Journal of Conswncr Studics and Homc Economics (1990) 14, S27.

Time perception and consumer behaviour: some cross-cultural implications

P A U L A H A Y N E S , J U D Y C. NIXON A N D J U D Y F. WEST University of Tennessee, Tennessee

Perception of time differs across cultures. As time perception is a critical component of consumer decision making, awareness of such differences is a key to successful cross- cultural marketing. Mistakes in international marketing &forts are fiequently traceable to ethnocentric cultural assumptions. No culture’s perception of time is ‘right’, but there can be a tendency to impose such arswnptions without cultural self-awareness. Time perception differences in four cultures are examined: Anglo, Hispanic, Eastern and Arabic. Implications for marketing efforts due to these cross-cultural differences are offered.

Introduction

Problems in international business are commonly traceable to ethnocentric assumptions unconsciously held by managers, especially the belief that foreigners think and behave much like people at home even though they may speak another language. As they are usually wrong in one respect or another, ethnocentric assumptions lead to poor marketing relations. Cultural differences can affect marketing strategies involving: (i) adaptation of existing products or development of new products for foreign markets, (ii) the choice of an entry mode, ( 5 ) the formulation of a foreign marketing programme, and (iv) organizing for entry into foreign markets. All these decisions depend on cross-cultural communication of some type. Perception of time, a key variable in marketing decision making, differs across cultures.’ Less obvious than language differences, but equally important, are differences in time perception, which may be overlooked in planning and development of international marketing strategies.

Failure to incorporate an understanding of the cultural differences in the perception of time may lead to failures in international marketing efforts. This paper will present time perception differences in four cultures - Anglo, Hispanic;Eastern and Arabic - and then implications for marketing decisions.

Time perception and culture

Culture may be defined as the unique lifestyle of a given human society: a distinctive way of thinking, perceiving, feeling, believing and behaving, that is

Correspondence: Dr Paula Heynes. University of Tenmssce, Chattanooga School of Business Administration, 615 McCallic Avenue, Chattanooga, TN 37403, U.S.A.

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Consumer behaviour

passed on from one generation to another. A given culture offers a complete set of rules for living that enables its members to cope with their physical and social environment. Culture influences not only an individual’s behaviour, but also expectations of others b e h a v i ~ u r . ~ ~

In the field of anthropology there has been an increasing awareness that people can perceive time in various ways, and that these perceptions affect the behaviour of people in many ways. An individual operates with many kinds of time perception to make hidher own temporal system: biological time, objective time and cultural time. The way in which these interdependent levels of time- experiencing interact shapes human behaviour.

Researchers in consumer behaviour have long been aware of the necessity to understand culture in order to better understand behaviour. Different percep tions of time as part of culture have an impact on consumer behaviour.

Variations in time perceptions by cultural groups are complex. Differences can exist in time conception, time perspective (past, present, future), and time- experiencing (timekeepings, timing, pacing, and temporal behaviour).‘

Concept of time and cultural differences

Cultures may conceive of time as linear (monochronic) or circular (poly- ~hronic) .”~ Cultures with linear time concepts generally view time as fixed, governed by the movement of the clock. Such a concept of time perceives time as inelastic: events are allocated to specific clock measured periods. Circular time concept cultures are less clock governed. A unitary eventhime coupling is less meaningful in this cultural framework: time is viewed as elastic.

Time perspective and cultural differences

Just as concepts about a past perspective of time seem to vary from culture to culture, so does the image of the future. The future is both a concept and a process - as are the present and the past. Even cultures with a future orientation may differ in their concepts of what constitutes the future: 20 years or 20,000 years. Other cultures may have little or no future orientation. The future may be part of a continual cycle, a wheel of life; or it may not be mankind’s prerogative to plan the future.

