos (“the bearer of God”); because of its controversial nature, it is sometimes called the “Robber Council”

432 Bishop and monastic leader Patrick begins missionary work in Ireland 451 The fourth ecumenical Council of Chalcedon convenes to settle a second

dimension of the Christological Controversy; belief in the union of two natures in Christ—fully human and fully divine—is accepted as orthodox

470s-510s Brigid of Kildare establishes monastic communities for men and women

throughout Ireland; monks and nuns were the primary Christian missionaries among the rural Celtic people

480s & 490s A group of Syrian missionaries—the “Nine Saints”—help spread Christianity

throughout Ethiopia 482 The Roman Emperor Zeno writes his Henoticon, a theological treatise aimed a re-

unifying Chalcedonian and non-Chalcedonian (Monophysite) Christianity 496 Clovis, King of the Franks, is baptized; he is the first in a long dynasty of catholic

Christian kings (the Merovingian Dynasty) to rule over most of modern-day France, Belgium, and western Germany

520 Neo-Platonist Christian philosopher Boethius completes his Consolation of

Philosophy, which becomes a major source for later scholastic theology in the West

527 Justinian and Theodora become co-regents of the Byzantine Empire; in addition

to re-conquering much of the western Roman Empire, they seek to heal the religious division between Chalcedonian and non-Chalcedonian Christianity

529 Benedict of Nursia founds a monastery at Monte Cassino, where he writes his

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Rule (ca. 540), soon to become the standard of Western monasticism 530s-570s Syrian bishop Jacob Baradeus undertakes missionary work throughout Syria,

Mesopotamia, and Asia Minor, laying the foundation for the miaphysite “Jacobite” Church

553 The fifth ecumenical Council of Constantinople II affirms the dogmas of the

Council of Chalcedon and condemns certain “Nestorian” writers, especially Theodore of Mopsuestia

563 The Irish monk Columba establishes a monastery at Iona, and outpost of

successful missionary work among the Picts of Scotland 587 The Visigoth King Recarred I renounces his Arianism and embraces catholic

Christianity; his subjects throughout the Iberian Peninsula follow his lead 591 Pope Gregory the Great writes his Book of Pastoral Care, a significant resource

for the office of bishop; his directives significantly shape the medieval papacy 597 A delegation of forty missionaries from Rome—led by Augustine (of

Canterbury)— convert the Jute King Ethelbert of Kent; with his support they also successfully convert his Anglo Saxon subjects

602 Augustine of Canterbury establishes the episcopal see at Canterbury and

demands that Celtic Christians submit to the authority of Rome; they refuse 609-632 The Prophet Muhammad receives revelations that eventually will be compiled

into the Quran 622 The Prophet Muhammad and his early followers migrate from Mecca to Medina

(the Hijrah) and establish the first Muslim community 632-750 Under the leadership of powerful caliphs, Muslim armies conquer Egypt, North

Africa, and most of the Iberian Peninsula to the west; and Syria, Armenia, and all of Persia to the east. Half of the world’s Christians came under Muslim political rule

635 A Persian missionary named Alopen arrives in China and lays the foundation for

Nestorian Christianity there, which found favor with the Tang dynasty 657 Following the pattern of Whitby Abbey, monastic leaders found many “double

monasteries” throughout the West, especially Britain; men and women are part of a single monastic community, often led by a woman of high social rank

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664 The Synod of Whitby results in the liturgical and administrative unification of Christianity in England under the catholic church; many Celtic Christians continue to resist

680 The sixth ecumenical Council of Constantinople III condemns monothelitism, the

belief that Jesus had only one (divine) will; monothelite belief remains strong in the churches of Syria and Armenia

690s-750s Anglo-Saxon monks Wilibrord (658-739) and Winfrid (680-754) undertake

missionary activity among the Frisians; they establish several monastic communities on the coasts of present-day Netherlands and Germany

715 The Lindisfarne Gospels is produced; an illuminated manuscript, it makes use of

images from Viking art and mythology to illustrate themes from the four canonical gospels

726 Byzantine Emperor Leo III bans the use of icons in worship and support the

persecution of those who support it; the Iconoclastic Controversy will continue under Leo’s successors until the 840s

730s & 740s John of Damascus writes key treatises on the faith and practices of the Eastern

churches under Muslim rule, especially his Fountain of Knowledge, Defense of Holy Images and Discussion between a Saracen and a Christian

731 Northumbrian monk Bede (“the Venerable”) completes his Ecclesiastical History

of the English People 778 The forged document known as the Donation of Constantine, grants to the

bishop of Rome the right to rule over the western parts of the Carolingian Empire and the authority to crown/depose western rulers

787 The seventh ecumenical Council of Nicaea II condemns the iconoclasts and

defines the biblical canon for the Eastern churches (identical to the Western canon)

800 Pope Leo II crowns Charlemagne, King of the Franks, to be “augustus” of the Holy

Roman Empire; he issues a series of laws aimed at reforming Frankish society (especially church-state relations) known as the Carolingian Renaissance

830s-860s Saxon archbishop Ansgar undertakes successful evangelistic work in Scandinavia;

throughout the 10th and 11th centuries, Christianity becomes established throughout northern Europe

831 Saxon monk Paschasius Radbertus writes his On the Body and Blood of our Lord,

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a treatise claiming that the bread and wine of the Eucharist become the body and blood of Jesus

845 Emperor Wuzong bans all foreign religions in China; all Nestorian Christians

missionaries are expelled 858-886 The Photian Schism strains the relationship between the episcopal sees of

Roman and Constantinople; it also reveals the growing liturgical differences between East and West, especially over filioque (“and the Son”)

860s-880s Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius begin evangelistic work among the

Slavs and Bulgars, laying the foundation for the Orthodox Churches in Eastern Europe

910 William the Pious, a French nobleman, founds the Cluny Abbey; this Benedictine

monastery becomes the center of reform and revitalization and spawns nearly 1,000 additional monasteries throughout the West

976-1022 Symeon the New Theologian leads a charismatic renewal movement within

Byzantine monasticism, emphasizing theosis (deification), direct experience of God’s grace, and hesychia (quietude of mind)

988 Prince Vladmir converts to Christianity, partly to marry the Byzantine emperor’s

sister; he establishes Christianity as the state religion of Russia and permits widespread evangelization among his subjects

