AMERICANINVENTORS

AHistoryofGenius

BenjaminFranklin’s1752experimentidentifiedlightningaselectricityandprovidedabasisforlightningrods.

ElonMuskisaserialinventorandentrepreneur:hehashelpedlaunchnotonlythespace-launchserviceSpaceX,butalsoPayPalandTeslaMotors.

ContentsIndustryAmericaninnovationhasalwaysdeliveredfirst,better,andfaster.

InformationFromcomputercodingtoemail,Americaninventorsledthewayintothedigitalworld.

HomeBenFranklin.ClarenceBirdseye.TonyFadell.TheseAmericaninventorshaverevolutionizedthewaywelive.

HealthSincethe1950smoreNobelPrizesinMedicinehavebeenawardedtoscientistsintheUnitedStatesthantothoseinanyothercountry.

TransportationTheUnitedStatesisvast—about3.8millionsquaremiles.Sowhatisthequickestandmostefficientwaytomovepeople,goods,andrawmaterialsacrosstheland?

AMERICANINVENTORS

BornThatWayThereisaculturalmystiquetotheAmericaninventor,somethingakintothecowboyorpatriotinpopularimagination.BeforeAmericareinventeddemocracyforthemodernera,theAmericaninventorpersonalityhadalreadyemerged:manyofthefounderswereinventors,andthecountry’searlysuccessandgrowthwasfueledbyinnovationofallkinds,fromnavigationtomilitarytactics.Throughoutthehamletsandgrowingcities,theindustriousandrestlessfoundnewwaysofbuilding,organizing,andfarming,too.Invention,itseemed,wasinthenation’slifeblood.Eventheterm“Americaninventor”isevocative,conjuringimagesofplowingprairies

andharvestingcrops,ofilluminatingtheGreatWhiteWay,eradicatingdisease,andharnessingthephysicaluniverse.Forsome,suchaccomplishmentshavemeantfinancialgain.Butbeinganinventorisnotjustaboutseekingwealth,it’sabouthavinganimpact:toinventandcommerciallysucceedinshapingtheworld’sfirstmasssocietyis,asSteveJobsputit,to“putadingintheuniverse.”OnereasontheinventorpersonalityhasthrivedhereisbecauseofAmerica’sdiversity.

Asoneofthemostopensocietiesintheworld,theUnitedStatesdrawspeoplefromallcorners.Theexchangeofideaspercolatessynergistically.Whatisdevelopedbyoneinventoristakenupbyanotherandpushedfurther,improved,perfected.Individualismcomesintoplay.Americaninventorsareasdiverseastheiroriginsand

runthegamutofpersonalitytypes.Therearethesoletinkerersandthebusiness-minded,theblitheandthemorose.Somecomefrommoney;othersdiedindebtbutwithpatentstoenrichtheirdescendants.InAmerica,applicationrapidlyfollowstheory,theFrenchpoliticalthinkerAlexisde

Tocquevillenotedtwocenturiesago.Inventionsandinnovationsspurproductivityandinspirederivativeideas.Citizensmayfirstbewaryofchange,buttheysoonembraceandrapidlyadoptnewtechnologies.TheyunderstandthatessentiallyAmericanviewpointputacrossbyautomotiveinventorandbusinessmanCharlesKettering:“Theworldhateschange,yetitistheonlythingthathasbroughtprogress.”

INDUSTRYAmericaninnovationhasalwaysdeliveredfirst,better,andfaster.

Aboutone-thirdofindustrialrobots,inventedbyanAmerican,areusedforwelding.

BladeRunnerTABITHABABBITT(1779–1853)Circularsaw,mass-producednails

Anillustrationfroma19th-centurybookoninventionsshowsalargecircularsaw.

In1793,nine-year-oldTabithaBabbittandherfamilyjoinedasettlementfoundedbytheHarvardShakers,agroupofidealisticpacifistswhohadsplitfromtheProtestantChurch.Thecommunity,thefirstofitskindinMassachusetts,wasself-sustaininginmanyways,withathrivingforestrytradethatincludedlogging,milling,andwoodworking.TheShakers’commitmenttogenderequalityopenedadoorforBabbitt,whotookupweaving,furnituremaking,andeventuallyinventing.Assheworked,BabbittobservedfellowShakersusingawhipsawtocutwoodfor

furniture.Itwasaninefficientprocessthatrequiredtwopeoplepullingbackandforthonadual-handledsawbladetoslicethroughalog.Babbittrealizedthataroundsawbladeonanaxle,withacontinuousspinningandcuttingmotion,wouldreducethemanpowerrequired.Shecreatedacircularsaw,poweredbywater,thatspedupthelog-cuttingprocessandsoonwasadoptedbyNewEnglandsawmills.

Mass-ProducingNailsBabbittintroducedanumberofothermanufacturingtechniques.Oneofthesewascutnails,whichatthetimewereindividuallyhand-forged.Babbittwasinterestedintheideaofmassproductionandhowitcouldimprove

productivity.Insteadofmakingnailsonebyone,shewantedtoproducethemin

batches.Shetookalarge,singlesheetofironand,usingatemplate,stampedoutmultiples.Despitesuchlabor-savingadvances,Babbittneverearnedmuchmoney—or

recognition—forheraccomplishmentsbeyondherShakercommunity.Why?OnereasonisthatitcontradictsShakerbeliefstopatentwork.YetBabbittcontinuedtoinventuntiltheendofherlife.Whenshediedin1853,shewasworkingonanewidea:falseteeth.

Electric-poweredcircularsawsusethesameprinciplepioneeredbyBabbitt.

PointManELIASHOWE(1819–1867)Lockstitchsewingmachine

Howe’ssewingmachine,whichusedaneye-pointedneedleandashuttletoformalockstitch,markedthebeginningofthesewing-machineindustry.

Bytheearly1800s,morethan40inventorshadtriedunsuccessfullytoautomatesewing.AmongthemwasaMassachusettsmachinistnamedEliasHowe,whostumbledupontheanswerinanightmare.Howedreamedthathehadbeencapturedbyaprimitivetribethatwastryingtostabhimwithunusual-lookingspears.Insteadofthestandardsolidpole,theirshadholesintheend,rightbelowthepointytips.TheimageinspiredHowetomovethethreadholeforhismachinefromthemiddletothetipoftheneedle.

WeavingTogetheraPlanHowe’sinterestinsewingmachinessprangfromhisexperienceinthetextileindustry.At14hebecameanapprenticeatatextilefactoryinLowell,Massachusetts,notfarfromhishome,thenenteredanothermechanicalapprenticeshipataCambridgetextilemillin1838.Itwasatthemill,whereHowelearnedtorepairprecisioninstruments,thathebegantoconceiveanddevelopanautomaticsewingmachine.

thathebegantoconceiveanddevelopanautomaticsewingmachine.By1846Howehadreceivedapatentforhisinvention,whichfeaturedanumberof

novelties,includingashuttlebeneaththeclothtoformalockstitchandanautomaticfeed.UnabletoconvinceAmericantailorsofthevalueofthemachine,HowemovedtoEnglandtotryhisluck.ButtheBritishwereonlyslightlymoreinterestedbuyers,andHowereturnedtotheUnitedStates,discouragedanddestitute,in1849.Tragically,hisbelovedwifediedofconsumptionalmostimmediatelyuponhisarrival,andhewasleftstrugglingtosupportandraisethreechildrenalone.

SewingUpaLawsuitThingsgotworsewhenHowediscoveredthatinventorsIsaacSingerandWalterHunthadbegunsellingapiratedversionofhisautomaticsewingmachinewhilehewasawayinEngland.HesuedSingerandHuntandothermanufacturersforpatentinfringement,abattleheultimatelywon.Butoncethelawsuitswereresolved,HoweandSingerenteredintoabusinessagreementinwhichHoweallowedSingertosellthemachinesunderthe“Singer”name,providedtheyweredesignedandmanufacturedbyHowe.TheSingersewingmachinerevolutionizedthegarment-makingindustry,andIsaacSingerandEliasHowebecamemillionaires.

HowefinallyachievedfinancialsuccesswhenhelicensedhisinventiontoIsaacSinger.

TheWizardofMenloParkTHOMASEDISON(1847–1931)Lightbulb,phonograph,andmore

Acarbonfilamentlamp,similartothetypeinventedbyEdison

ItwasnotimmediatelyclearthatThomasAlvaEdisonwouldamounttomuch.Whenhestartedschoolatageseven,inPortHuron,Michigan,Edisonwasderidedbyateacheras“addled.”Thecommentpromptedhismothertowithdrawherson,whowashardofhearing,fromclassandhomeschoolhim.TheexperiencechangedEdison’slife.Itinstilledhimwithaloveoflearning,self-reliance,andincredibledrive.

TheEarlyYearsAfterabriefperiodsellingnewspapersinhisearlyteens,Edisonsetoutonhisownatage16.HeworkedthroughouttheMidwestasatravelingtelegraphoperatorbuteventuallyrelocatedtoBostontotakeajobwiththeWesternUnionTelegraphCompanyasatelegrapher.Inhisfreetime,Edisontinkeredwithhisfirstmajorinvention,anelectronicvotingmachine.However,itfailedtogenerateinterest.WithinayearEdisonwasofftoNewYorktoseekbetteropportunities.Hecontinued

hisworkasatelegrapherbutalsotackledhisnextinvention,animprovedelectronicstockticker.Successcamequicklywhenhedevelopedamechanismthatalloweddifferentstocktransactionstobesynchronizedandprinted.TheGoldandStockTelegraphCompanyacquiredrightstotheinventionin1870,earningEdison$40,000(morethan$830,000intoday’sdollars).LorehasitthatEdisonwassostunnedbytheofferthathenearlyfainted.

offerthathenearlyfainted.

MenloParkWithhiswindfall,Edisonwasabletoquithistelegraphyjobandfocusoninventing.HesetupalaboratoryandfactoryinNewark,NewJersey,andbegandevelopingproducts.Oneofthesewasapowerfultelegraph,whichquadrupledsignalstationcapacityandwasdesignedforWesternUnion.Butbeforethedealwassigned,railroadmagnateJayGouldintervened,offeringEdisonmorethan$100,000,whichtheinventoraccepted.Nowwealthy,EdisonshutdownhisworkshopsinNewark,andin1876relocatedto

theNewJerseycountrysidetobuildaresearchfacilityinMenloPark.Dubbedthe“inventionfactory,”Edison’slabcreatedamodelforthepursuitofinnovation.Insteadofworkingalone,oftenathomeorelseinasmallworkshopwithoneortwoassistants,inventorsatMenloParkcollaboratedwithteamsofscientistsandcraftsmen.Thesprawlingcomplexincludedaphysicslab,amachineshop,ablacksmithshed,aglassworks,acarpentryshop,anoffice,andalibrary.Itwasalsoaccessibleforworkers,sinceitwasneararailway;itwasclosetothefinancialcentersofNewYorkandPhiladelphia,givingEdisonapipelinetobankers.InalettertothepresidentofWesternUnion,EdisonboastedthathisMenloPark

laboratorywouldproduce“aminorinventioneverytendaysandabigthingeverysixmonthsorso.”

EnterthePhonographTwoofthebiggestofthese“bigthings”werethephonographandthelightbulb.Edisonbegandevelopingtheideaforthephonographin1877whiletryingtofindawaytorecordthedictationofletterssothattheycouldbeplayedbackandtranscribed.OneinspirationwastheworkofaFrenchprinternamedÉdouard-LéonScottdeMartinville,whoin1856hadgraphedsoundsbymountingavibratingstylustoadiaphragmonamegaphone.Inthatprocess,ScottdeMartinvilledraggedastylusoverarotatingglasscylindercoatedwithcarbon,etchingthe“sound”intothecarbonintheformofawavyline.Edisonreplacedthecylinderwithonesheathedintinfoilandsucceededinrecordingsoundandplayingitback.HedemonstratedhisinventionformembersoftheU.S.CongressandPresidentRutherfordB.Hayes.Thepublicwasastoundedwhentheyheardofthephonograph,andtheDailyGraphic,anillustratedNewYorknewspaper,dubbedEdison“TheWizardofMenloPark.”