The ability to anticipate consequences and delay gratification seems to be culturally reinforced and involves a futuristic perspective. Delay of gratification and the anticipation of consequences are highly related to a group’s wealth, economic conditions, and the pace of life. However, cultural groups appear to have characteristic ways of anticipating consequences as well as delaying gratification.’ In different cultural groups, directions for future actions may be given by: establishing and using various kinds of itinerary; by following the steps provided by custom and practice; or by chance.

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P. Haynes, J. C. Nixon and J. F. West

Time-experiencing and cultural differences

A major aspect of the time dimension concerns the manner and degree to which objective forms of timekeeping are utilized. Time-keeping methods influence the temporal pacing or patterning in cultures. Time devices, timekeeping methods, and objective formulations of time are at the core of a modem pace of life.’ A traditional perception of time is more closely allied to the regular cycle of the seasons, time moving in a circular pattern. A modem view of time is more linear and more regulated by clock time.’

Cultural groups that stress the importance of objective standards of time, the accuracy of such time, and the pacing of life association with clocks, can become ‘clock-bound’. A clock-bound cultural group seems to stress objective time forms more than it stresses more personal and subjective forms of time-experiencing. A cultural stress on objective timekeeping may prevent other forms of time experiencng from finding expression.”

Cultures that stress clock time also seem to extend this form of tempo into activities and events not traditionally punctuated by clock time. In clock-bound cultures, a tendency develops where temporal conditioning becomes a pervasive style of living. Highly clock-bound cultures appear to extend the use of clocks into many aspects of the environment. Some cultural groups adopt fairly constant forms of objective time (e.g.. clocks, timers, bells, daily schedules.) These cultural groups develop characteristic environments by merging such objective forms of time with personal, social, and cultural activities and events.”

Clocks imply a standard by which events may be compared. When time is only viewed as timekeeping, timing devices become valued; their functioning becomes associated with activities which are, in turn, valued. A clock is only one form of ‘standard’ time; clock time can often clash with other kinds of objective timekeeping. While reliance on clock time has grown with the rapid growth of intercultural contact and exchange, other forms of timekeeping are still popular for ncillions of people around the world.

The manner in which various cultural groups value different kinds of objective timekeeping can influence how individuals from these cultures comply with objective time standards or adhere to the dictates of those who control, manipulate and interpret time.

Objective time is highly involved with the structuring of various kinds of media. What is usually not so apparent, however, is that values related to certain forms of timekeeping can be projected through the media to people from different cultures. Clock time may be projected as a valued process in Western and Western-influenced media. With the growth of such influenced media in non- Western cultural groups, it seems reasonable to assume that these groups will continue to be exposed to the value of clock time projected to them by Westernized media.

The pace of life of a cultural group concerns the manner in which levels of time

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perception are integrated by members of a culture. Especially important in the pace of life of a cultural group is the manner in which subjective and objective forms of time-experiencing interact. In the intercultural communication situation, rates of behaviour and the expectancies about these rates may vary from person to person. The values held towards time can provide a wide range of misunderstand- ings and misinterpretations.12

Cultural influences on marketing

The function of marketing is directed towards exchange activities which consumers and organizations use to satisfy needs and meet organizational goals. In order to understand and influence consumers’ wants and needs, marketers must understand their culture, especially in an international environment. Culture is embedded in elements of the society such as religion, language, history and education. These elements of culture pervasively influence the consumer in the selection of goods and services. One of the most difficult tasks for inter- national marketers is assessing the cultural influences affecting their operation^.'^

Related time and consumer behaviour research Most of the work on consumer behaviour and time involves a use of time perspective. The roots of this research lie in economic utility ~tudies . ’~~” Studies have considered utility maximization with the consumer’s time as an explicit component: time is treated as an inelastic good, a commodity. Time use for consumers has been treated as involving trade offs among work in the market- place, work in the home and leisure. In a marketing context, the time budget has been considered on a continuum with four groups of activities:16

(a) ‘Paid’ work is time in the market-place: an obligatory time expenditure; (b) At the other extreme of this continuum are leisure activities which are