1028 King Olaf II establishes Christianity as the state religion in Norway 1054 The schism between the Western and Eastern churches, developing for many

centuries, becomes permanent with the mutual excommunications of the pope and the patriarch of Constantinople

1075 Pope Gregory VII issues his Dictatus Papae, a list of twenty-seven propositions

outlining the power and prerogatives of the pope; the document represents the zenith of the medieval papacy’s power and authority

1075-1122 The Investiture Controversy rages between the papacy and several monarchs of

Western Europe; at issue was the relative authority of church and state in a “Christian” civilization

1078 Anselm of Canterbury writes his Proslogion, making his “ontological proof” of the

existence of God and Christian life as fides quaerens intellectum (“faith seeking understanding”)

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1085 Alfonso VI the Brave and his forces re-capture Toledo, effectively ending Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula; the Christian king adopts the title “Emperor of all Hispania”

1090 Anselm of Canterbury writes his Cur Deus Homo (Why did God become Human?);

in it he described the “satisfaction theory” of the atonement 1095-1099 At the instigation of Pope Urban II, Frankish crusaders slaughter Jews and

Muslims, ostensibly to protect the Byzantine Empire and to make possible safe pilgrimage to the Holy Land; the pope offers “plenary indulgence” to crusaders

1098 Twenty monks found the Order of Cistercians in Citeaux, a more stringent form

of Benedictine monasticism 1106 Peter Abelard writes Sic et Non (Yes and No), to expose some of the

contradictory statements in the Bible and early Church Fathers; his work profoundly shapes medieval scholasticism

1127 Bernard of Clairvaux writes his The Love of God, a mystical treatise exploring the

human soul’s and God’s longing for one another 1140s Communities of Cathars (Greek for “pure ones”) begin to organize throughout

southern France; a semi-Gnostic sect, adherents are anti-trinitarian, pacifist, and opposed to the sacerdotalism of the catholic church

1142 High of St. Victor writes his Concerning the Sacraments; in this treatise he

attempts a definition of a sacrament: a physical or material element, intended by God to point to a spiritual reality, that bestows grace

1147-1149 Encouraged by Pope Eugenius III and Cistercian abbot Bernard of Clairvaux,

Frankish and German armies engage in a second crusade; though they fail to capture Jerusalem, crusaders re-take Lisbon

1155 Peter Lombard writes his Sentences, a major work of medieval theology for

Western Christianity; in he defines seven sacraments 1170s Communities of laywomen known as Beguines (and their male counterparts, the

Beghards) begin to appear in northern Europe; dedicated to Bible study, education, and service to the poor

1175 A wealth merchant from Lyon, Waldo, adopts a life of poverty and itinerant

preaching; though considered heretics by the catholic church, the “Waldensians” believe in strict poverty, following biblical teaching literally (esp. communal living), and spiritual equality between men and women

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1180s & 90s Italian monk Joachim of Fiore develops his dispensational reading of history; he

predicts the coming age of the Holy Spirit, characterized by immediate experience of God and the abolition of the hierarchical church

1181 An agreement with the crusaders brings the Maronite churches of Lebanon

under the authority of Rome 1187-1192 Encouraged by Pope Gregory VII, Frankish, German, and English crusaders

attempt to liberate Jerusalem from Muslim rule in the third crusade; a truce re-opens the Holy City to Christian pilgrims

1202-1204 Called by Pope Innocent III, a fourth crusade emerges with Frankish and Flemish

forces; originally aimed at re-capturing Jerusalem, the armies instead sacked Constantinople

1204-1261 Latin secular rulers and church leaders control Constantinople; the remnant of

the Byzantine Empire moves to the Kingdom of Nicaea 1209 Pope Innocent III grants recognition to the Order of Friars Minor, or Franciscans;

based on the teachings of St. Francis of Asissi, the order focuses on missionary work; several other orders (some for women) derive from the Franciscans

1215 The Fourth Lateran Council defines seven sacraments as the “means of grace,”

focusing especially on the Eucharist: transubstantiation, sub unius generis (“under one kind”), annual celebration required

1217-1221 Austrian and Hungarian forces fail to re-take Jerusalem in a fifth crusade;

crusading to the Holy Land will continue for another century, but without significant church support

1219 The patriarch of Nicaea recognizes the Serbian Orthodox Church as

autocephalous (independent and self-governed) 1220s-1270s Led by Genghis Khan and his successors, the Mongols invade Russia, eastern

Europe, Persia, Mesopotamia, and Anatolia, creating vassal states to their vast empire

1221 Pope Honorius III grants recognition to the Order of Preachers, or Dominicans;

this monastic order aims at combating heterodox groups 1229 Pope Gregory IX establishes the Inquisition, primarily under the leadership of the

Dominicans; soon virtually every parish in the Western church has an inquisitor

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1235 The patriarch of Nicaea recognizes the Bulgarian Orthodox Church as autocephalous

1236-1252 The West Syriac (Jacobite) churches submit to the authority of Rome under the

patriarchate of Ignatius II 1240s & 50s Two delegations of Franciscans attempt to negotiate peace with the khans in

the Mongol capital, Karakorum; the terms included the conversion of the khan to catholic Christianity

1250-1517 Under the Mamluke Sultanate Christian communities in Egypt and Nubia suffer

severe persecution; further south, in Ethiopia, Christianity thrives 1250s-1280s Jacobite scholar Gregory Abu’l Faraj (Bar Hebreus) successfully leads the

churches of Mesopotamia in a difficult period of Muslim and Mongol domination 1265-1275 Italian Dominican Thomas Aquinas writes his Summa Theologica, the most

important work of scholastic theology 1274 The Council of Lyons forces continued ecclesiastical unity between Rome and

Constantinople; Byzantine church leaders successfully resist for more than a decade until the unity breaks down

1285 The Council of Blachernae defines the Byzantine church’s doctrine of the Trinity;

it does not resolve the tension in Constantinople over union with Rome 1290 Under the leadership of John of Monte Corvino, a sizeable community of catholic

Christians is established in Khanbalik (modern Beijing), the capital of the Mongol Empire

1290s-1310s Christians in Persia, Mesopotamia, and central Asia experience increased

persecution at the hands of Muslim rulers, especially Timur Lenk (1336-1405) 1302 Pope Boniface VII issues the bull Unam Sanctum, claiming that the pope alone is

head of the “one holy and apostolic church,” and that extra ecclesiam nulla salus est (“outside the [catholic] church there is no salvation”)