ALightGoesOnTechnically,Edisondidnotinventthelightbulb,buthemadeitburnbetterthananyonehadbefore.Thefirststepwasselectingtherightfilament—amaterialthatwouldgiveamplelightandbedurableenoughnottoburnout.Edisonandhisworkersexperimentedwithoverathousandmaterials,includingpaper,thread,wire,andhuman

experimentedwithoverathousandmaterials,includingpaper,thread,wire,andhumanhair.In1879theyhitontheirbestoption:carbonizedthread.ThenextyearEdisonimprovedthebulbbysubstitutingcarbonizedbambooforthethreadandupgradingavacuumpumpheusedtoremoveairfromtheglassglobe.Theimprovementsmeantthefilamentcouldburnforalmost1,200hours.

AnInventor’sLegacyThelightbulbandthephonographgaveEdisonworldwidefame,andhebecameasmuchanindustrialistandbusinessmanagerasaninventor.Edison’s“rags-to-riches”storymadehimanAmericanicon,andhereceivedaMedalofHonorfromtheU.S.Congressin1928.Duringhislifetime,heregistered1,093U.S.patents,themostbyanAmericanuntilastrophysicistLowellWood,whohasworkedoneverythingfromanticoncussionhelmetstovaccinationtechnologiestonuclearreactors,passedhimin2015.

AcolorizedphotoofEdisoninhislaboratoryin1904

EDISONWASASAVVYBUSINESSMAN.TOGETCONSUMERSINTERESTEDINHISNEWLIGHTBULB,HEPUBLICIZEDHISSEARCH

FORTHEPERFECTFILAMENT.

StopItELISHAOTIS(1811–1861)Safeelevators

ThisillustrationshowsElishaOtis’sdramaticdemonstrationofhiselevatorsafetybrakeatNewYork’sCrystalPalacein1854.

Today,ElishaOtis’snamemightbesynonymouswithelevators,buttheNewYorker(bywayofVermont)didnotinventtheverticaltransportmachine.Instead,hecreatedtheelevatorsafetybrake,adevicethatrenderedelevatorssafer,moreefficient,andpopular.

LockdownOtislefthomeatage20totryhisluckasawagondriverinTroy,NewYork.HemarriedandreturnedtoVermont,wherehestartedafamilyandopenedagristmillandthenasawmill,bothofwhichfailed.Otisturnedtocarriage-andwagon-makingbutwassidelined,firstbyanearfatalcaseofpneumoniaandthenbythedeathofhiswife.HemovedtoAlbanywithhistwoyoungchildrentoworkatabed-makingfactory.ItwasherethatOtis’sinventingcareertookoff.Tryingtoimprovethefactory’soutput,he

herethatOtis’sinventingcareertookoff.Tryingtoimprovethefactory’soutput,hebegandevelopingadevicethatcouldturnbedpostsatamuchfasterrate.Withabonusfromhisboss,Otisstruckoutontheside,producingavarietyof

inventions,buthelosthisfactoryspaceandrelocatedfirsttoBergenCity,NewJersey,andthentoYonkers,NewYork.WhileworkingasamechanicatMaize&Burns,abedmanufacturerinYonkers,hedesignedahoistingdevicetomoveheavyequipmentaroundthefactory’stwofloors.Worriedthattheropesusedtooperatetheplatform-styleelevatormightbreakundertheweightofheavylumberorbeds,Otisaddedwoodennotchestotheinsideoftheelevatorshaftandastrongsteelspringtothetopoftheelevator.Iftheelevatorcablesbroke,thespringmechanismsnappedintothenotchesandpreventedtheplatformfromfalling.Otishadinventedtheelevatorsafetybrake.

GoingintoBusinessOtisleftMaize&Burnstomarkethisbrakefulltime.AtademonstrationatNewYork’sCrystalPalacein1854,hestoodonahoistliketheoneinhisfactoryandroseuphighabovethecrowd.Then,totheshockoftheaudience,heaskedanassistanttocutoneoftheropeswithanax.Thecrowdgaspedwhenhisassistantdramaticallycutthecordsuspendingtheplatform,butthebrakesworked,andtheplankdroppedjustafewinchesandcametoastop.Otissoldseven“safeelevators”thatyearand15thenext.In1857,thefive-storyHaughwoutandCo.buildingonBroadway,inNewYorkCity,

installedthefirstpassengerelevatorwithOtis’slocks,aswellasothersafetydevices.AfterOtisdiedatage50,fromdiphtheria,hissons,CharlesandNorton,carriedonthebusiness,whichbecametheleaderinelevatormanufacturingasthecountryenteredtheskyscraperage.Today,OtisElevatorsareproducedbyUnitedTechnologiesCorporation.

Otis,inapaintingfrom1855,helpedmakeskyscraperspossible.

ABigGunSAMUELCOLT(1814–1862)Revolver

Usinginterchangeableparts,Coltwasoneofthefirsttocapitalizeonassemblylinemanufacturing.

Bornin1814inHartford,Connecticut,youngSamuelColtlikedtotakemachinesapartandputthembacktogethertolearnhowtheyworked.WhilestudyingtobeanavigatoratAmherstAcademyinMassachusettsatage16,thatcuriositygothimexpelled:hewastinkeringwithsomeexplosivesandaccidentallyblewupaclassroom.

GettingtheGearsTurningColt’sfathergavehimthechoiceofcomingtoworkinhistextilemillorputtinghiseducationtouse.Coltchosethelatter,sailingasanapprenticeaboardtheCorvo,boundforIndia.Hecaredlittleaboutropesandsails,buthewaskeenlyinterestedintherotatinggearsthatdrewandreleasedtheCorvo’sanchor.AftertheshiparrivedinIndia,Coltgotachancetohandlearepeatingpistolmadeby

inventorElishaCollier.Thegundidn’twork,butitinspiredColt,andhesoonbegan

inventorElishaCollier.Thegundidn’twork,butitinspiredColt,andhesoonbeganworkonapistolwitharotatingcylinderthatmimickedthemovementoftheanchorgearshehadobservedduringhislongvoyage.Hecreatedaworkingmodelwithabullet-loadedchamberthatrevolvedaroundashaftanddubbedita“revolver.”Whenthegunfired,itactivatedthecylinder,whichrotatedandplacedanotherbulletinthechamberautomatically.Thegunwasreadytofireagaininlessthanasecond.Thatbeattheusualpistol-reloadingtimeof20seconds.

BoomingBusinessColtpatentedtheinventionin1835,andwiththehelpofsomeinvestors,heformedthePatentArmsManufacturingCompany,inPaterson,NewJersey.Businesswasslow,soColttraveledtoWashington,D.C.,totrytosecureagovernmentcontract.Thateffortfailed,andin1842,PatentArmscloseditsdoors.Colt’sluckwasabouttochange,however,withtheadventoftheMexican-American

War,afightforthedisputedterritoryofTexas.TheconflictcreatedademandforasteadysupplyofarmsfromtheU.S.government.SamuelWalker,captainoftheTexasRangers,wasfamiliarwithColt’srevolvers,havingusedthemduringtheSeminoleWars.HepaidColtavisitinNewYorkCityandcollaboratedwiththeentrepreneurtoimprovethepistol.Walker’ssuperioratthetime,AmericangeneralZacharyTaylor,orderedathousandColtsfortroopsunderhiscommand,andtheTexasRangersadoptedtheweaponastheirofficialgun.Withhisreputationlaunched,Coltin1855beganworkonafactoryinHartford,

Connecticut,thateventuallybecametheworld’slargestprivatelyownedarms-manufacturingplant,employingoverathousandpeople.Bytheendofthatyear,ColtwasoneofAmerica’srichestmen.HepurchasedanestateinConnecticutcalledArmsmearandhadanetworthof$15million.ColtdiedinJanuary1862,attheonsetoftheCivilWar,aconflictinwhichUnionforceswouldprevailusingmorethan300,000revolversmanufacturedbyColt’scompany.

Amid—19th-centuryColtNavypercussionrevolver.

COLTWASAMARKETERAHEADOFHISTIME.HENOTONLYCOMMISSIONEDWELL-KNOWNARTISTSTOCREATEADS,HE

SOLICITEDCELEBRITYENDORSEMENTSANDPURSUEDPRODUCTPLACEMENTDEALS.

PowerHouseGEORGEWESTINGHOUSE(1846–1914)ACdistribution,railwayairbrake

Westinghousereadinganewspaperintheearly1900s

GeorgeWestinghousefirstgotinterestedinpowerandenginesasaboyduringthe1850s,whenhehelpedoutinhisfather’sNewYorkmachineshop.ButitwastheCivilWarthathelpedsparktheideathatwouldmakehimwealthyandfamous.Convincedthatanexpandedrailwaynetworkwouldhelpthebrokennationheal,Westinghouselookedforsolutionstoimproverailshipping.Hisfirstinvention,compressedairrailroadbrakes,madeiteasierandsaferforlocomotivestosuddenlystop.HisWestinghouseAirBrakeCompanybecameasuccess,andheexpandedintoEuropeandCanada.

ADebateinCurrentEventsInthe1880s,WestinghousewatchedasinventorsThomasEdisonandNikolaTeslacompetedtoestablishastandardmethodtodeliverelectricitytoAmericanhomesandbusinesses.Thestakeswerehuge,withbothmenanglingforlucrativecontractstowirecities.Edisonarguedinfavorofdirectcurrent(DC),whereelectronsflowsteadilyinasingledirection,creatingasmallamountofelectricitythatcantravelonlyamileorsofromitssource.Tesla,bycontrast,promotedalternatingcurrent(AC),whereelectronsrepeatedlyswitchdirections,creatingmoreandhighervoltageelectricity,whichcan

repeatedlyswitchdirections,creatingmoreandhighervoltageelectricity,whichcantravellongdistances.Westinghousesawabusinessopportunityinthedevelopingelectricalindustry,andin

1884heformedtheWestinghouseElectricCompanytoproduceanddistributethenewformofpower.AfterconsideringandrejectingEdison’sDCmethod,WestinghouseboughtTesla’sACpatentswiththegoalofestablishingasystemtopoweramajorcity.HealsohiredTesla,whohadbrieflyworkedinEdison’slab,toleadtheproject.

The“WaroftheCurrents”Thebattlelinesweredrawn.WithWestinghouseandTeslaateam,Edisonworkedtodiscreditthem.Amongotherstunts,EdisonpublicizedthefactthatthestateofNewYorkusedaWestinghouse-builtACgeneratorforitselectricchairandarrangedtohaveanelephantelectrocutedatConeyIslandwithACcurrenttodramatizeitsdangers.(Theelephant,Topsy,hadkilledacircusspectator.)This“WaroftheCurrents”betweenACandDCwagedonforsevenyears,withthewinnerdeclaredin1893.That’swhenWestinghouseandTeslawonthecontracttolighttheWorld’sColumbianExpositioninChicago.Atthetime,Chicagoboastedmoreelectriclightsthananyothercity,andtheinstallationattheworld’sfairdemonstratedthesafetyandefficiencyofACcurrent.Soonafter,WestinghousebuiltanACpowerplantatNiagaraFalls,whichprovidedNewYorkCitywithitselectricity.Today,ACremainstheelectricalstandard,whileDCisusedforbatteries,fuelcells,

andsolarcells.Itisalsousedtopowersomeelectricrailways.

ThepatentdrawingforWestinghouse’ssteampowerbrake,1869

WESTINGHOUSEWASADOWN-TO-EARTHEMPLOYERKNOWNFORFAIRNESS,PROVIDINGSOCIALSERVICESANDCUTTINGHALFADAY

FROMTHEWORKWEEK.

ShockandAweNIKOLATESLA(1856–1943)Secondindustrialrevolution

Teslasitscalmlyreading,demonstratingthesafetyofthearcingelectricitycreatedbyhisresonanttransformer.

TheeverydaymiracleofelectricitywouldnothavebeenpossiblewithouttheexperimentationofscientistNikolaTesla.BorninwhatistodayCroatia,TeslaemigratedtotheUnitedStatesin1884toworkforThomasEdison,butthetwomenwerepolaroppositesintemperamentandmethods:Edisonwasself-taughtandmethodical,whileTesla,whohadbeentrainedasanengineer,wasfreewheelingandquirky.Afterafinancialdispute,themenpartedways.