(c) Time spent on necessities is for essential self-maintenance activities; (d) ‘Homework’ is time spent to generate substitutes for market-place

A study reviewing time research from the fields of economics, sociology, home economics, psychology and marketing suggests that most American studies treat time as an implicit variable but not as the major focus on the study.” Focus on the time variable in consumer decision making is recognized by its inclusion in most models of this process.’~m These models and other studies suggest: time pressure reduces search time costs are part of the price the consumer pays;= consumers spend less time shopping for convenience goods than shopping for speciality goods;” and perception of time influences buyer behaviour.B.26 These studies focus on the impact of time within a Western cultural framework. Few

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termed ‘discretionary’ in time use;

purchases.

P. Haynes, J. C. Nixon and J. F. West

studies examine the perception of time (a part of the communication process) as it effects consumer behaviour in a cross-cultural framework.”

Analysis of time perception in selected cultures Communication is required to complete any business transaction in any culture, and communication consists of both verbal and non-verbal processes. When a conflict occurs between verbal and non-verbal, non-verbal has the larger impact on the completion of the communication process. While interpreters are used many times to encode and decode the verbal content of messages, they cannot convey the non-verbal of silences, pacing of events, or the time variable. Time is an intrinsic part of non-verbal communication and may be a key to understanding consumer behaviour. As various cultures perceive time quite differently, international marketers should understand time perceptions of consumers within cultures of their target markets. Analysis of time perceptions among four cultures: Anglo, Hispanic, Eastern and Arabic are presented.

Time perceptions and anglo culture The Anglo (EuropeadAmerican) cultural context employs a model of time perception termed ‘linear-separable’.a Time is viewed as continuing like a road reaching into the future with distinct, separate segments (hours, days, weeks, etc.) This leads to a future orientation with the ‘future’ considered to be anywhere from five to 25 yean.= The lead time for scheduling an event varies widely across cultures.

The perception of time as discrete but connected segments embodies the assumption that choices can be made in assigning time to different activities. This culturaborientation perceives time as a commodity which can be saved, spent or wasted.= From this perspective time is a b e d commodity, a scarce resource. The analogy of time to money is meaningful.

This perception of time means individuals view their time as a resource variable to be allocated among competing choice^.^' European and American consumers tend to make decisions relative to time ‘spent’ to maximize utility. Consequently, allocating particular times to particular activities is a meaningful concept in this cultural context; time can be budgeted to maximum advantage. One occurrence within a time segment is anticipated, while having several things going on at the same time (which would seem to sub-optimize the use of time) makes the individual in this cultural context uncomfortable. In the Anglo cultural context, a future orientation prevails. Time is perceived

as unilinear - a river flowing into the future along which one moves from one activity to another. To reach a particular point, activities are allocated to discrete segments of time: events are scheduled to achieve goals. T i e is perceived as

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Consumer behaviour

inelastic in this cultural framework. Objective measures of time dominate: clock time is the measure of time experience in this orientation.

Promptness is relevant and valued; furthermore, promptness is defined as being on time for appointments, whether you are the person making the call or the person .receiving the caller.32 Making someone wait may be seen as a way of communicating a power-related message.

Being prepared with the ‘right answers’ and getting to the point quickly are highly valued characteristics in this cultural context. In much of the world, the time required for a decision is proportional to the importance of the decision. Individuals from a cultural framework which values being well prepared with ‘ready answers’ may adversely downplay the importance of the business being discussed. The future orientation and time allocation focus of this cultural context can be taken by other cultures as extreme impatience.

In terms of the consumer decision-making process, this cultural framework embodies most of the models of the decision process - linear, discrete steps, with evaluation of future events affecting choices in the present.33 It is meaningful to consider time as part of the price consumers pay in the Anglo cultural context. When consumers make purchases part of what they ‘give up’ in the exchange is their time.