1307 At the Council of Sis, Armenian church leaders agree to conform their liturgy to

the Latin Rite; a schism develops in Armenian Christianity, formalized in 1441 1310s & 20s German mystical theologian and popular preacher Meister Eckhart encourages

believers to seek unmediated union with God, a direct challenge to the institutional church

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1324 Marsilius of Padua writes Defender of Peace, in which he argues that the church should have no secular authority

1325 Moscow becomes an episcopal see and the center of developing Russian

Orthodox culture; the metropolitan remains subordinate to the Patriarch of Constantinople

1337-1453 The Hundred Years’ War between France and England 1340s The Hesychast Controversy rages in the Byzantine church; Gregory of Palmas

(1292-1359) successfully defends meditative “holy silence” as a form of apophatic theology

1345 Sergius of Radonezh establishes the Monastery of the Holy Trinity, which

provides a model for more than four hundred monasteries throughout the developing Russian Empire

1348-1350 The first outbreak of bubonic plague, the Black Death; a third of the population

(approximately 25 million people) in Western Europe perishes 1373 English mystical theologian Julian of Norwich writes her Revelations of Divine

Love, in which she celebrates God’s fundamental character as love, not wrath 1377 Oxford theologian John Wycliffe writes On the Church, in which he claims that

the office of the pope is unbiblical and possesses no authority to define doctrines apart from scripture

1378 Dominican Catherine of Siena writes her Dialogue with Divine Providence, a key

work of medieval mystical theology 1378-1417 The Great Schism divides the Western church under the authority of two—

sometimes three—competing popes 1382 John Wycliffe’s English translation of the Bible is printed 1415 Bohemian church leader and reformer Jan Hus is burned at the stake for

“heresy” 1418 Thomas a Kempis writes his Imitation of Christ, one of the most popular

devotional works of the medieval period 1431-1439 The Council of Ferara/Florence attempts to reconcile the schism between the

catholic church in the West and the various churches of the East

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1434 Johann Gutenberg invents moveable type; by the 1450s, his printing press is revolutionizing the West

1448 A council of Russian bishops elects the Metropolitan of Moscow without

approval from Constantinople; effectively the Russian Orthodox Church is thereby autocephalous (recognized in 1589)

1453 The Ottoman Turks capture Constantinople, marking the fall of the Byzantine

Empire; they rename the city Istanbul 1455 Johannes Gutenberg publishes the first book using the moveable type printing

press 1478 Pope Sixtus IV establishes the Inquisition to maintain orthodox Roman

Catholic faith in Spain 1484 German Inquisitioners Heinrich Kramer and Johann Sprenger publish Malleus

Malificarum, or “The Witches Hammer,” a how-to manual for hunting witches over the next two centuries

1492 Christopher Columbus lands on San Salvador beginning Spanish colonization of

the Americas; Fredinand and Isabella expel all remaining Jews and Muslims from Spain, after decades of persecuting them

1493 Pope Alexander VI issues the bull Inter Caetera, dividing the New World between

Spain and Portugal along an arbitrary longitudinal line 1498 Vasco deGama sails around Africa to India and established Goa as a trading and

missionary outpost 1501 The first enslaved Africans arrive in the New World in the West Indies 1510s Roman Catholic missionary work begins in Central and South America 1512 The Fifth Lateran Council condemns conciliarism in the Roman Catholic Church

and grants the pope a “plenitude of ecclesiastical power.” 1517 The German monk and professor, Martin Luther, publishes his Ninety-Five

Theses, considered the beginning of the Lutheran Reformation 1521 The Diet of Worms condemns Luther 1522 The “Sausage Supper” in Zurich marks the beginning of Zwingli’s reform

movement

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1525 The Peasant’s Revolt in Germany 1528 Matteo de Bascio founds the Capuchin order of friars 1529 Suleiman the Magnificent fails to overtake Vienna, establishing the European

boundary of the Ottoman Empire; the Second Diet of Speyer is held, at which the word “Protestant” is used for the first time

1531 The Schmalkald League is established 1534 Ignatius Loyola founds the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), a monastic order primarily

responsible for the re-Catholicization of eastern Europe and colonial mission work; English Parliament approves Henry VII’s Act of Supremacy, making him the “supreme head” of the Church of England

1536 Henry VII dissolves English monasteries and confiscate church property for the

state 1540 Pope Paul II approved the founding of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) 1549 The Jesuit Francis Xavier establishes a Catholic mission in Japan 1545 Council of Trent is convened (meets sporadically until 1563) 1551 The Council of a Hundred Chapters standardizes the doctrines, liturgy, and

worship practices of the emerging Russian Orthodox Church 1553 Michael Servetus is burned at the stake in Geneva 1560 The French Wars of Religion, sporadic conflicts between Roman Catholics and

Protestants, begin (until 1598); the Indian Inquisition is established to enforce the Western Rite of Roman Catholicism

1571 Pope Paul IV begins publishing the List of Forbidden Books 1572 John Knox establishes the Presbyterian Church in Scotland; St. Bartholomew’s

Day massacre in Paris marks the height of the French Wars of Religion 1578 Spanish King Philip II prohibits the ordination of indigenous priests in New Spain 1582 The first Jesuit missionaries arrive in China 1589 The Russian Orthodox Church becomes autocephalous, or “independent” from

other Eastern Orthodox Churches

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1598 Henry IV issues the Edict of Nantes, granting French Protestants some of the same civil rights as Roman Catholics

1599 The Synod of Dampier decides that all Catholic churches in India are subordinate

to Rome 1601 Matteo Ricci ordains the first Chinese Catholic priests 1602 The Dutch East India Company is chartered and begins inancing colonization

efforts across the globe 1607 Jamestown, Virginia is established, the first successful English colony in North

America 1609 John Smyth founds the Baptist Church in England 1611 The King James Version (Authorized Version) of the Bible is published 1614 The shogunate prohibits the practice of Christianity in Japan 1616 The Roman Catholic Church prohibits Galileo from conducting further scientific

research 1618 The Thirty Years’ War begins on continental Europe (to 1648) 1619 The first enslaved Africans arrive in North America at Jamestown, Virginia 1620 English dissenters known as Pilgrims (Separatist Puritans) establish Plymouth