InductiveReasoningOneofTesla’sfirstcontributionsaftersettingoutonhisownwashistransformationoftheelectricmotor.Atthetime,mostmotorsuseddirectcurrentandrequiredmechanicalconnectionsbetweentherotor(thepartthatturns)andstator(themagnetsencasingtherotor)inordertowork.Teslaremovedtheneedforanymechanicalconnectionbetweenthestatorandtherotorbysupplyingalternatingcurrenttothestator,whichcreatedarotatingmagneticfieldandcausedtherotortospin.Teslapatentedtheso-calledinductionmotorin1888.Inventorandindustrialist

GeorgeWestinghouselicensedthepatentandworkedwithTeslatostandardize

GeorgeWestinghouselicensedthepatentandworkedwithTeslatostandardizetransmissionofthealternatingcurrentessentialtopowerthesemotors.Withwidespreadelectrificationintheearly20thcentury,theinductionmotorbroughtpowertothemasses.Itmadepossibletheproliferationofsmallmachines,fromwoodworkingtoolstoblenders,thatsotransformedAmericanlifeintheearlydecadesofthe20thcenturythatitearnedthenamethesecondindustrialrevolution.

ComingUncoiledIn1891,Teslacreatedtheresonanttransformer,orTeslacoil,whichturnedarelativelylow-voltagecurrentintoawide-rangingelectricalfield.Anythingwithinthereachofthefieldcouldbepoweredbyit,withoutwires.TheinventortheorizedthatafewmassiveTeslacoilsplacedstrategicallyacrosstheglobecouldprovidewirelesselectricitytotheentireworld.

PosthumousPowerWhenTesladiedinahumbleroomintheNewYorkerHotelinJanuary1943,hewaspennilessandunrecognizedformanyofhisinnovations.Todayheisconsideredaniconoclastfolkheroamongengineersandinventors.MartinEberhardandMarcTarpenning,thefoundersofTeslaMotors,namedtheirelectriccarcompanyinTesla’shonor,andentrepreneurElonMusk,anotherfounder(heisalsobehindtheaerospacemanufacturerSpaceXandPayPal),hasnamedTesla,aswellasThomasEdisonandWinstonChurchill,ashisidols.

PioneerofSiliconValleyWILLIAMSHOCKLEY(1910–1989)Transistor

Anearlytransistor

Controversialtransistorco-inventorWilliamShockleyhadsuchadifficultpersonalitythatwhenhedied,in1989,hewasestrangedfromhisthreechildrenandvirtuallyfriendless.Nevertheless,byhelpingtocreatethetransistor,adevicethatamplifieselectriccurrents,Shockleylaidthegroundworkfortheelectronicage.

NuclearReactionaryBornin1910inLondontoAmericanparents,ShockleyspentonlyafewyearsinEngland.WhenhewasveryyoungthefamilyresettledinPaloAlto,California;hewashomeschooledandkeptapartfromotherchildren.ShockleywasexceptionallybrightandafterabrilliantundergraduatecareerhewentontoreceivehisPhD.Hismentor,PhilipMorse,aleadingphysicist,gothimajobatthefamousBellLaboratoriesresearchfacilityinNewJersey.Withacolleague,JamesFisk,Shockleybegantoexplorewaysofusingnuclearfission

(whenanatombreaksintosmallerparts)asanenergysourcein1939.Shockleydevelopedontheideaofseparatinguraniumintochunks,whichleddirectlytothedesignofthefirstnuclearreactor.Duetothehighlydangerousnatureofhisfindings,whichcouldbeusedtodevelopanatomicbomb,theU.S.governmentseizedtheinformationandpreventedShockleyfromworkingfurtherontheproject.Allofhisfindingsweremadeclassified,andevenU.S.governmentscientistswerepreventedfromaccessingthem.ShockleyandFiskwerealsobarredfromtryingtopatenttheirdiscovery.WhenWorldWarIIbrokeout,Shockley’sformermentor,Morse,calledonhimto

WhenWorldWarIIbrokeout,Shockley’sformermentor,Morse,calledonhimtohelpimprovetacticsofAmericansubmarines,suchasdepthchargesandconvoyformations.ShockleytookaleavefromBellandjoinedtheAnti-SubmarineWarfareOperationsGroupatColumbiaUniversity.In1944hebegantrainingbombercrewswiththeArmyAirCorps,travelingalltheworldtoteachradarskillstopilots.

DevelopingtheTransistorBytheendofthewar,theUnitedStateshadbeenwiredforphoneservicefromcoasttocoast.However,thenetworkhadbeenbuiltusingvacuumtubes,whichamplifyelectriccharges.The30-year-oldtechnologyhadanumberofchallenges:thetubesbrokeeasily,wereexpensivetoproduce,neededtobewarmedupbeforetheycouldbeused,andevenattractedmoths.ShockleyreturnedtoBellLabs,whichputtogetherateamchargedwithdevelopinga

“solidstate”alternativetovacuumtube–basedtransistors.Asolid-statemodelmeantthattheelectriccurrentwouldbecontainedwithinsolidmaterialinsteadoftheproblematicglasstubes.Buildingonwartimeresearch,Shockley,alongwithengineersJohnBardeenandWalterBrattain,exploredsolutionsusingmaterialsthatdidn’tbreakbutstillconductedandamplifiedelectricalsignals.In1947,BardeenandBrattainhadabreakthroughwhentheycreatedanearly

transistorusinggermanium,achemicalelementsimilartotinorsiliconthatiscapableofcarryinganelectriccurrent.Shockleywasnotdirectlyinvolvedinthework,andhedecidedtoone-uphiscolleagues.Heholedupinahotelroomforfourweeksand,workingmostlywithpenandpaper,cameupwithanimprovedversion.BellLabsintroducedthetransistorin1948;thecompanynameditbycombining

transandresistance.Atahundredththesizeofavacuumtube,thetransistor’ssizeandfunctionalitywouldultimatelymakemicrochipspossible.Withinadecade,transistorsreplacedvacuumtubesinradiosandotherelectronicsasthepreferredmeansofconductingpower.

FromNobelPrizetoPersonaNonGrataShockleyandhiscolleagueswontheNobelPrizeinPhysicsin1956.ShockleyleftBellLabsandformedhisowncompany,ShockleySemiconductor,in

PaloAlto,California,in1956—theunofficialbeginningofSiliconValley.Hisreputation,however,wastarnishedbyaseriesofoffensivecommentshemade,suchasadvocatingthesterilizationofpeoplewithanIQoflessthan100,andheultimatelywasshunnedbythescientificcommunity.

Shockleyposesinhislabthedayin1956itwasannouncedthathehadbeenawardedtheNobelPrizeinPhysics.

TIMEMAGAZINECALLEDSHOCKLEY“ONEOFTHECENTURY’SMOSTIMPORTANTSCIENTISTS.”

RaisingtheBarNORMANJOSEPHWOODLAND(1921–2012)Barcode

Woodlandexplainshisprototypescannerforproductswithbarcodes.

TwoelementsofNormanJosephWoodland’syounglifefiguredintohisinventionofthebarcode:hisaffinityforMorsecode,learnedasaBoyScout,andhisloveofthebeach,whichtracedbacktohisbirthplaceofAtlanticCity,NewJersey.

CheckItOutIn1948,Woodlandwasearninghismaster’sdegreeatDrexelUniversity,whenaPhiladelphiagrocerystoreexecutivevisitedthecampus.Thegroceraskedoneoftheschool’sdeansiftherewasawaytodeviseacomputerizedcheckoutandinventorytrackingsystem.AnotherstudentnamedBernardSilveroverheardtheconversation,andwhenthedeanpassedontheopportunity,SilvertoldWoodlandaboutit.Woodlandbecamesofascinatedbytheideathathequitschooltodevotefulltimetoasolution.Whilemullingtheproblematabeachnearhisgrandparents’houseinMiami,Florida,hedrewinthesandwithhisfingers.ThelinesgaveWoodlandaflashofinspiration.

ShrinkingtheScanner

ShrinkingtheScannerWoodlandthoughtthatacombinationofwideandthinlinescouldbeinterpretedlikethedotsanddashesusedinMorsecode.Anopticalcomputerscannercouldreadtheseriesofmarkings.WoodlandandSilverfiledapatentfortheideain1949.Theoriginaldesignwascircularsothatthecodecouldbereadinanydirection.In1951WoodlandlandedajobwithInternationalBusinessMachinesCorporationin

Armonk,NewYork,andthefollowingyearheandSilverweregrantedtheirpatent.Atfirst,fewretailerstookaninterestinthesystem,whichwasthesizeofadesk—noteventhegrocerwhohadaskedthestudentstocreateit.WoodlandandSilversoldtheirpatenttoPhilcofor$15,000.Itwouldbealltheyeverearnedfromtheirinvention.PhilcolaterresoldthepatenttoRCA.Whenthepatentexpiredin1969,differentcompaniesmovedtoadvanceuponthe

idea.Woodlandnevergaveuponhisdreamofseeingthescanningsystemreachitsfullpotential.AtIBM’sfacilityinRaleigh,NorthCarolina,heworkedwithengineerstodevelopahandheldlaserscannerandbarcodescanningsystem.

EveryGrainofScanAlongwithhisbarcodes,WoodlandandIBMengineerGeorgeLauerdevisedanumericalcodingsystem(theuniversalproductcode,orUPC),whichassignedeveryproductauniqueidentifyingnumberandbarpattern.InsteadofWoodland’soriginalcirculardesign,theUPCwassquare,whichmadeiteasiertoprint.SupermarketsadoptedtheUPCcodeasanindustry-widestandardin1973.

Barcodesenablemanufacturersandsellerstoautomaticallytrackinventoryandsalesdata.Today,barcodesintheUnitedStatesandCanadahave12digits,whileinternationalversionsuse13.

WOODLANDALSOWORKEDONTHETOP-SECRETMANHATTANPROJECTDEVELOPINGTHEATOMICBOMBDURINGWORLDWARII.

Strong-ArmManGEORGEDEVOL(1912–2011)Industrialrobot

DevoldemonstrateshisUnimateroboticarm.

Whatdoyougetwhenyouintroduceaself-taughtelectricalengineertoasciencefictionfanatacocktailparty?InthecaseofGeorgeDevolandJosephEngelberger,apathleadingtotheinventionoftheindustrialrobot.

TheUnimateWhenDevolandEngelbergermetin1957,bothmenwerealreadyfascinatedbyrobots.Devol,whohadbegunworkonadigitallyoperatedprogrammableroboticarm,wasconvincedthatonedaymachineswoulddoworkthathumanscouldnotorwouldnotdo.Engelberger,alsoanengineer,wasanavidfanofsciencefictionwriterIsaacAsimov’sI,Robotcollectionofstoriesandareceptiveaudience.Theyteamedupandcommittedtomakingtheindustrialrobotareality.In1961Devolreceivedapatentforthedevice,whichhedubbed“Unimate”;thepatentwassooriginal,itcitednopriorpatentsasreference.ThefirstfunctionalUnimaterobot,poweredbyaself-containedhydraulicsystem,

debutedataChicagotradeshowlaterthatyear.Inademonstration,thearmpickedupmetallettersandspelledoutwords.TheinventionsoimpressedaFordMotorCompanyexecutivethattheautomakersubmittedanorderforthousands.

Companyexecutivethattheautomakersubmittedanorderforthousands.

AutomationNationFordputthemachinestoworkinitsDetroitplant,wheretheywereprogrammedtopickupandwelddiecastingsontoautobodies—adangerousjobforhumansasthecastingsweremoltenhotandweighed500pounds.TheUnimatestooktheirordersfromcommandsprogrammedintoamagneticdrumcontainingmagnetictape.In2005PopularMechanicsmagazinenamedDevol’sUnimateoneoftheTop50InventionsofthePast50Years.Inhislatecareer,Devoldevotedhistimetorunningarobotconsultingbusiness.He

continuedtodevelopnewrobotictechnologies,includingvisualandtactilesensors.Whenhediedin2011atage99,hehadover40patentstohisname.