The future orientation of this context means problems recognition - considered as the initial stage of consumer decision making - is a meaningful concept. For problem recognition to occur, a difference must be perceived between actual and desired states: a planning mode indicating a future orientation.34 Once a ‘problem’ has been recognized in this cultural context, the need to alleviate the problem creates a sense of urgency. Satisfaction is a function of the difference between expected and perceived outcomes - again a future orientation. This orientation time perception has a clear relation to satisfaction.

Anglo cultures tend to be ‘low context’, with meaning conveyed primarily in an explicitly linguistic de .35*x Accurate verbal messages are important in this cultural framework. Communication tends to be more abstract and impersonal than in ‘high context’ cultures.

Time perspective and hispanic culture

The Hispanic cultural context’s perception of time is characterized as ‘Circular- traditi~n’.~’ An orientation towards the present predominates this time perspec- tive. Time is not treated as occurring in discrete segments, so scheduling and allocating one event to one time period is irrelevant. As it is perceived of as a cycIe, dominated by the events taking place, time is

not viewed as a fixed resource in this cultural perspective. There is little connection between time and money in this context. The concept of consumption of time as a consumer good is not meaningful in this orientation. ‘Saving’ time is not a highly valued characteristic in the Hispanic culture. Time value of money

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P. Haynes, J. C. Nixon and J. F. West

has less meaning: how can things be worth more in the future when that future is not perceived as being much different from the past? Future values may essentially be discounted at a rate of zero. The choice between something in the present and something in the future is really no choice at all from this perspective .%

In this cultural framework the events occumng in time are more important than the time period itself. This orientation leads to a different set of expectations concerning appointments and meetings. Time is perceived as elastic, not fixed. Many events, or appointments, scheduled in the same time period would not be unusual. Time periods are seen as capable of stretching to accommodate events.39 Time measuring in this cultural orientation is more subjective: clock time does not dominate the experience of time.

The more subjective orientation to time leads to less value being placed on punctuality. Punctuality is not viewed as a result of an individual’s actions. A late arrival would be acknowledged by the statement ‘It got late on me’, rather than: ‘I am late’.

The decision-making process in this cultural context does not follow the typical model which is initiated by problem recognition. Problem recognition implies a future planning focus. In a present oriented time perspective, problem recogni- tion in a future planning sense is not meaningful. Individuals are less motivated to purchase now for future use. Items may be purchased as part of the event of shopping, with problem recognition occurring later.

The search process may also be truncated in its present oriented perception. More value is placed on something in the present contrasted with something in the future. Also, in a circular orientation to time, the opportunity to purchase is seen as part of the cycle: the chance to buy will come again. Satisfaction with purchases is also less meaningful in this time perspective, since the comparison of past expectations to actual experience is irrelevant.

-ern culture time perspective

Eastern culture has a future orientation, but the future in this cultural context may be considered more in terms of hundreds or thbsands of years. This can lead to a different outlook on investments as well as on the urgency of current activities. After all, if one is thinking in terms of several hundred years, today’s events are not as important.‘O

Time is perceived as a circle, beginnings mingle with endings. The notion of time merges with that of the alternation between ‘Yin’ and ‘Yang’. Time is perceived as elastic: it can be stretched or contracted, depending on the circum~tances.~~ In this cultural orientation, however, time saving to the individual can be a meaningful and valued concept. Punctuality is not important; long delays are sometimes necessary before taking action.

Decision making may involve a lengthy process in this cultural context. The

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Consumer behaviour

extent of the future orientation, the desire for a consensus, the view that the time spent in making a decision should be proportional to the importance of the decision - all these affect the time involved in making decisions. To be aware of the beginning of change is important in this cultural context. Determination of the most auspicious moment in time is critical, but requires a constant analysis of gradual development, rather than a specific prediction of a given moment in time. The decision-making process involves: close observation of nature and history; perceiving at the earliest possible stage the beginning of a ‘trend’; and by the subtlest of movements putting oneself in a position to take advantage of it.”