Plantation in North America 1630 English Puritans (Non-Separatists) establish Massachusetts Bay Colony 1642 The English Civil War begins (to 1649) 1647 English clergyman George Fox establishes the Religious Society of Friends

(Quakers) 1652 The Dutch establish the first permanent colony in Cape Town, South Africa 1653 The Old Believers break with the Russian Orthodox Church over reforms of the

liturgy 1675 Philip Jakob Spener publishes Pia Desideria, often considered the beginning of

the German Pietist movement

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1682 The Assembly of French Clergy approved the “Gallican Articles” 1685 Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes, resulting in a mass exodus of Protestants

from France (Huguenots) 1688 The Glorious Revolution brings Protestants William and Mary to the English

throne 1689 The Toleration Act outlaws persecution of Protestants of all denominations in

England and her colonial holdings 1692 The Salem witch trials in Massachusetts Bay Colony 1706 Irish clergyman Francis Makemie establishes the Presbyterian Church in the

North American colonies; Lutherans and Pietists establish a mission in Tranquebar under the patronage of the Danish monarchy

1721 The reforms of Peter the Great bring the Russian Orthodox Church under the

governance of a Holy and Supreme Synod, instead of a single primate 1726 The Chinese emperor bans Christian missionary activity outside of Beijing 1730 John Wesley founds the Methodist Church in England 1735 The First Great Awakening begins in the European colonies in North America (to

about 1760) 1749 Franciscan missionary Junipero Serra begins missionary work in Mexico 1773 Pope Clement XIV suppresses the Jesuits in all Roman Catholic nations and their

colonies 1774 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing publishes the Fragments of Reimarus, inaugurating the

quest of the historical Jesus 1776-1783 The American Revolution; Deist “founding fathers” and the evangelical Christian

masses are the principal supporters of independence 1781 Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) publishes his Critique of Pure Reason, in which he

argues that religious faith and knowledge are not, in fact, opposed to one another

1784 The “Christmas Conference” is held, founding the Methodist Church in the

United States

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1788 Kant publishes his Critique of Practical Reason, in which he describes his “categorical imperative;” ethics is the essence of Christian faith

1789-1799 The French Revolution, including a complete restructuring of church-state

relations in France; in its radical phase, the Revolution outlaws Christian faith altogether

1790s-1810s British Methodism splinters into several groups over issues related to the

movement’s conservatism and cooperation with the established Church of England

1791 The Haitian Revolution begins, and ultimately brings independence from Spain

(to 1804) 1791 Russian Tsarina Catherine II (“the Great”) (1729-1796) establishes the Pale of

Settlement in eastern Europe in which Russian Jews are forced to live; the Pale remains in place until 1917

1791 The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees freedom of religion in

the new nation 1792 English Baptist William Carey (1761-1834) publishes his Enquiry into the

Obligation of Christians, effectively beginning the modern Protestant mission movement

1793 Carey begins a 41-year career as a missionary in Serampore and Calcutta, India 1793 Kant publishes his Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone; Christianity, he

says, demonstrates that the human will can reform itself 1795 The English take over control of colonial South Africa from the Dutch 1795 Evangelical Anglicans and Non-Conformists establish the non-denominational

London Missionary Society to support work in Africa and the South Pacific 1799 German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher writes On Religion: Speeches to its

Cultured Despisers, widely regarded as the first work of Protestant liberal theology

1799 The Anglican Church founds the Church Missionary Society to support work in

Africa and Asia 1801 Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) concludes a concordat with Pope Pius VII

(1742-1823); in return for re-establishing the Roman Catholic Church in France,

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the Church will recognize Napoleon’s right to rule 1807 The first Protestant missionary to China, Robert Morrison (1782-1834), begins his

work in Canton (modern-day Guangzhou) 1810-25 Wars of independence are fought throughout Latin America; the role of the

Roman Catholic Church in these independence movements varies by context 1810 Protestants organize the American Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions,

the first voluntary missions society in the United States 1813 The Roman Catholic Church restores the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) after forty

years of suppression 1814 Richard Allen (1760-1831) founds the first African American denomination in the

U.S., the African Methodist Episcopal Church 1816 U.S. Protestants organize the American Colonization Society in a effort to

repatriate freed slaves to Africa; some black church leaders (e.g. Daniel Coker and Lott Carey) develop a theology of “missionary emigrationism”

1816 Pope Pius VII re-constitutes the Propaganda Fide and through it directly controls

Roman Catholic mission work, particularly in Africa 1817 The Prussian Plan of Union united Lutheran and Reformed churches into one

evangelical church 1819 Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821) publishes The Pope, a key French-language

defense of ultramontanism 1819 William Ellery Channing (1780-1842) preaches “Unitarian Christianity,”

describing the basic tenets of developing Unitarianism in Britain and the U.S. 1820s The Roman Catholic Tübingen School is established under the leadership of

Johann Sebastian von Drey (1777-1853) and Johann Adam Möhler (1796-1838) 1821 A hermitage for startsy is established at the Optina monastery near Kolzelsk,

Russia; it remains a center of spiritual vitality for more than a century 1824 Newly independent Mexico adopts a constitution establishing the Roman

catholic Church and prohibiting the practice of all other religions 1824 Newly independent Brazil adopts a constitution proclaiming religious freedom,

but maintaining an established Roman Catholic Church

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1826 Ferdinand Christian Baur (1792-1860) founds the Tübingen School, vigorously advocating higher critical study of the Bible and early Christian texts; the school reaches its height in the 1840s

1828-29 King George IV (1765-1830) and English Parliament pass the Sacramental Test

Act and the Catholic Relief Act, greatly expanding the political rights and freedoms of Roman Catholic and Non-Conformists

1828 Félicité de Lammenais (1782-1854) publishes The Progress of the Revolution and

the War Against the Church, advocating accommodation of the Roman Catholic Church to some key principles of modernity

1829 U.S. free black Robert Alexander Young publishes “The Ethiopian Manifesto”

calling on enslaved persons to become agents of God’s justice in resisting enslavement

1829 Free black David Walker (1785-1830) publishes his Appeal to the Colored Citizens

of the World, a devastating critique of U.S. morality and call for revolution among enslaved people

1830 Revolutions break out in various places in Western Europe; people generally are

impatient with the pace of political and ecclesiastical reform 1830 Schleiermacher publishes The Christian Faith, his systematic theology placing

subjective experience of the divine at the center of his method 1831 Inspired partly by religious convictions, Nat Turner (1800-1831) leads a one of

the most successful “slave rebellions” in the U.S. 1833-41 Some Anglican church leaders publish Tracts for the Times, inaugurating the