ExtremelyFocusedTHEODOREMAIMAN(1927–2007)Laser

Laserisanacronymfor“lightamplificationbythestimulatedemissionofradiation.”

EngineerandphysicistTheodoreMaimandevelopedaninterestinelectronicsandtechnologyatanearlyage.AsateenagerinLosAngeles,hemadepocketmoneyrepairingradios,askillthatledtoajobwiththeNationalUnionRadioCompanywhenhewasjust17.Aftercollegeandearninghisdegreeinengineeringphysics,Maimanpursuedresearch

inelectricalengineeringandexperimentalphysics.Asadoctoralcandidate,heworkedoncalculatingthemeasurementsofsplitheliumatoms,researchthatwouldlaterhelphiminhisinventionofthelaser.In1956,hetookajobintheAtomicPhysicsDepartmentatHughesAircraftCompany(latercalledHughesResearchIndustries)inCulverCity,California,whereheworkedonamicrowaveamplificationprojectfortheU.S.ArmySignalCorps.

TheDevelopmentoftheLaserWhilemanyinventionsarecreatedtofulfillaneed,thelaserwasdevelopedforthepurescienceofit—toseewhetherlightcould,asluminarieslikeEinsteinhadproposed,besuper-concentratedanddirected.Thatquestledtoapredecessorofthelasercalledthemaser(anacronymfor“microwaveamplificationbythestimulatedemissionofradiation”).Inventedin1953atBellLabsinNewJerseybyengineersCharlesTownesandArthur

Inventedin1953atBellLabsinNewJerseybyengineersCharlesTownesandArthurSchawlow,themaserconcentratednotlightbutradiowavesintoasinglebeamofenergy.Acrossthecountry,MaimanheardaboutTownesandSchawlow’sdiscoveriesand

wasintrigued.Hewonderedifhecouldcreateadevicethatwouldconcentratelightinthesamewaythemaserdidradiowaves.AfterconvincinghissupervisorsatHughestogivehimabudgetof$50,000,heembarkedonaprojecttodevelopthedevicein1959.

CrystallizingtheVisionMaiman’sbreakthroughcamejustmonthslater,whenhewrappedarubycrystalinglasstubing.Thetubeflashedrapidlywiththedeliveryofhigh-voltageenergyandthenstopped.Eachflashpumpedenergyintotherubycrystalintheformoftrillionsofphotons(lightparticles)onthesamewavelength.Thiscreatedabeamofpureredlight.InMay1960,MaimandemonstratedthefirstworkinglaserattheHughesResearchLaboratory.Maimanspenttheremainderofhiscareercreatinganddevelopinglasertechnology,

firstathisowncompany,KonradCorporation,andlateratTRWElectronics.In2000inhisadoptedhomeofVancouver,hecompletedamemoir,TheLaserOdyssey,thatsharedpersonalstorieswithscientificinsights.Hediedin2007.Today,lasersthatMaimanhelpeddevelopcancutthroughmetals,plastics,and

humantissue;readdata;andhavethousandsofcivilianandmilitaryapplications.TheU.S.Navyhasevenuseda50,000-wattfiber-opticlasertoshootdownanunmanneddrone.Maimanhimselfalwayschampionedlasertechnology’snonviolentusesandspecificallydislikedthenickname“deathray.”

TheodoreMaiman,inventorofthelaser,poseswithone,circa1980.

LASERSCUTCLEANLYTHROUGHMETAL,PLASTIC,ANDHUMANTISSUE.OFCOURSE,THEYALSOREADDATA.THEIRAPPLICATIONS

ADVANCEBASICKNOWLEDGEANDTHEORY.

BulletproofPlanSTEPHANIEKWOLEK(1923–2014)Kevlar

StephanieKwolekmodelsapairofprotectiveworkglovesmadewithKevlar.

TwoofthekeyelementsthatledtotheinventionofKevlar,themiraclematerialusedtofortifybulletproofvests,buildings,andbridges:aPolishmom’sloveofsewingandtextilesandadad’sinterestinscience.Thecouple’sdaughter,StephanieKwolek,wasbornin1923inNewKensington,

Pennsylvania.Kwolekhadanearlyinterestinscienceofthenaturalworldandcollectedandcategorizedseedsandleaves.Shealsothoughtseriouslyaboutbecomingadoctor.Afterearningadegreeinchemistry,KwolekwashiredbytheDuPontCompanyinBuffalo,NewYork.Herworktherewassorewardingthatshesetasideherplansformedicalschoolandchosetofocusentirelyonchemistry.

CreatingKevlarIn1964,Kwolekwaschargedwithcreatingasyntheticfabricthatwasstiff,tough,andheatresistantsothatitcouldbeusedincartires.Italsohadtobeeasilyreproducibleinalab.DuPont’sresearchintopolymers,orlargemoleculesofrepeatedunits,ledhertomixdifferentpolymerchainswithdifferentsolvents.Shehopedthiswouldprovokethechemicalreactionsneededtomakethepolymerstoughandheatresistant.Oneexperimenthadanunexpectedresult:insteadofturningclearandviscous,the

polymerproducedamilkyandwateryliquid.Itweighedverylittle,aqualityitretainedwhenitchangedintoasolid.ItalsosolidifiedfarstifferandstrongerthanKwolekhad

whenitchangedintoasolid.ItalsosolidifiedfarstifferandstrongerthanKwolekhadthoughtwaspossible.Thematerialwasunsuitableforthetireassignment,butKwolekconvincedhercolleaguestoturnhernewpolymerintoafiber.ThesefibersbecamethebasisforKevlar,whichisnowfivetimesstrongerthansteel.

StrongerThanaSpeedingBulletBesidesbulletproofvests,Kevlarhasbeenusedtomakefirefightergear,aircraftparts,andoutdoorequipmentlikeskisandkayaks.In2008DuPontreleasedatougherandlighterversionofthebulletproofvestcalledKevlarXP.AmillionXPvestsweresoldinjustsixyears.ApoliceofficeroncevisitedKwolektoaskhertoautographavestthathadsavedhislife—oneofthethousandsofmenandwomenwhobenefitedfromtheinvention.UnfortunatelyforKwolek,shesignedoverthepatentrightsforKevlartoDuPontand

neverreceiveddirectcompensationforherinvention.Inherretirement,shetutoredhighschoolstudentsinchemistryandwasheldupasarolemodelforyoungwomenenteringthesciences.Shewaseventurnedintothesubjectofaninspirationalchildren’sbookin2013,TheWomanWhoInventedtheThreadThatStopsBullets.WhenKwolekdiedin2014,thechiefexecutiveofDuPont,EllenKullman,calledher“atruepioneerforwomeninscience.”

FIVETIMESSTRONGERTHANSTEEL,KEVLARHASBEENUSEDTOMAKEBULLETPROOFVESTS,FIREFIGHTERGEAR,AIRCRAFT

FRAMES,SKIS,ANDKAYAKS.

Mr.CleanEnergySTANFORDOVSHINSKY(1922–2012)Amorphousmaterials,fuelcells

StanfordOvshinskyasastudentstudiedhumanandmachineintelligenceandneurobiologyandasascience“outsider”wasabletobringdisparatefieldstogetherinwaysnotfosteredinmoreconventionalsettings.

StanfordOvshinsky,thesonofanimmigrantLithuanianscrapdealer,neverwenttocollegeandwasoutsidethemainstreamscientificcommunityinthe1950s.Yetthisself-taughtphysicistandengineerheldmorethan400U.S.patents.HewascriticaltothedevelopmentofsomanyinventionsthattheEconomistmagazineonceranafeatureonhimentitled“TheEdisonofOurAge?”

AmorphousMaterialsConventionalwisdominthe1950sheldthatonlycrystallizedsiliconwasaneffectiveenoughconductorofelectricitytobeusedtomaketransistors.Thethirty-somethingOvshinskythoughtdifferently.TheheartofOvshinsky’sideawasthatthinlayersofatomswouldbeamorepowerful

andlessexpensivemethodofcreatingandstoringenergythancrystallizedsilicon.

andlessexpensivemethodofcreatingandstoringenergythancrystallizedsilicon.Theselayersof“amorphousmaterials”werenoncrystallinealthoughtheyconductedelectricitythesameway.Hishunchprovedcorrect.Whenexposedtoacharge,theamorphousmaterialsreorganizedtheirmoleculesintoasemicrystallineformandcarriedacurrent.Thedesignwasmodeledontheworkingsofthehumannervecell,whichconductsanelectricalimpulsewhenthenerveisstimulated.Hedubbedthisnewdiscovery“ovonics.”In1960OvshinskyfoundedEnergyConservationLaboratorieswithhissecondwife,

Iris,tocreateproductsincorporatingovonics.Overthenextfewdecades,thecompanyhadahandindevelopingsuchinventionsasthesolar-poweredcalculatorandtechnologiesthatledtomoderncomputermemory.

EnvironmentalChampionInstilledwithacommitmenttosocialjusticeissuesbyhisprogressivefatherfromayoungage,Ovshinskybecameinterestedinenvironmentalprotectionlongbeforeitwasfashionable.Asearlyasthe1950shewaswarningofthedangersofoildependenceandthethreatofclimatechange.Thiseventuallyledhimtosearchforacleanenergysourceinthe1980s.Usingtheprinciplesofamorphousmaterials,hecreatedsolarpanelsthatcouldbe“printed”inlongsheets,insteadofthetinycellsofthetime.HerenamedhiscompanyEnergyConversionDevicestoreflectthesuccessofhisnewproduct.Ovshinskyturnedhisfocustodevelopinganewtypeofnickelmetal-hydride(NiMH)

battery.Nontoxicandrecyclable,thesebatteriesusecleanhydrogentogeneratepower.By1992,OvshinskyhaddevelopedanNiMHbatterylargeenoughtopoweracar.MostelectricandhybridvehiclestodayuseOvshinsky’srechargeablebattery,andnearlyeveryhybridvehiclemanufacturerintheworldhaslicensedhispatentsforNiMHtechnology.Notcontentwithjustadvancingthebattery,Ovshinskybeganresearchingawayto

usehydrogengasasacarfuel.Hedevelopedasystemforproducinghydrogenwithnoharmfulemissions.Oneofthechallengeswastokeepthegasfromexploding.Ovshinskyovercametheproblembycreatingspecialcontainersthatabsorbedandreleasedthehydrogenlikeasponge.Thismadeitsafertostoreandtransport.Toputthisnewtechnologyintopractice,Ovshinskyinventedakindofhydrogenfuel

cellthatoperatedatlowertemperaturesandwasinexpensivetoproduce.Thefuelcellconvertedhydrogenandoxygenintoelectricitytopoweravehicle’smotor.Hydrogenandoxygenarerawmaterialsfarmoreabundantinnatureandeasiertoobtainthanpetroleum.Anotherbenefitofthehydrogenfuelcellisitslackofpollution:thewastesteamisjustwatervapor.Whilehydrogen-poweredcarshavebeeneclipsedbyelectricandhybridvehicles,someautoexecutivesbelievethatfuelcellsareapromising

andhybridvehicles,someautoexecutivesbelievethatfuelcellsareapromisingtechnology.

Thinfilmsolarpanel

TakingShapeCHUCKHULL(b.1939)

3-Dprinting

ChuckHullwitha3-Dprintedprototypeathiscompany,3DSystems

EvenwhencompanieslikeGeneralMotorsandMercedes-BenzbegantoexpressinterestinChuckHull’s3-Dprinterinthe1980s,hetoldhiswifethatitwouldprobablybe30yearsbeforehisinvention,createdtosolveadesignchallenge,wouldenterthemainstream.Hewasn’tfarfromwrong.Today3-Dprintingisoneofthemosttalked-aboutandversatiletechnologies.