Relative to the typical decision-making model, problem recognition may be a much more subtle stage. The future orientation of Eastern cultures in the specific sense of looking to the future to solve current problems is relevant. However, as ‘future’ is considered in a much longer time frame than Anglo cultures, the urgency and importance of present actions is much diminished. The importance of choosing the right moment to act also affects the problem recognition stage.

Search for alternatives is relevant, since choices between the present and the future are meaningful. Again, the extent of the future orientation and the view of time as a cycle create a less urgent perspective in the search stage. Satisfaction may be tied more closely to the perception of having made choices at the right time than meeting prior expectations.

Eastern cultures are what is termed ‘high context’: cultures which rely heavily on non-verbal behaviour for In high context cultures written and spoken words do not convey the central information. What is nor being said is more meaningful. Events are seen as far more complex than the language used to describe them. Language is linear, so only one aspect of a situation can be discussed at a time. In high contexr cultures communication conveys more of the complexity of an issue as meaning is conveyed through multiple non-verbal channels simultaneously. Use of time and timing becomes a significant non-verbal means of conveying meaning. In this cultural context meaning can only be conveyed with a strong understanding of what is going on at the covert level.

Arabic culture and time perspective This cultural context has a present orientation. The Arabic view of time is as a constellation of ‘instants’, rather than a continuous serial flow. A linear progression of one event replaced by another in time is not relevant in this cultural context. Events can exist simultaneously; t h e is less a measurement of movement than an indisputable sign of the impermanence of created things. The order of events is willed by Allah. Any reference to a point in the future should be qualified by ‘in sha Allah’: if God so wills.45

Islamic values dominate the Arabic culture. The Sharia, the legal system of Islam based on the Koran, provides guidelines covering all aspects of human behaviour. In Islam, interest is forbidden and is viewed as usury. Time value of

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P. Haynes, J. C. Nixon and J. F. West

money is less meaningful in this cultural context; however, service charges and different prices for items paid for over time are used. The equivalence of time with money is not especially pertinent, as time is not viewed as a fixed resource. Time is the province of Allah, not man.

There is a dislike of planning for the future in this cultural context: such planning may be seen as presumptuous, even blasphemous, as only Allah knows the Making an appointment with an individual from this culture far in advance - if they will agree to do so - may be risky. Any time beyond the next week may be considered as somewhere in the vague future.

Use of time is also strongly influenced by Islam. Five times daily, at vaned intervals, the devout Moslem prays. Time is perceived as elastic in this culture’s orientation; individuals in this culture may schedule several appointments simultaneously. Having several things going on at the same time is not uncomfortable in this time perspective. In this cultural context, a different perception of time leads to a low value placed on p~nctua l i ty .~ . ‘~

The present orientation of the Arabic culture suggests the problem recognition stage of consumer decision making is less applicable. Events delineate time, so the search process as an activity may precede any problem recognition. The lack of a future orientation also suggests evaluation of a purchase compared to prior expectations is not meaningful.

Marketing implications

Simple interpretation of the verbal content wil l not suffice in cross-cultural marketing efforts. Particularly in cultures which place primary emphasis on the meaning conveyed through non-verbal aspects, misinterpretations can occur. Cultural differences in perception of time can have a major impact on effectiveness of marketing plans. Marketers also must have a recognition of the values and perceptions associated with time in their own culture. Without such a cultural self-awareness, dangers exist from the ‘self-reference criterion’ - the unconscious projection of me’s own cultural expectations onto those of other cultures. By cultural self-awareness, marketers can avoid ethnocentric assump tions in cross-cultural dealings.-

Orientation implications

Product offerings which focus on future benefits will be difficult to market in cultures with a strong present orientation. The ability to see a future benefit as valuable enough to motivate current purchases is necessary for such offerings. In Anglo cultures, such benefits can be employed meaningfully. This is true to a lesser degree in Eastern cultures; although possessing a future orientation, ‘future’ is a much longer time frame than for Anglo cultures. This can lessen the motivating impact of future benefits. A filter-tip cigarette introduced into the

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Consumer khaviour

Eastern culture was promoted on the benefit of reducing future risks of lung cancer. The venture was unsuccessful primarily because these future benefits were not meaningful in this cultural context. In present oriented cultures, such as Hispanic and Arabic cultures, present benefits are more likely to motivate purchase. Products, which require strong commitment to the future may find acceptance in Arabic cultures quite difficult. The presumption of knowing the future well enough to make such a commitment may violate basic cultural perceptions.