Oxford Movement; many high church Anglicans “convert” to Roman Catholicism 1833 Following its war of independence with the Ottoman Empire (1821-1830),

Greece proclaims that its church is autocephalous 1834 Pope Gregory XVI (1765-1846) issues Singulari Nos condemning French

“liberalism” and Lammenais in particular 1835 D. F. Strauss (1808-1874) publishes his Life of Jesus Critically Examined, a

controversial work on the “historical Jesus” relying on higher critical study of the Bible

1835 U.S. Protestant revivalist Charles Finney (1792-1875) publishes his Lectures on

Revival, revolutionizing the theology and practice of revivalism

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1837 The Presbyterian Church in the U.S. splits over issues of church order and theology (secondarily over slavery)

1839-76 The Tanzimat Reforms opened the Ottoman Empire to increasing Western

influence, including Christian missionary activity 1840s The Holiness Movement begins to take shape in North America and Great

Britain; early leaders include Phoebe Palmer (1807-1874) and William Boardman (1810-1886)

1841 Ludwig Feuerbach (1804-1872) publishes The Essence of Christianity in which he

describes his “projection theory” of religion 1842 Concluding the First Opium War between Britain and China, the Treaty of

Nanking opens five key port cities to Western control and missionary activity 1843 Nigerian Samuel Ajayi Crowther (1806-1891) is ordained as an Anglican priest

and missionary; later he is elevated to bishop, the first African to hold the post 1844 The two largest U.S. Protestant denominations—Methodists and Baptists—split

over the issue of slavery 1847 U.S. church leader and theologian Horace Bushnell (1802-1876) publishes

Christian Nurture, claiming that Christian faith does not consist primarily in the popular “revivalism”

1848 Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) publish The Communist

Manifesto, calling religion the “opiate of the masses” and inspiring revolutions throughout Western Europe

1848 U.S. women leaders meet for the Seneca Falls Convention, inaugurating the first

phase of the feminist movement; they vigorously support the ordination of women

1848 In response to Pope Pius IX’s attempt to extend his authority over them, the

patriarchs of the Orthodox Churches send a letter all Western bishops condemning the Roman Catholic Church as heretical

1848-54 The Christian Socialist Movement thrives in Britain under the leadership of F. D. Maurice (1805-1872) and John Ludlow (1821-1911); it lays the foundation for the Social Gospel Movement in Britain and the U.S.

1850-64 Quasi-Christian millenarian leader Hong Xiuquan leads the Taiping Rebellion

against the Qing Dynasty in southern China; this civil war remains one of the

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deadliest conflicts in history 1850s & 60s Amidst La Reforma, Protestant missionaries begin their work in Mexico 1853-56 The Russian Empire (supported by Britain and France) and Ottoman Empire clash

in the Crimean War, begun as a conflict over which church would be the “sovereign authority” over Christians in the Holy Land

1857 Princeton Theologian Charles Hodge (1797-1858) publishes his essay

“Inspiration,” in which he defines a doctrine of “plenary inspiration” of the Bible 1858 Following the Sepoy Rebellion, British colonial administration in India begins;

Western missionary efforts accelerate greatly 1859 Charles Darwin (1809-1882) publishes The Origin of Species describing biological

evolution; it causes controversy among English-speaking Christians for at least four generations

1860 Seven Anglican theologians and church leaders publish the controversial Essays

and Reviews, advocating higher critical study of the Bible for an English-speaking audience

1861 Tsar Nicholas II (1868-1918) abolishes serfdom in the Russian Empire; the

Russian Orthodox Church opposes this move 1861-65 The U.S. Civil War threatens to split the new nation politically, economically, and

religiously 1864 John Henry Cardinal Newman (1801-1890) publishes his Apologia Pro Vita Sua to

defend his “conversion” from Anglicanism to Roman Catholicism; 1864 Pope Pius IX (1792-1878) publishes his Syllabus of Errors, condemning

modernism in all its forms 1865 British missionary J. Hudson Taylor (1832-1905) founds the interdenominational

China Inland Mission; it quickly becomes the largest and most successful mission of its day

1867 Amidst the crumbling Ottoman Empire, the Romanian Orthodox Church declares

itself autocephalous 1868 Roman Catholic archbishop Charles Lavigerie (1825-1892) founds the

Missionaries of Our Lady of Africa (the “White Fathers”) to evangelize Africa

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1869-70 The First Vatican Council reaffirms the Tridentine faith of the Roman Catholic Church and defines papal infallibility as a dogma of the Church

1870s & 80s Some black church leaders in the U.S. (e.g. Edward Blyden and Henry McNeal

Turner) emerge as powerful advocates of black separatism by repatriation to Africa

1870 Newman publishes his Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent, in which he argues

that scientific standards of logic cannot be applied to matters of faith 1870 In the process of national unification, the Italian government wrests control of

the papal states from the Roman Catholic Church 1870-74 Albrecht Ritschl (1822-1889) publishes The Christian Doctrine of Justification and

Reconciliation; it lays the theological foundation for modern Protestant liberalism, especially the Social Gospel

1871-73 Hodge publishes his Systematic Theology, a definitive statement of conservative

evangelicalism in the U.S. for three generations 1871 As a part of the Meiji Restoration, Japan declares religious freedom and re-opens

the islands to western missionary efforts after more than 250 years 1871 Amidst the crumbling Ottoman Empire, the Bulgarian Orthodox Church declares

itself autocephalous 1871 U.S. minister James Freeman Clarke publishes Ten Great Religions in which he

organizes the world’s religions on an evolutionary scale; Protestantism is the most advanced

1873 The Women’s Christian Temperance Movement is founded in the U.S. to

promote a “sober and pure world” 1875 Dwight Moody (1837-1899) embarks on a noteworthy career as an urban

evangelist in North America 1876-78 Severe famine strikes India, claiming more than 10 million; Christian missionary

work accelerates in response 1879 Pope Leo XIII (1810-1903) issues Aeterni Patris, commending the philosophy of

13th-century Dominican Thomas Aquinas as normative for the Roman Catholic Church; this inspires a Neo-Thomist revival that lasts until Vatican II