NewDimensionsinPrintingInhisearly40s,HullwasanengineerforUltravioletProducts,acompanythatusedultraviolet(UV)lighttoapplyverythinlayersofplasticveneertofurnitureandotherproducts.Hebegantowonderifthistechnologycouldbeusedtomakeprototype

products.Hebegantowonderifthistechnologycouldbeusedtomakeprototypeplasticpartsquickly,sincefabricatinginplasticwasthenaverytime-consumingprocess.Hull’semployerlikedtheideaofinstantprototypesandlethimexperimentafterhoursinabackroom.Hullbeganworkingwiththeliquidmaterialsknownasphotopolymersthathehad

usedtocoatfurniture.WhenthesematerialswerehitwithaUVlight,theyhardenedintosolidplastic.Hullrealizedthathecouldstacktheultra-thinlayersofplasticintothree-dimensionalshapes.HesetupavatoftheliquidmaterialanddirectedabeamofUVlightoverthesurface.Theliquid“cured,”orhardened,intothedesiredshape.Whenhedidthislayerbylayer,thestackedshapesassembledintoacompletedobject.ThestepsremindedHullofprintingadocument,butinmoredimensions,sohecalledthemethod“three-dimensionalprinting.”Hullpatentedtheideain1986andleftthefurniturecompanytostart3DSystems,the

world’sfirstadditiveprintingcompany,inValencia,California.HisearliestclientswereGMandMercedes,whichplannedtouse3-Dprinterstobuildcarandcarpartprototypes.

3-DPrintingTodayToday,Hull’stechnologyisusedtomakeprosthetics,rocketengines,andevenentirecars.Ithastransformedthemedicalfield,allowingdoctorstomakerealisticmodelsofpatientsandtheirinternalsystemstostudybeforeoperating.

As3-Dprintingtechnologyadvances,theonlylimitationwillbetheuser’simagination.

WHENHEFOUNDED3DSYSTEMSIN1986,HULLTOLDHISWIFETHATITWOULDPROBABLYBE30YEARSBEFORETHEGENERAL

PUBLICWOULDBEINTERESTED.HEWASRIGHT.

INFORMATIONFromcomputercodingtoemail,Americaninventorshaveledthewayinto

thedigitalworld.

CommunicationssatellitesrouteeverythingfromvoiceanddatatransmissionstotheGlobalPositioningSystem(GPS).

Mr.LiveWire

SAMUELMORSE(1791–1872)Telegraph

TranslatingMorsecodeintocommonlanguagewasavaluableskilluntiltheintroductionofradiovoicetransmission.

OneofthemostfamousinventorsinAmericanhistorydidn’tevenstarthiscareerinthesciences.SamuelMorse’sfirstcallingwasactuallyasaportraitpainter.HewasgoodenoughtogetintotheRoyalAcademyofArtsinEngland,andhisself-portraithangsintheNationalPortraitGalleryinWashington,D.C.Butit’swhatMorsedidafterheswitchedcareersthatearnedhimthatplaceinthePortraitGallery—inventthetelegraph.Thedevicesentelectricalpulsesalongwiresatanincrediblyfastspeed,providingameansforinstantaneous,long-distancecommunication.

PortraitoftheArtistasaYoungManThesonofaCalvinistpastor,MorsewasraisedinCharlestown,Massachusetts.Hebegantodabbleintheartswhileinpreparatoryschoolandpursuedthemincollege.Healsoattendedlecturesonelectricity,whichwouldcomeinhandylaterinlifewhenhebegantoexperimentwiththetelegraph.Morse’sfatherwantedhimtobecomeabookseller,butheeventuallygaveintohis

son’swishesandlethimsetsailforLondonandtheRoyalAcademy.Morsereturnedto

son’swishesandlethimsetsailforLondonandtheRoyalAcademy.MorsereturnedtotheStatesin1815andestablishedanartstudioinBoston.Hemarried,beganafamily,andsupportedhiswifeandthreechildrenasaportraitpainter.Overthenext10years,Morsedepictedmanyfamousstatesmen,includingpresidents

JohnAdamsandJamesMonroe.Healsofoundtimetotinkerwithengineeringprojects,suchasawaterpumpforfireenginesthathepatentedwithhisbrotherSidneyin1817andamarble-cuttingmachinein1822.

AChangeinDirectionAftermovingtoNewHaven,Connecticut,MorsereceivedaspecialcommissionfromtheCityofNewYorktopaintaportraitoftheFrencharistocratandmilitaryofficerMarquisdeLafayette,in1825.IttookMorseafullyeartocompletetheportrait,duetoLafayette’sbusytravelschedule—hetouredall24statesduringhisextendedAmericanvisit.AsMorsewasworkingontheportraitonedayinWashington,D.C.,amessengeron

horsebackarrivedwithaletterinforminghimthathiswifewasill.ThepainterrushedbacktoNewHavenbutarrivedtoolate:hiswifehaddiedwhilehewasenroute.InhisgriefMorsewishedforawaythathecouldhavelearnedsoonerofherfailinghealthdespitebeingseveralhundredmilesaway.Morsemulledoverwaystomakesuchcommunicationpossible,butthe

responsibilitiesoffamilylifeaswellashisnewpositionaspresidentoftheNationalAcademyofDesigninNewYorkmadeitdifficult.ButachanceencounterwithBostonscientistCharlesThomasJacksonin1832rekindledMorse’simagination.Jackson,whohadexperimentedextensivelywithelectromagnets,toldMorsethathehadsuccessfullytransmittedelectricpulsesalongconductivewire.

PulsationCommunicationBy1838MorsehadteamedupwithNewYorkUniversitychemistryprofessorLeonardGaleandyounginventorAlbertVailtobuildaworkingmodelofthe“recordingtelegraph.”Thedesignwasquitesimple:pressingdownonakeysentanelectricalsignaloverthewiretoareceiverattheotherend.Thelengthoftheelectricalpulseswouldvary,shortorlong,leadingMorseandanotherpartnerofhis,AlfredVail,tocreateasysteminwhichcombinationsoflongandshortbeepscouldbeinterpretedasakindofcode.Thetwocollaboratorsunveiledtheinventionin1838inMorristown,NewJersey,wheretheyhaddonemuchoftheirresearchanddevelopment.Thefirsttransmission(via“Morsecode”)was,“Apatientwaiterisnoloser.”Themessageprovedapropheticone,asMorsehadtowaitafewmoreyearsbeforehe

couldfindinvestorsforthetelegraph.Finally,in1842,hesetupaworkingtelegraphbetweentwocommitteeroomsoftheU.S.Capitoltodemonstratetheinvention’spotential.Congresswasimpressedandearmarked$30,000thefollowingyeartobuilda

potential.Congresswasimpressedandearmarked$30,000thefollowingyeartobuilda38-miletelegraphlinebetweenWashington,D.C.,andBaltimore.FromtheCapitol,MorsemessagedtohisassistantinBaltimorethefirsttelegramovermorethan10miles:“WhathathGodwrought!”Thesimpleelectricalpulsestransmittedoverawirechangedlong-distancecommunication.

LaudedAbroadandatHomeDespitetheU.S.government’skeyroleingettingtheinventionofftheground,MorsehaddifficultyobtainingapatentinAmericaduetobidsforcreditfromotherinventorsandhispartnerVail.HeendedupsecuringhispatentforthetelegraphinIstanbul,inpartbecausethesultan,AbdülmecidI,believedstronglyintheinvention.Morse’sfinalyearswerespentwithhissecondwifeandfournewchildren.Hisstatusasthe“inventorofthetelegraph”secure,heretiredintoaquietfamilylife.Hedonatedmuchofhisnewfoundwealthtophilanthropiccauses,includingcollegesandtemperanceorganizations,andsupportedmanyyoungartistsuntilhisdeathin1872.

Inastandard“straightkey”transmittersuchasthisone,thesignalis“on”whenthehandleisdepressedand“off”whenitisreleased.

SamuelMorsemaintainedhispassionforartthroughouthislife,helpingtofoundtheNationalAcademyofDesigninNewYorkCityin1825andservingaspresidentfrom1826to1845andfrom1861to1862.

Morsecode,thelanguageofdotsanddashes,hasbeencalledtheVictorianInternetforitsuniversaladoption.

SOS,THEUNIVERSALDISTRESSSIGNAL,ISRECOGNIZEDININTERNATIONALTREATIESINITSMORSECODEEQUIVALENT:

THREEDOTS,THREEDASHES,ANDTHREEDOTS.

TheImageMaker

GEORGEEASTMAN(1854–1932)Consumerphotography

A1906EastmanKodakadvertisementpromotingcamerasforchildren

InventorGeorgeEastmanbroughtphotographytothemassesandhelpedbuildRochester,NewYork,intooneofAmerica’sstoriedcompanytowns,buthislifewasfarfrompicture-perfect.Bythetimehewas16,Eastmanhadlosthisfathertoabraindisorderandasistertopolio.Tohelphisstrugglingmother,heworkedasanerrandboyandtookaccountingclassesthatultimatelyhelpedhimlandaclerkjobatRochesterSavingsBank.There,acolleaguesuggestedEastmanbuyacameratophotographsomelandinwhichhewasconsideringinvesting.Thepurchasewouldchangetheyoungman’slife.

SimplifyingtheProcessThefirstcameraEastmanboughtin1878wasthesizeofasmallsafeandcamewithequipmentweighing50pounds.Thephotographyprocessatthattimewascumbersome.Totakeasinglepicture,thephotographerhadtocoatafragileglassplatewithlight-sensitivechemicals(ataskperformedinthedark),insertthestillwetplate

withlight-sensitivechemicals(ataskperformedinthedark),insertthestillwetplateintothemassivecamera,shootthephoto,anddevelopitimmediately.Eastmanwondered:Whyshouldn’ttherebeacamerathatwassosimpleandlightweightitcouldbecarriedandusedbyachild?Eastmanbeganreadingscientificjournalsandexperimentingwiththedeveloping

processathome.Inabreakthrough,heestablishedawaytoproduceglassplatesthatremainedlight-sensitivewhendry,allowingthemtobeusedataphotographer’sconvenience.Beforelong,hecreatedchemical-coatedpapertoreplacetheplates,thenfabricatedthefirstrolloffilm,madeofaplasticcalledcelluloid.In1888,EastmanintroducedtheKodak,asimpleboxcameraloadedwith100exposuresoffilmthatsoldfor$25.Oncethepicturesweretaken,thephotographersentthecamerabacktotheEastmanKodakplantinRochester,wherethefilmwasdevelopedandthecamerareloadedandreturned.

DominatingtheIndustryEastmanestablishedtheEastmanKodakCompanyin1892.Eightyearslater,thefirmdebutedtheBrownie,acameranamedaftersomepopularchildren’sbookcharacters,whichwerefeaturedonthebox.Pricedatjustadollar,theBrowniewassmallenoughtoholdinyourhands.Ittransformedphotographyfromatechnicallydemandingprocessthatwaslargelylefttoprofessionalstoahighlyversatilemediumthatallowedpeopleeverywheretodocumenttheirdailylives.“Youpressthebutton—wedotherest,”promisedtheadslogan.EastmanKodakwentontodominatethephotographyindustryforacentury.

Eastmanbecameextraordinarilywealthy.Hefunneledhisearningsintophilanthropy,givingtouniversities,dentalandmedicalfacilities,andartsinstitutions.Buthisstoryhadasomberend.In1932,sufferingfromapainfulspinalcondition,heshothimselfintheheart.Hewas77.EastmanistheonlypersontohavetwostarsinasinglecategoryontheHollywoodWalkofFame,bothforhisinventionofrollfilm.

TheBrowniecamerawiththeboxitcamein

GeorgeEastmandemonstratesoneofhiscamerasaboardtheMajesticoceanlinerin1926.

EASTMANNAMEDTHEBROWNIEAFTERPOPULARCHILDREN’SBOOKCHARACTERS,WHICHWEREFEATUREDONTHEBOX.

LicensetoPrint

OTTMARMERGENTHALER(1854–1899)Linotype

Awoodenletterblocktraystoresavarietyoftypesetletters.

Themanwhorevolutionizedtheprintingindustryaroundtheworldgotintothebusinessviaajobinamodestmachinist’sshopinWashington,D.C.OttoMergenthaleremigratedtotheUnitedStatesfromGermanyin1872.Hetooka

jobinamachinist’sshop,andwhenthebusinessmovedtoBaltimore,Mergenthalerfollowed,eventuallybecomingaco-owner.Onedayacustomeraskedhimtohelpimprovethedesignofatypewriterfornewspapers.Asheworkedonasolution,Mergenthalerbecamefascinatedwiththeprintingprocess.