Positioning time as a commodity

The linear perspective Anglo cultures have towards time has resulted in a perception of time as a Limited resource - a commodity to be allocated to maximize benefits. Time and money are equivalent; ‘saving’ time is valued. In this cultural context, a variety of marketing responses are meaningful and motivating to consumers. Retail response to this time perspective has led directly to changes in the competitive environment. Convenience stores target specifically on this basis. In response to this challenge, supermarkets have invested heavily in time- saving approaches: limited-item checkouts, UPC codes, and scanner checking technology. The fast increase in the service sector growth in this cultural context may be attributed to the fact that consumers can in essence ‘buy’ time.

From an Eastern cultural viewpoint, time as a commodity has two perspectives. In group-level decisions, the desire for consensus prevails over any notion of time saving. For individual-level decisions, saving time has value. Eastern cultures have been receptive to products positioned on the basis of convenience as well as time-saving distribution patterns, such as vending machines.

However, other cultures do not equate time with a limited resource they have to ‘spend’. Positioning a product or service on the basis of time savings in Hispanic and Arabic cultures, for instance, is not a meaningful benefit within their cultural contexts. As these cultures perceive time as elastic, dominated by the activity or event taking place in time, saving time is not highly valued. Fast- food outlets including Wimpy, Kentucky Fried Chicken, Jack-in-the-Box, and McDonald’s have found markets in the Hispanic culture difficult to penetrate. However, in Brazil McDonald‘s has been able to expand rapidly since adapting to the more meaningful connection of product use with an event in time - the light evening meal - instead of saving time - fast meals.

Consumer decision making implications

Models of the consumer decision-making process tend to suffer from ethnocentric assumptions. Such models generally have an implicit assumption of a linear perception of time. Problem, or need, recognition initiates the process of solving the pmblem. Satisfaction is viewed as resulting from a consumer’s comparison

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P. H a w , J. C. Nixcm and J. F. west

of experience with prior expectations. While these models can provide an explanation for consumer decision making in a linear time perception culture, they may not describe the process in other cultures.

Problem recognition does not have to initiate a purchase decision in present oriented cultures. Events are more likely to stimulate a purchase decision. Habit or custom may motivate trips to shopping areas, with purchasing occurring as a result of the event of the shopping trip rather than a perceived need. The marketing practice of stimulating the decision-making process by creating an awareness of an unmet need is not effective in present focused cultures.

In present oriented cultures, information, rather than problem recognition, may initiate the search process. When information is combined with an event involving shopping, purchase may be a likely result. Using an Anglo culture perspective, customers are not viewed as sensitive to information until they become aware of an unmet need. The timing of marketing information must be varied in these cultural perspectives.

The concept of satisfaction used in consumer decision-making models is an evaluation of actual experience against previous expectations. Such a view of satisfaction is a more meaningful concept in future oriented cultures. In present focused cultures, expectations held in the past are not as valued a measure of present experience. Satisfaction may be more related to the appropriateness of the decision, or its congruence with the event of purchase or use. Marketers must take this difference into a m u n t in assessing post-purchase evaluation.

Conclusion

When an organization believes its domestic market is no longer sufficient to meet strategic objectives, an increased commitment to international markets is made. Such a commitment requires cultural self-awareness and crosscultural sensitivity. Marketing effectiveness depends in large part on the ability to plan for an evaluate consumer response. Marketers must be prepared to incorporate time perception differences into their efforts to succeed in cross-cultural markets.

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