1884 The anonymous The Way of a Pilgrim is published, and instantly becomes a

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devotional classic among Russian Orthodox Christians 1884-85 The Berlin Conference inaugurates the “Scramble for Africa” and greatly

accelerates Protestant missionary work throughout Africa 1885 U.S. Protestant minister Josiah Strong (1847-1916) publishes Our Country, a

warning against the pernicious moral influence of immigrants, Roman Catholic, and urban immorality

1886 U.S. Protestant leaders establish the Student Volunteer Movement to recruit

college students for careers in foreign missions; its slogan was “the evangelization of the world in this generation”

1887 The majority of St. Thomas Christians in India establish hierarchies recognized by

the Roman Catholic Church; the resulting Syro-Malabar Catholic Church is in full communion with Rome

1890s-1920s The Social Gospel thrives among Protestants in Western Europe and the United

States 1891 The Republican Constitution of Brazil declared the separation of church and

state, and legalized the practice of all religious traditions; Protestant missionary work accelerates

1891 U.S. preacher John Brooks (1826-1915) publishes The Divine Church, urging

fellow Holiness advocates to “come out” of the Methodist Episcopal Church 1892 Mangena Maake Mokone (1851-1931), breaks from the Methodist mission in

South Africa to form the Ethiopian Church, one of the earliest African Initiated Churches (AIC)

1893 Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) publishes The Kingdom of God is within You, an

anarchist blueprint for social re-organization based on following Jesus’ teachings literally

1893 Maurice Blondel (1861-1949) publishes L’Action, a key text in the Modernist

Movement in Roman Catholicism 1893 The Muslim government permits the Coptic Church in Egypt to re-open its

theological seminary in Alexandria, closed since the Council of Chalcedon (451) 1894-98 Adolf von Harnack (1851-1930) publishes his History of Dogma, applying rigorous

historical-critical scholarship to the study of early Christian doctrine

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1895 Protestant missionaries from the U.S. and Scotland establish the interdenominational Africa Inland Mission, modeled after Taylor’s China Inland Mission

1897-1901 The nationalist Boxer Uprising attempts to throw off Western imperialism in

China, including Protestant mission work 1899-1900 Severe famine again strikes India, claiming more than 10 million; Christian

missionary work accelerates in response 1899 Pope Leo XIII issues Testem Benevolentiae denouncing “Americanism,” the

excessive accommodation of Roman Catholic faith to U.S. life 1900s & 10s White “Christian” literature justifying racial segregation in the U.S. flourishes,

especially in the South 1901 Uchimura Kanzo (1861-1930) founds the Nonchurch Movement in Japan, the

first form of indigenous Japanese Protestantism 1901 Leaving the Anglican mission, Jacob Kehinde Coker (1866-1945) leads a group in

founding the African Church (AIC) 1902 U.S. philosopher William James (1842-1910) publishes his Varieties of Religious

Experience in which he defines the value of religious beliefs in pragmatic terms 1903 Alfred Loisy (1857-1940) publishes The Gospel and the Church, appropriating

higher critical study of the Bible for Roman Catholic theology 1904-05 Under the leadership of Evan Robert (1878-1951), a Pentecostal revival breaks

out among the mining communities in Wales; missionaries immediately span the globe, sparking similar revivals in India, Korea, and China

1905 Marxist leaders in the Russian Empire storm the Tsar Nicholas II’s winter home,

demanding reform; the Russian Orthodox Church denounces this “revolution” 1905 U.S. jurist David Brewer (1837-1910) publishes The United States: A Christian

Nation; he argues that Protestant Christianity should remain the principal influence on the nation’s social life and identity

1906 Albert Schweitzer (1875-1965) publishes The Quest of the Historical Jesus,

pointing out how modern historical Jesus research is mistaken; the Jesus of Christian faith never actually existed

1906-09 Under the leadership of William Seymour (1870-1922), the Azusa Street Revival

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in Los Angeles marks the beginning of Pentecostalism in the United States 1907 Pope Pius X (1835-1914) issues Lamentabili Sane Exitu, condemning higher

critical study of the Bible and Pascendi Dominici Gregis condemning the “evolutionary” model for understanding dogma

1907 Walter Rauschenbush (1861-1918) publishes Christianity and the Social Crisis, a

classic of this U.S. Social Gospel Movement 1908 Mainline Protestant leaders in the U.S. form the Federal Council of Churches, an

interdenominational and ecumenical group 1909 The Scofield Bible is published, an English translation that promotes a theology

of dispensational premillennialism; it becomes popular among Protestant fundamentalists

1910 Breaking from the Methodist Mission, Isaiah Shembe (1870-1935) founds the

Nazareth Baptist Church in South Africa 1910 Under the influence of U.S. and Afrikaaner missionaries, Engenas Lekganyane (d.

1948) founds the Zion Christian Church in South Africa 1910 Protestants in Western Europe and North America meet for the World

Missionary Conference in Edinburgh, Scotland, marking the beginning of the ecumenical movement

1910 Pope Pius X requires all priests, monks and nuns, and theological professors to

subscribe to the “Oath Against Modernism;” this requirement remains in place until Vatican II

1910-25 The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth is published, sparking the

Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy among U.S. Protestants 1911 The Xinhai Revolution topples the Qing dynasty and establishes China as a

republic; most Western missionaries are driven out temporarily 1912 Ernst Troeltsch (1865-1923) publishes his The Social Teachings of the Christian

Churches, claiming that the teaching of the churches has always been conditioned by its social context

1912 The journal International Review of Missions is founded to promote ecumenical

cooperation between European and U.S. leaders in foreign missions 1912-38 The Church of England struggles through a traditionalist-modernist controversy;

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the resulting Doctrine of the Church of England (1938) is a cautious appropriation of modernist thought

1914-18 World War I; Christians uncritically rally to nationalistic support the war effort on

all sides of the conflict 1915 Influenced by British missionary Joseph Booth (1851-1932), John Chilembwe (d.