SluggingItOutStartinginthe1870s,Mergenthalerdedicatedhimselftocreatingamachinethatwouldmakeprintingmoreefficient.Atthetime,thetypesettingmethodinventedbyJohannesGutenberg—inplacesincethe1500s—requiredeachcharactertobesetbyhand.InspiredbythewoodenmoldsusedtomakeChristmascookiesinhisnativeGermany,Mergenthalerhitontheideaofamachinethatwouldcastandstampletters.Hecreatedbrassforms,muchlikethebakewareforcookies,thatcouldbefilledwith

moltenmetalintheshapeofaletter.Mergenthaler’slinotypemachineallowedanoperatortotypelettersintoaspecial90-

characterkeyboard;themachinethenassembledwordsfromthemolds,thencastthemintolead.Theleadlinesoftype,called“slugs,”wereusedtoprint,thenmelteddown(atatemperatureof550˚F)andusedagain.Aftermuchhardlaborandsecuring50patents,Mergenthaler’smachinewasfinallyreadyin1886.TheNewYorkTribunebecamethefirstpapertousethelinotypeinJulyofthatyear.ThedebutbookwasTheTribuneBookofOpen-AirSports,publishedin1887.

“TheEighthWonderoftheWorld”Linotypetransformedthenewspaperworld.Publicationsthatusedlinotypecouldprintmaterialmuchfaster,allowingthemtogrowandreachlargerreaderships.Thetechnologyspreadquickly,andby1910therewere25,000professionallinotypists.Forsome,Mergenthaler’sinventionqualifiedhimasthesecondGutenberg.ThomasEdisonwentsofarastolabelthelinotypemachine“theeighthwonderoftheworld.”ThoughMergenthalerwasabletoenjoysomeofthefruitsofhissuccess,heultimately

didnotlivelongenoughtoseetheimpactofhisinvention.SoonafterhisreturnfromacelebratorytriptohisGermanhometownofWürttemberg,hecontractedtuberculosis.Hediedin1899atage45.Linotypemachines—loud,seven-foot-tallbehemoths—poweredthenewspaperindustryuntilthe1970s,whentheywerereplacedbyoffsetlithographyprintingandcomputertypesetting.

TheendofOttmarMergenthaler’slifewasmarkedbydifficulties,includingahousefirethatdestroyedhisrecentlycompletedautobiography.

MERGENTHALER’SINVENTIONOFTHEFIRSTMACHINETOEASILYANDQUICKLYCOMPOSEENTIRELINESOFTYPEUSHEREDINAREVOLUTIONINPRINTING.THOMASEDISONCALLEDIT“THE

EIGHTHWONDEROFTHEWORLD.”

KeepingTally

HERMANHOLLERITH(1860–1929)Tabulatingmachine

StatisticianandinventorHermanHollerithin1880

IfinventorHermanHollerithhadn’tdatedthedaughterofstatisticianJohnShawBillingsintheyearsfollowingtheCivilWar,thetabulatingmachinemightneverhavebeencreated.Atthetime,thereweresomanynewimmigrantstotheUnitedStatesthattheCensus

Bureaudidn’tfinishits1880populationcountuntil1887.Topreventasimilarlagforthe1890census,thefederalgovernmenthiredBillingstooverseetheprocess.Billingsinturnrealizedthatthemassiveprojectrequiredautomation.HeturnedtoHollerith,aprofessorofmechanicalengineeringattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,whowaswooingBillings’sdaughterKate.

InstrumentalInspirationHollerith’sinventionwouldsetthecourseformoderncomputing,butinspirationcamefromanoldworldfixture:theplayerpiano.Popularinthelate19thcentury,theseinstrumentsusedrollsofpaperwithholespunchedintothemtomanipulateindividual

instrumentsusedrollsofpaperwithholespunchedintothemtomanipulateindividualkeys.Similarly,Hollerith’sdevicetookitstabulatingcuesfromcardswithholesthatcorrespondedtospecificdatapoints.Whenthecardsweremanuallyfedintoamachine,theywerepressedbywiresinto

smallpoolsofmercury,eachforadifferentpunchcardhole.Theholesorcombinationsofholespunchedinsheetsofelectricallynonconductingmaterialcouldrecordstatisticalitemspertainingtoeachpersonsurveyed.Mechanicalcountersoperatedbyelectromagnetscouldthencountandtallytheinformation.

PunchCardProgrammingUsingHollerith’stabulatingmachines,theyears-longjobofconductingthe1890censuswascuttothreemonthsandsavedtaxpayersareported$5million.In1896,HollerithstartedtheTabulatingMachineCompanyinWashington,D.C.Aftermergingwithotherbusinesses,TabulatingMachinebecameComputing-Tabulating-RecordingCompany,andin1924itwasrechristenedtheInternationalBusinessMachinesCorporation—familiartotheworldtodayasIBM.Punchcardsenteredeverywalkoflifeinthe20thcentury,improvingdata

managementacrossbusinessandindustry.Laterinlife,Hollerithwithdrewfromthefast-pacedlifehehadhelpedcreate.Heretiredfromhiscompanyin1921toraiseGuernseycattleonhisfarminruralMarylandanddiedin1929.

GovernmentclerksusemassivetabulatingmachinestomanageSocialSecurityrecordsofmillionsofAmericansin1940.

HeFoundHisCalling

ALEXANDERGRAHAMBELL(1847–1922)Telephone

AnearlyBellTelephonepayphonesignfrom1899

ForAlexanderGrahamBell,theinventorofthetelephone,thestudyofsoundwasbothaprofessionalandpersonalsubject.Hisfatherandhisgrandfathertaughtspeechandelocution,hismotherwashearing-impaired,andBellhimselffoundedaschoolforthedeaf.Whenhedevelopedthebasictechnologyforthetelephone,hewastryingtocreateanaidforthehearing-impaired.Laterinlife,Bellrefusedtohaveatelephoneinhisstudybecausehethoughtitwoulddistracthimfromhisscientificwork.

WavesofSoundWhilelivinginBostoninthemid-1870s,Bellbeganexperimentingwithtransmittingseveraltelegraphmessagessimultaneouslyoverasinglewireandwithdevicestohelpthedeaflearntospeak.In1874hecompletedamachinethatvibratedvisiblywhenspokeninto.Heintendedthisphonoautograph,ashecalledit,tohelpstudentsvisualizesound,buttheideaofbeingabletoseesoundasawaveinspiredBell’simagination.Ifhecouldmanipulateanelectricalcurrenttomatchthesamepatternasasoundwave,theelectricalcurrentwouldcarrythatsoundwavefromonelocationtoanother.

another.By1876Bellhadalmostfiguredoutasystem.Hisinitialdesignconsistedofatin

mouthpiecefittedwithamembraneandanelectricallychargedneedle.Asthesoundofaspeaker’svoicemadethemembranevibrate,theneedlemovedalongacupofacidicwater.Theresultingvibrationstraveledthroughawiretoareceiver,wheretheyweretranslatedbackintosound.Bellandhisassistant,ThomasWatson,knewtheyhadsomethingwhenBellcalledthroughthemouthpieceforWatsoninthenextroom,andWatsonheardhimloudandclear.

PerfectingtheTechnologyBellsubmittedapatentonFebruary14,1876,andunveiledthetelephoneattheCentennialExpositioninPhiladelphiathatsummerbyrecitingthefamous“Tobeornottobe”soliloquyfromHamlet.Forthefirsttimeinhistory,ahumanbeingcouldcommunicatewithanothervirtuallyinstantaneouslyregardlessofdistance.Itwasirresistible—by1877,justayearafterBellfiledhispatent,majorEastCoastcitieswerealreadylayingtelephonewire.Withhisnewfoundinternationalfame,Bellfocusedoncapitalizingonthetelephone.

HeorganizedtheBellTelephoneCompanyinJuly1877andlaterthatsamemonthmarriedaformerstudent,MabelHubbard.ThetwotraveledtoEuropetodemonstratetheinvention.Uponreturn,Belldealtwiththefirstwaveofmanypatentlawsuitschallenginghisownershipoftelephonetechnology.Therewouldbenearly600similarlegalchallengesintheyearstocome,butBellheldoutandwonthemall.Bell’scareerasaninventordidn’tendwiththetelephone.Laterinlifehe

experimentedwithmetaldetectors,createddesignsforhydrofoilboats,andengineeredearlyaircraftwithhisco-inventorsattheAerialExperimentAssociation.Hewasalsoaheadofhistimeexploringgreentechnologies.AthishomeinNovaScotia,Bellsketchedoutplansforeverythingfromcompostingtoiletstosolarpanels.WhenhediedonAugust2,1922,alltelephoneservicethroughouttheUnitedStatesandCanadawasshutdownforaminutetohonorhislife.

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AlexanderGrahamBellmakesthefirsttelephonecallfromNewYorktoChicagoin1892,just16yearsafterheinventedthetelephone.

BELLDEVELOPEDTHEBASICTECHNOLOGYFORTHETELEPHONEASAWAYTOHELPDEAFSTUDENTSVISUALIZESOUND.

DuplicationSensation

CHESTERCARLSON(1906–1968)Xerography

ChesterCarlsonwiththefirstmodelofhisinvention

HowfittingthattwoofChesterCarlson’sfavoritechildhoodplaythingswerearubberstampsetandatoytypewriter.Thephysicist,inventor,andpatentattorneygrewuptoinventxerography—aprocessknowntodaysimplyascopying.Thepathwasslightlycircuitous.WhenCarlsongraduatedfromcollegewithadegree

inphysics,in1930,hewasunabletolandworkinhischosenfield.ThebesthecouldfindwasapositionasapatentclerkataNewYorkelectronicscompany,wheredayin,dayouthehand-copiedsketchesandchartsthataccompaniedthefirm’smanypatentfilings.Throughscientificjournals,CarlsonlearnedthattheEastmanKodakCompanywas

experimentingwithawet-documentduplicationprocesssimilartodevelopingphotographs.Asfarashecouldtell,noonewaspursuingadryversionoftheconcept,andhebeganresearchingmaterialsthatcouldduplicatedocumentsthroughtheabsorptionoflight.HisinvestigationssoonoutgrewhisapartmentinJacksonHeights,

absorptionoflight.HisinvestigationssoonoutgrewhisapartmentinJacksonHeights,Queens.HespenthissavingsonanAstoriarentalwherehesetupalabandhiredanassistanttoworkoutthefundamentalsofelectrophotography.

TheHardSellCarlson’sfirstmajorsuccesscameonOctober22,1938.Heprinted“10-22-38Astoria”onaglassslideandrubbedacottonclothagainstasulfur-coatedzincplatetocreateanelectrostaticcharge.Carlsonthenpressedtheplateontotheslideandheldituptoalightinadarkenedroom.Heremovedtheslide,sprinkledtheplatewithadevelopingpowder,andpressedwaxpapertotheplate.Thepaperread“10-22-38Astoria.”Carlsonimmediatelyfiledtopatenttheprocess,envisioningitshugecommercial

potential.Fewagreed;from1939to1944heunsuccessfullypitchedtheideatomorethan20companies,includingIBM.Crucialsupporttodeveloptheprocessfurthercamein1944fromthenonprofitresearchanddevelopmentorganizationBattelleMemorialInstitute.

ADealforDryWritingFinally,in1947theHaloidPhotographyCompany,inRochester,NewYork,tookachanceonCarlson’sinvention.Theproductneededaname,andaconsultantsuggested“xerography,”fromtheGreekwordsfor“drywriting.”Inspiredby“Kodak,”withitsbookendingKs,HaloidcalleditsfirstcopymachineaXerox.Xeroxcopierssoldmoderatelyinthe1950s;theymadeblack-and-whitecopieson

regularpaperthattheuserhadtoindividuallyfeedintothemachine.Thecompanyintroduceditsfirstfullyautomatedmodel,the914,in1959.The914becametheera’smostquicklyadoptedpieceoftechnology.By1968,Xeroxwassellingnearly$1billionayearworthofcopiers.Thatsumdidn’tmeanmuchtoCarlson,however:lateinhislifeheandhiswife,

Dorris,becamepractitionersofBuddhismandespouseditsvirtueofnonattachment.Hegave$150millionofhisearningstopacifist,civilrights,andBuddhistorganizations,includingfundingfortheRochesterZenCenterandDaiBosatsuZendoKongo-ji,aZenmonasteryinNewYork’sCatskillMountains.Whenhediedin1968,UnitedNationssecretarygeneralUThantgaveamemorialaddresshonoringCarlson’smoralcharacter.