1915) leads a small, quasi-Christian, anti-colonial revolution in Nyasaland 1917 During the Revolution, the Mexican government adopts a constitution hostile

toward the Roman Catholic Church, especially in education, political involvement, and property-holding

1917 Rauschenbush publishes Theology for the Social Gospel, a systematic theology

that argues Christian baptism requires a vigorous commitment to social justice 1918 The Bolshevik Revolution results in the separation of church and state in the

former Russian Empire 1918 The Aladura (“praying people”) Movement begins among Nigerian Anglicans,

under the leadership of charismatic prophet-healers; Christ Apostolic Church is the first of the Movement’s churches

1918 Swiss pastor and theologian Karl Barth (1886-1968) publishes his Commentary

on the Epistle to the Romans, inaugurating a revolution in Protestant theology 1921-41 The communist government engages in a series of anti-religious campaigns in

the Soviet Union; the goal is eliminating the influence of religion, especially that of the Russian Orthodox Church

1922 The Albanian Orthodox Church declares itself autocephalous; the Patriarch of

Constantinople recognizes its independence in 1937 1921 Believing himself to be a special envoy form God, Congolese leader Simon

Kimbangu (1889-1951) founds the Church of Jesus Christ on Earth, or the Kimbanguist Church

1920s U.S. Pentecostal evangelist Aimee Semple McPherson (1890-1944) pioneers the

use of radio in her ministry 1924 The Orthodox Church of Poland become autocephalous 1925 The League of Militant Atheists is founded in the Soviet Union; this mass anti-

Christian movement is a powerful force in Soviet society until World War II

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1925 Nigerian Moses Orimolade (1879-1933) founds the Eternal Sacred Order of

Cherubim and Seraphim, an Aladura AIC 1926-29 The counter-revolutionary Cristero Rebellion attempts to limit the anti-church

policies and practices of the Mexican government 1927-37 Civil war rages in China between the nationalists and the communists; Chinese

casualties are heavy, and the existence of Chinese church is seriously threatened 1927 Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) publishes his Future of an

Illusion, in which he describes religious faith as “wish fulfillment” and predicts its demise in the modern world

1927 Dorothy Day (1897-1980) and Peter Maurin (1877-1949) found the Catholic

Workers Movement 1928 A major effort to revise the Anglican Church’s Book of Common Prayer fails; the

English church continued to use the 1662 prayer book, though churches of the worldwide Anglican communion began revisions as a result of this attempt

1929 The U.S. stock market crashes; the resulting economic depression severely

curtails the work of the churches and forces the indigenization of mission churches around the globe in the 1930s

1930 The Aaldura Movement experiences a revival, leading to significant growth in

Nigeria and the surrounding areas; Josiah Olunowo Ositelu (1900-1966) founds the Church of the Lord (Aladura) amidst the revival

1932 Three major 19th-century Methodist groups in Britain unite to form the

Methodist Church of Great Britain 1932 U.S. theologian Reinhold Niebuhr publishes Moral Man and Immoral Society, in

which he argues that political efforts toward social justice are necessary because of the sinful nature of all humanity

1932-67 Barth publishes his (unfinished) Church Dogmatics in stages; it is the definitive

systematic of the Ne0-Orthodox Movement 1933-45 Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) and the Nazi Party control Germany; despite significant

resistance, the Church still becomes a tool of Nazi propaganda 1934 The Confessing Church Movement issues the Barmen Declaration of Faith,

denouncing Nazism as a form of idolatry

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1935-40 The Italian military occupies Ethiopia and persecutes leaders of the Ethiopian

Orthodox Church 1937 Pope Pius XI (1857-1939) issues Mit brennender Sorge condemning Nazism and

Divini Redemptoris condemning atheistic communism 1937 German Lutheran pastor Dietrich Bonheoffer (1906-1945) publishes his the Cost

of Discipleship, a classic reflection on Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount 1939-45 World War II; Christians are generally more cautious in their support for the war

efforts than they had been in World War I 1940-46 Mexican president Manuel Ávila Camacho (1897-1955) refuses to enforce the

anti-religious provisions of the Mexican Constitution 1941 Joseph Stalin (1878-1953) revives the Russian Orthodox Church in an effort to

bolster patriotic support for World War II; his support lasts through the mid-1950s

1941 The wartime government of Japan forces all Protestant groups into the United

Church of Christ in Japan (Nihon Kirisuto Kyōdan); after the war, some groups re-established their pre-war denominations, but most did not

1942 Some church leaders in the United States form the National Association of

Evangelicals 1943 Niebuhr publishes his Nature and Destiny of Man, in which he argues that

contemporary social philosophy should be founded on the assumption of human sinfulness, not its moral virtue

1943 The Russian Orthodox Church grants autocephaly to the Orthodox Church of

Georgia 1945 Bonhoeffer is executed at the Nazi concentration camp at Flossbürg 1946 Kazoh Kitamouri (1916-1998) publishes The Theology of the Pain of God, a

statement of Japanese theology in the wake of the atomic annihilation of Nagasaki and Hiroshima

1946 Henri de Lubac (1896-1991) publishes his The Mystery of the Supernatural, a

classic statement of the New Theology (nouvelle theologie) in Roman Catholicism

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1947 After two decades of negotiation, the Anglican Church in India unites with several other Protestant churches to form the United Church of South India

1947 Aladura leader Samuel Oschoffa (1909-1985) founds the Celestial Church of

Christ in Benin 1948 Anjezë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu (Mother Teresa) (1910-1997) founds a new order, the

Missionaries of Charity, and spend more than 40 years ministering among the Indian poor

1948 The World Council of Churches is formed in Amsterdam 1948 With significant support from Britain and the United States, the State of Israel is

formed; significant opposition from Muslim Palestinians begins to develop 1949 The Communist Revolution in China closes of the Peoples Republic of China to

the West for more than three decades; all Christian missionaries withdraw 1949 U.S. Protestant minister William (“Billy”) Graham (b. 1918) embarks on a long

career as an evangelist; his message of being “born again” is especially appealing in the emerging Cold War context

1950 The Federal Council of Churches and several other ecumenical organizations in

the U.S. merge to form the National Council of Christian Churches 1951 Wu Yao-tsung (1893-1979) founds the Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM) in

China; effectively a union Protestant church, it focuses on self-governance, self-support, and self-propagation

1951-64 U.S. theologian Paul Tillich (1886-1965) publishes his Systematic Theology, the

definitive statement of existentialist theology; religion is a person’s “ultimate concern”

1952 Norman Vincent Peale (1898-1993) publishes his enormously popular The Power

of Positive Thinking 1955 Consejo Episcopal Latino Americano (CELAM), a congress bishops in Latin

America, is formed; it emerges as a platform for progressive, liberation-minded Roman Catholicism

1955 Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929-1968) and several other leaders launch the Civil