FORTUNEMAGAZINEHAILEDCARLSON’SMOXIEANDSAVVYINARETROSPECTIVEONHISINVENTIONTHATCALLEDIT“THEMOST

SUCCESSFULPRODUCTEVERMARKETEDINAMERICA.”

ZerotoHero

GEORGESTIBITZ(1904–1995)Binarycomputing

GeorgeStibitz,shownherein1990,isoneofthefathersofmoderndigitalcomputing.

GeorgeStibitzwasaborninventor.Attheageofeight,henearlysetfiretohisfamily’sDayton,Ohio,housebyexperimentingwiththecircuitsofanelectricmotor.Recognizingtheirson’scuriosityaboutallthingstechnical,hisparentssenthimtoaspecialhighschoolwithrigorousacademics.Aftercollege,StibitztookajobattheBellTelephoneLaboratoriesinNewYorkCityintheearly1930s.

RelaytheInformationAbigprobleminthetelecommunicationsindustryatthetimewashowtoquicklyperformthemathematicalcalculationsnecessaryforsettinguptelephonenetworks.Stibitzintuitedthatakeycomponentwouldbearelay—ametallicdevicethatallowselectricalcurrentstoflowthroughitintwodifferentpositions(openandclosed).UsingtelephoneequipmentborrowedfromhisBellLabemployers,adrycellbattery,

UsingtelephoneequipmentborrowedfromhisBellLabemployers,adrycellbattery,flashlightbulbs,andsomealuminumstripsmadefromatobaccocan,Stibitzbuiltthefirstelectromechanicalrelays.Hecoupledtheswitcheswithelectricallyconductivematerial,creatingaprimitivecomputerthatcouldsolvesimpleequationsusingabinarycodeofones(“on,”representedbyalightedbulb)andzeros(“off,”representedbyanunlightedbulb).FriendsofStibitzdubbedthisearlycomputerthe“K-Model”becausehemostly

constructeditathomeonhiskitchentable.Thetechnologypavedthewayforbinarydigitalcomputers,whichoperateonStibitz’ssystemofonesandzeros.

RemoteComputingIn1939StibitzdebutedtheModel1ComplexCalculator,capableofperformingeight-digitdivisionin30seconds—fastforthetime.Ina1940demonstrationbeforetheAmericanMathematicalSociety,hesentremotecommandsviateletypefromDartmouthCollegeinNewHampshiretohislatestcomputer(theComplexNumberCalculator)inNewYorkCity.Thecomputerwasabletosolveproblemslongdistanceandtransmitbackthe

answers.Byconvertingdataintosimpleelectronicpulsesandbackintodatafromadistance,Stibitzperformedthefirstremotecomputertaskandthefirstinstanceofdigital,orbinary,computing.Astheworldembracedthecomputerage,Stibitzbeganapplyinghisdigitalexpertise

tomedicine.HejoinedthefacultyofDartmouth’smedicalschoolin1964,usingcomputerstotrackthemovementofbreathandthebody’sfilteringofdrugsandnutrients.

BreakingtheCode

HEDYLAMARR(1914–2000)Spreadspectrumcommunication

Lamarr’sinventionreceivedworldwidecoverage,includingthisarticleinStarsandStripes,theofficialnewspaperoftheU.SArmedForces.

InHollywoodandinmovietheatersacrossthecountry,HedyLamarrwasascreensiren,billedas“themostbeautifulwomanintheworld”andthestaroffilmslikeAlgiersandSamsonandDelilah.Butinthe1940s,tohelptheAlliesdefeattheNazis,Lamarrlefthermarkinamuchmoresignificantway:sheinventedthetechnologythatledtoeverythingfromcellphonestoGPS.

MoreThanaScriptGirlLamarr’sunlikelycareerstartedinhernativeVienna,whereshewasdiscoveredbyaproducerinthe1920s.AfterastintinBerlin,shegotinvolvedinVienna’sgrowingfilmindustry,workingasascriptgirlandlaterasanactress,eventuallyweddingthewealthyarmsdealerFriedrichMandl.Lamarrlaterclaimedthatduringtheirfour-yearmarriage,Mandlkepthervirtuallya

prisonerintheirhome.Sheeventuallyescaped,makingherwaytoParis,gettinga

prisonerintheirhome.Sheeventuallyescaped,makingherwaytoParis,gettingadivorce,andmeetingLouisB.Mayer,theAmericanfilmproducer.Mayerpromotedtheyoungstarlet,andshewascastoppositethebiggestactorsoftheday,includingClarkGableandSpencerTracy.ThisiswhenLamarrbecameinterestedinusingscientificknowledgetosolve

problemsanddevelopnewtechnologies.Inhertimeawayfromthemovieset,sheexperimentedwithinventingproducts,suchasatabletthatcreatedaninstantcarbonatedbeveragewhendroppedinwater.DuringWorldWarII,LamarrwantedtocontributeinsomewaytotheAlliedeffort

andteamedupwithGeorgeAntheil,acomposerandinventorshehadmetatadinnerparty.Together,thefriendsdevisedasystemtobreakupcommunicationsbetweenradio-controlledtorpedoesandtheircontrolcenters.Themethod,calledsynchronizedswitching,usedmultiplefrequenciestocodesignalssothattheNaziscouldnot“jam”themandsendthetorpedoesoffcourse.TheU.S.Navydeemedthetechnologytoodifficulttoimplementatthetime,butitwaslaterusedduringtheCubanMissileCrisisin1962(nineyearsafterLamarrbecameaU.S.citizen).

ModernApplicationsDecadeslater,Lamarr’sinventionbecamethefoundationforspreadspectrumtechnology,akeycomponentofmodernwirelesscommunicationslikecellphones,code-divisionmultipleaccess(CDMA),Bluetooth,andWi-Fi.Lamarr’slifeunraveledinherlateryears.Shewasdivorcedsixtimes,andherfinances

werestrained.Shewasarrestedforshopliftingmultipletimes,thenbecamearecluse,communicatingwithothersonlyviaphone.ShediedinFloridain2000atage86.LamarrandAntheilwereposthumouslyinductedintotheNationalInventorsHallofFamein2014.

CDMAcellphonetechnology,basedonHedyLamarr’sinvention,exponentiallyincreasedcallcapacity.

DURINGTHE1930S,LAMARRACCOMPANIEDHERFIRSTHUSBAND,AWEALTHYAUSTRIANARMSDEALER,ATBUSINESSMEETINGSAND

LEARNEDABOUTMILITARYTECHNOLOGY.

LaserSharpJAMEST.RUSSELL(b.1931)Opticaldigitalrecordingandplayback

JamesT.Russelltinkersinhisbasementlaboratoryin2005.

JamesT.Russell,alaserscientistatthePacificNorthwestNationalLaboratoryinRichland,Washington,lovedtolistentoclassicalcompositions.In1965thephonographwasthebestoptionforhearingrecordedmusic,butRusselldidn’tlikehowtheplayer’sstylusworeoutsofast.Hetriedalternatives—inoneinstance,heexperimentedwithacactusneedle—thenhituponanideafromhiswork:usealaser.

BirthoftheDiscRussellencodedsounddigitallyasmicroscopicpitsandflatsonaglassdiscthatalasercouldreadwithoutwearingoutanymaterial.Hefiledapatentforthesystem,whichPhilipsConsumerElectronicsdevelopedfurthertostorevideoon12-inchdiscs.PhilipsandSonyCorporationteamedupandstandardizedtheCDsat74minutes—

longenoughtofulfillSonyCEOAkioMorita’smandatetofitallofBeethoven’sNinthSymphonyononedisc.CDsweremarketedasreplacementsforvinylrecords—perfectsoundwithoutskipsorscratches.ThefirstCDsfinallywentonsalein1982withtwooptions:ABBA’sTheVisitorsandBillyJoel’s52ndStreet.

OpticalInstrumentsandOtherInterestsIntheyearsfollowinghisbreakthroughinvention,Russellcontinuedtoworkinthefieldofcompactdisctechnology.HedevelopedwaystostoreandaccessinformationbesidesmusiconaCD-ROM,earning26patentsforthetechnologyalone.Hewasalsoinstrumentalincreatingthefirstvideodiscin1973.HeevenenvisionedaNetflix-likeworld,suggestingthattelevisionnetworksmailtheirprogramsdirectlytoviewersondiscsratherthanproducethemforbroadcast.Today,Russellcontinuestoworkonimprovingbarcodescannersandotheroptical

instruments,aswellasdevelopingdesignsfortransitsystemsandalternativehousingtoendurbansprawl.Oneofthebest-knownishis“linearcity,”ametropolitancenterpopulatedwithhalf-mile-talltowersandconnectedbyhigh-speedrailroads.

SalesofmusicCDspeakedin2000,with2.5billionsoldthatyear.

GoFigure

DANBRICKLIN(b.1951)Electronicspreadsheet

DanBricklin,inventorofthepersonalcomputerspreadsheet,sitswithalaptopcomputernearhisNewton,Massachusetts,homein2006.

Theelectronicspreadsheettracesitsbeginningstoa1978computerprogrammingclassforentrepreneursatHarvardBusinessSchool.StudentDanBricklinwaswatchingalecturerrewriteallhisfiguresonachalkboardtofixoneincorrectinputwhenhethoughtthattherehadtobeabetterwaytoprocessinformation.WithhisfriendBobFrankstonhelpingwiththeprogramming,Bricklinbegansearchingforsolutions.

TheDigitalLedgerAcomputerhobbyistwhobuiltthemachinesfromscratchanddevelopedsoftwareforthem,Bricklinhadbeenprogrammingcomputerssincehishighschooldaysinthe

them,Bricklinhadbeenprogrammingcomputerssincehishighschooldaysinthe1960s.Hespenttwomonthsontheinformation-processingproblem.Thenin1979,hereachedananswer:hecombinedanotherhobbyist’sword-processingprogramwithacalculatorprogram.Theresultwasan“electronicblackboardandelectronicchalk,”ashedescribedit.Bricklin’sinitialcodingcouldhandleamatrixof5columnsand20rows.Hecalledhis

dynamicdataorganizera“spreadsheet”becausethescreenoflines,boxes,andnumbersremindedhimoftheoversizedpagesofabookkeeper’sledger.BricklinnamedtheprogramVisiCalcandformedacompanywithFrankstonunderthesamenametosellit.

BusinessFriendlyThespreadsheetmarkedthefirsttimecomputersofferedauser-friendlybusinesstool.VisiCalcinstantlyperformedcalculationsinaneasy-to-readinterfaceandwasquicklyembracedintheAmericanoffice.ThesoftwarehelpedspursalesofcomputersliketheAppleIIandtheIBMPC—intheearly1980sspecifically—becausethemachinescouldrunVisiCalcaswellasspreadsheetsuccessorssuchasLotus1-2-3andMicrosoftExcel.Bricklinlaterexplainedtheprogram’spopularity:“[It]tooktwentyhoursofworkperweekforsomepeopleandturneditoutinfifteenminutesandletthembecomemuchmorecreative.”Bricklin’sworkdidn’tendwiththespreadsheet.Inthe1990shefocusedon

diversifyinghiscompany,SoftwareGardenInc.,withprogramsfordevelopingsoftware,laserprinting,anddatadisplay.RecentlySoftwareGardenhasbranchedoutintoappsforsmartphonesandtablets.Bricklinisknownassomethingofaguruinthetechnologysector;inadditiontolecturing,hehosts“DanBricklin’sSoftwareLicensingPodcast”andistheauthorofBricklinonTechnology,abookabouttherelationshipbetweenpeopleandcomputers.

BRICKLINWASACOMPUTERHOBBYISTWHOSTARTEDPROGRAMMINGINHIGHSCHOOL.HEDESCRIBEDHIS

SPREADSHEETINVENTIONASAN“ELECTRONICCHALKBOARD.”