Rights Movement in the U.S. South; primary support for the Movement comes from the black churches

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1957 The Religious Affairs Bureau establishes the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association; it does not recognize the authority of the pope but answers to the Chinese government

1960 John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) is elected to be the first Catholic president in the

U.S. 1960s Most African colonies successfully gain their independence from their European

colonizers, forcing the immediate indigenization of almost all mission churches 1962-65 Pope John XXIII (1881-1963) convenes the Second Vatican Council to engage in

an “updating” (aggiornamento) of the Roman Catholic Church in faith and practice

1962-63 In a series of decisions, the U.S. Supreme Court prohibits prayer and Bible

reading as mandatory activities in public schools 1965-75 The Vietnam Conflict; U.S. military involvement is unpopular among some,

sparking a renewed pacifist movement (involving many Christians) 1965 U.S. Congress passes the Immigration and Naturalization Act, greatly accelerating

the cultural and religious diversification of the nation 1966-76 The Cultural Revolution in China bans all expression of religious life in China; the

underground house church movement begins late 1960s Nationalists (mostly Catholic) and Unionists (most Protestants) began a 30-year

struggle over the political control of Northern Ireland 1967 The Orthodox Church of Macedonia declares itself autocephalous, independent

of the Serbian Orthodox Church 1968 Gustavo Gutiérrez (b. 1928) publishes A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics,

and Salvation, in which he describes God’s “preferential option for the poor” 1968 Pope Paul VI issues Humana Vitae, reaffirming the Roman Catholic Church’s

commitment to marriage and family life (including an opposition to birth control) 1968 Martin Luther King Jr. is assassinated in Memphis as he prepares to support a

strike among the city’s sanitation workers 1969 James Foreman (1928-2005), Black Panther and leader in the Student Non-

Violent Coordinating Committee, issues the “Black Manifesto” calling for Christian churches and Jewish synagogues in the U.S. to make reparations

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1970 After four decades of negotiation, the Anglican Church in India unites with several other Protestant churches to form the United Church of North India

1970 James Cone (b. 1938) publishes A Black Theology of Liberation, an attempt to

coordinate biblical revelation with the experience of black people in the U.S. 1970s Protestant fundamentalism in the U.S. begins to re-emerge and inspires

religiously based “culture wars” 1972 German theologian Jürgen Moltmann (b. 1926) publishes his The Crucified God,

in which he emphasizes God’s solidarity with humanity in the experience of suffering

1973 The U.S. Supreme Court legalizes abortion in Roe v. Wade, further polarizing the

nation’s Christian communities 1973 U.S. theologian Mary Daly (1928-2010) publishes Beyond God the Father, an

attempt to liberation western religions—especially Christianity—from androcentrism

1974 Kosuke Koyama (1929-2009) publishes Water Buffalo Theology, an early attempt

at Asian liberation theology and Buddhist-Christian dialogue 1975-76 Juan Luis Segundo (1925-1996) publishes The Liberation of Theology, articulating

a revolutionary method for theology: the “hermeneutical circle” 1975 Bill Hybels (b. 1951) founds the Willow Creek Community Church outside of

Chicago; the “megachurch” soon provides a model for the church growth movement in the U.S.

1976 German Jesuit theologian Karl Rahner (1904-1984) publishes his Foundations of

Christian Faith, an important systematic theology for the post-Vatican II Roman Catholic Church

1976 Ecumenical Association of Third World Theologians (EATWOT) is formed to

promote theological inquiry that take the “third world” context seriously 1976-79 Carl Henry (1913-2003) publishes his God, Revelation, and Authority, a definitive

statement of systematic theology for Protestant evangelicals in the United States 1979 Protestant leader Jerry Falwell (1933-2007) founds the Moral Majority, the

incubator of the New Christian Right in the U.S. 1979 Pope John Paul II (1920-2005) and Patriarch Demetrios I (1914-1991) establish

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the Joint International Commission for Theological Dialogue Between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church

1980 The China Christian Council is formed; like TSPM, it is an umbrella organization

for all Protestant churches in the People’s Republic of China 1980 Archbishop Óscar Romero (1917-1980) is assassinated while celebrating mass for

spekaing out against human rights violations by the Salvadoran government 1980 German Catholic theologian Johann Baptist Metz (b. 1928) publishes Faith in

History and Society, a mature statement of his “political theology,” rooted in solidarity the suffering

1981 Sociologists estimate that the majority of the world’s Christians shifts to the

global South (Asia, Africa, and Latin America) 1983 U.S. Roman Catholic theologian Elizabeth Schüssler Firoenza publishes her In

Memory of Her, and feminist reconstruction of Christian origins 1986 Leonardo Boff (b. 1938) publishes his Ecclesiogenesis, in which he argues that the

same Spirit that created the early Christian churches is creating the church among the base communities in Latin America

1987 The Optina monastery is re-opened amidst Perestroika (“re-structuring”) in the

collapsing Soviet Union 1988 Peruvian theologian Gustavo Gutierrez (b. 1928) publishes his A Theology of

Liberation, in which he develops an understanding of the church as a sign of God’s liberation for humanity

1988 U.S. televangelist Pat Robertson (b. 1930) makes an unsuccessful bid for the

presidency late 1980s The tradition of womanist theology begins to emerge in the work of Jacquelyn

Grant, Kelly Brown Douglas, Katie Cannon, Emilie Townes, and Delores Williams; the experience of black women is the primary source of theological reflection

1990s Popular in the U.S. since the 1950s, the “prosperity gospel” explodes in Africa,

especially among pentecostal churches 1992 The Mexican government removes most of the anti-religious provisions from the

1917 constitution, greatly strengthening the Church 1998 Britain and the Republic of Ireland strike the Good Friday Agreement, greatly

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easing Nationalist (Catholic) and Unionist (Protestant) tensions in Northern Ireland

2001 Terrorist attacks on New York City and Washington, DC spark a global “war on

terror” that pits the “Christian West” against the Muslim world 2002-08 The Roman Catholic Church in the U.S. investigates hundreds of allegations of

clergy sexual abuse; financial settlements bankrupt many dioceses 2000s Many Protestant denominations in western Europe and the U.S. begin ordaining

openly LGBT persons 2013 The Roman Catholic Church elects Argentine cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio (b.

1936) to be Pope Francis; he is the first non-European pope in nearly 1,300 years.