TheScanArtist

GARYSTARKWEATHER(b.1938)Laserprinter

Close-upoftheinnerworkingsofalaserprinter

LaserprinterinventorGaryStarkweatherwasallsettopursueelectricalengineeringwhenachancejobassignmentintervened.Whileincollege,Starkweathertookapositionworkingforaphysicsprofessorwhospecializedinthestudyoflight.Starkweatherdiscoveredhewasfascinatedbylensesandwentontopursueagraduatedegreeinoptics.Afterashort-termpositionateye-careproviderBausch&Lomb,helandedajobasaresearchengineeratXerox’sWebsterResearchCenterinRochester,NewYork,in1967.

TheLaserandtheSpinningDrumThelaserprinterbeganasastealthsideproject.Atthetime,theprintingprocesswas

Thelaserprinterbeganasastealthsideproject.Atthetime,theprintingprocesswasbasedoncopyinganoriginaldocument.OnedayStarkweatherlookedaroundtheresearchlabatthemassivemainframemachinestaskedwithmakingfacsimilesofdocumentsandwonderedwhethertherewasn’talesscumbersomemethod.Hehitontheideaofhavingacomputercreatetheoriginalsinstead.Thekeytothis,Starkweatherrealized,wouldbetousealaserbeamtodefinethe

imagetobeprintedonthecopierdrum.Thestumblingblock:price.Becauselasersweresoexpensive—about$3,000apiece—Starkweather’ssupervisorsrejectedhisplantodeveloptheidea.ButStarkweatherwasconvincedthatlaserpriceswouldfallandrecruitedsomecoworkerstosecretlybuildalaserprinterfromamodifiedXeroxphotocopier.Intheteam’sprototype,lightfromalaserbouncedoffaspinningdrumwitheightmirroredsides.Aspaperpassedbeneaththedrum,thelaser“wrote”whatwastobecopied.

GoingWestIntriguedbyStarkweather’sproject,executivesatXerox’sPaloAltoResearchCenter(PARC)inPaloAlto,California,invitedtheengineertotheWestCoasttodevelopit.In1971,heproducedthefirstfunctioninglaserprinter,dubbedSLOT,for“ScannedLaserOutputTerminal.”ItwasusedinternallyatPARCvianetworkedcomputerterminals.Afterafewyearshoningthedesign,thecompanydebutedacommerciallyavailablemodel,theXerox9700.Starkweatherwasunable,however,toconvinceXeroxtobackhisnextidea,apersonal

laserprinterforhomeuse.ButasXeroxfocusedontheofficemarket,Starkweather’shunchturnedouttoberight.Today,laserprintersaresoinexpensivethatcopiermakersearnmorefromthesaleoftonercartridgesthantheprintersthemselves.TheinventorleftXeroxin1987,firsttakingajobwithAppleandthenMicrosoftbeforeretiringin2005.Hestaysinvolvedinthetechnologyworldbyjudgingstudentsciencecompetitionsandmentoringup-and-comingengineers.

Inadditiontothelaserprinter,GaryStarkweatherhasbeenapioneerincolormanagementtechnology,whichstandardizescoloracrossdevices.

BringItonHome

HENRYEDWARDROBERTS(1941–2010)Personalcomputer

HenryEdwardRoberts’sAltair8800,whichdebutedin1974

Therearemanyengineercontendersforthetitleofinventorofthehomecomputer,butHenryEdwardRobertsstandsoutforanunlikelyreason:healmostdidn’tenterthefieldatall.Robertswasincollegeandplanningtobecomeadoctorwhenamentoradvisedhimtogetanengineeringdegreefirst.Aftergraduation,RobertsservedastintintheAirForceandbythenthoughtitwastoolatetogomedicalschool.HetookajobasanelectricalengineeratKirtlandAirForceBaseanddevotedhimselftosupportinghisyoungfamily.

TheFirstPCTosupplementhissalary,Robertsbegansellingmail-ordermodelrocketkitsoutofhisgarageinAlbuquerqueinthelate1960s.Findingitdifficulttobuildupaclientbase,hetriedthesamethingwithelectroniccalculatorkits.Itwasawisedecision:thebusinessventurewasnetting$100,000permonthbyearly1973.Thereweremoretwistsandturns.Ascalculatorsbegantofloodthemarketinthemid-1970s,theircostdroppedtremendously.Robertssoonfoundhiscompany,MicroInstrumentationandTelemetrySystems(MITS),indebt.Tostayafloat,hebegansellingbuild-your-own-computerkits.Inhisbankloanapplication,Robertssaidhethoughthecouldsell800ofthem—thoughsecretlyhebelieveditwouldbecloserto200.Hereceivedfinancing,

andin1974hesettoworkdesigningtheAltair8800—asmall,programmablemodelhisdaughternamedaftersomethingshesawonStarTrek.

CoverFeatureWhileothermakersmarketedearlymodelcomputerstobusinessesorscientists,Roberts’sfocusedonconsumers.HeusedIntel8080microprocessorsboughtinbulkdiscounttokeepthecostofhiskitdown.Startinginlate1974,hesoldthemachinefor$439asakitand$639fullyassembled.TheAltairwasfeaturedintheJanuary1975issueofPopularElectronicsmagazine.The

modelRobertshadbuiltforthecovershootneverarrivedattheeditorialoffices;underdeadline,withouttimetorebuildanAltairfromscratch,MITShadtocreateafakemodelwithflashingLEDlights.Nevertheless,thestorybroketheproductinabigway:MITSreceivedathousandordersforitinFebruary1975alone.TheAltairsoldsorapidlythatMITShadtohirestaffjusttohelpprocesstheorders.

DesktopRevolutionSoonRobertsheardfromtwoyoungmen,BillGatesandPaulAllen,whowantedtosellhimaprogramminglanguagefortheAltair8800.Robertstookthemupontheiroffer,andGatesandAllencompletedtheentireprogram,orcompiler,in30days.TheycalledtheprogramAltairBASICandfoundedacompanycalledMicro-Softtosellit.ThePCrevolutionhadbegun.Robertsretiredearly,takinguporganicvegetablefarminginruralGeorgiaand

fulfillinghisdreamofbecomingadoctor.HewasevenelectedtotheAlphaOmegaAlphamedicalhonorsocietyforhisworkinruralmedicine.Hediedin2010,afteralongbattlewithpneumonia.AmonghisfinalvisitorswasBillGates.

RobertswiththeAltair8800computerin1977

WHENROBERTSDIEDIN2010,BILLGATESANDPAULALLENPOSTEDAJOINTTRIBUTETOTHEIR“FRIENDANDMENTOR”:[HE]“WASWILLINGTOTAKEACHANCEONUS...ANDWEHAVEALWAYS

BEENGRATEFULTOHIM.”

HittingSend

RAYTOMLINSON(1941–2016)Email

TheMuseumofModernArtaddedthe@symboltoitscollectionin2010,creditingRayTomlinson.HereheisinhisofficeinMassachusettsin1999.

Theengineerwhodevelopedthemessagesystemthatdefinesmodernofficelifedidsoinsecretbecauseheworriedhisbosswouldreprimandhimforshirkingworkassignments.In1968RayTomlinsonwasworkingforaresearch-and-developmentfirmcontracted

byadivisionoftheDepartmentofDefensetohelpbuildtheARPAnetcomputernetwork,theprecursortotheInternet.Whileassignedtotheproject,TomlinsonwroteaprogramcalledSNDMSG(sendmessage),whichhisworkcolleaguesusedtoexchangeshortnotes.Thefirstelectronicmail,or“email,”wassentbetweentwocomputerssittingsidebyside,withanotethatread“QWERTYUIOP,”thefirstrowofthekeyboard.Genius,exceptforoneproblem:themessagescouldonlybereadattheworkstationofitsrecipient.

Email@ccessOverthenextfewyears,Tomlinsonrefinedtheelectronicmailsystemsothemessagescouldbeaccessedfromanycomputeronthenetworksimplybysigningintoauser

couldbeaccessedfromanycomputeronthenetworksimplybysigningintoauseraccount.Toreachtherightplace,messageshadtobeassignedthenameoftherecipientandalocation.Tomlinsonusedthissetup:name@hostcomputername.(The“@”symbolwaschosenbecauseitwouldnotbeconfusedwithcharactersinaperson’sname.Tomlinsonlatercalledit“theonlyprepositiononthekeyboard.”)EmailcaughtonquicklyatTomlinson’sfirmandonARPAnet.Concernedhismanagerswoulddisapprove,Tomlinsonaskedhiscoworkerstokeepitasecret.Butwordgotout,andby1973three-quartersofalltrafficonARPAnetwasemail.Tomlinsondidn’tpatenthisinvention,preferringtoshareitfreelywiththeworld.Ina

2009NationalPublicRadiointerview,Tomlinsonsaidhehadsomeideaintheearly1970sofhisinvention’srevolutionarypotential:“WhatIdidn’timaginewashowquicklythatwouldhappen.”Tomlinsonhasreceivedmanyawardsforhisgame-changingwork,includingthe

GeorgeR.StibitzComputerPioneerAward,anIEEEInternetAward,andaninductionintotheInternetHallofFame.

MeettheWhiz

PALMERLUCKEY(b.1992)Virtualreality

PalmerLuckeywithhisOculusRiftvirtualrealitydevice

Beforeherevolutionizedtheworldofvirtualreality,PalmerLuckeywasaprecociousteenwhospenthissparetimedissectingandreassemblingsmallelectronics,Teslacoils,andgamingequipmentinhisparents’garage.Asahome-schooledteenagerinLongBeach,California,hecollectedover50head-mountedgamingdisplays.Whilecomparingandcontrastingtheirstrengthsandweaknesses,hedecidedtotrytocreatesomethingbetter.

OpeningtheFieldofVisionFrom2009through2012,LuckeystudiedjournalismatCalStateLongBeachandworkedatatechnology-developmentlabattheUniversityofSouthernCalifornia.Inhissparetime,hecontinuedhisobsessionwithgamingheadsetsandbegantoworkonprototypesforanewvirtualrealitydevice.Luckeycreatedaheadsetwith90-degreefieldofvision,whichheeventuallyupgradedto270degrees.Themodelgotlighterandmoresophisticated.Throughonlineforums,wordofLuckey’sdevice—nowcalledthe“OculusRift”—

spreadthroughthetechcommunity.(Thenameisthoughttobeanodto“oculus,”

spreadthroughthetechcommunity.(Thenameisthoughttobeanodto“oculus,”Latinforeye,andthegapbetweentherealandvirtualworlds.)AmongthoseinterestedwasvideogamedeveloperJohnCarmack,whorequestedaprototypedirectlyfromLuckey.WhenCarmackdebutedhisslightlyalteredversionoftheRiftatthe2012ElectronicEntertainmentExpo,Luckeyreceivedasurgeofnewattention.HesoondroppedoutofcollegetoworkontheRiftfulltime.Toraisemoney,helaunchedaKickstartercampaign,promisingtogivedonorskitssotheycouldbuildtheirownRift.Thecampaignraised$2.4millionandattractedtheattentionofmajortechinvestors.

TheRiftThatKeepsonGivingOculusRiftovercomeslatency—thelagtimebetweenauser’smovementsandtheimagesonthescreen—bytaking1,000readingspersecondfromagyroscope,accelerometer,andmagnetometer,effectivelytappingthevisualcortex.Besidesgamingandsocialmedia,virtualrealityholdspromiseinmedicineandeducation,accordingtoproponentssuchasFacebookco-founderMarkZuckerberg.Infact,ZuckerbergwassoimpressedbyLuckey’sinventionthatFacebookacquiredOculusfor$2billionin2014.AretailversionoftheRiftwasreleasedinMay2016,featuringstate-of-the-artoptics

andbuilt-inheadphones.Itwasoneofthefirstvirtualrealitydevicesspecificallytargetedtoconsumersasopposedtothehigh-end,bulkyprototypesofthepast.Inspiteofhisnewfoundwealth,Luckeyhasstuckwithmanyofhisoldhabits.He’softenspottedinaHawaiianshirtandshortsattechevents,heldontohis2001HondaInsightevenaftertheFacebookdeal,andprefersfast-foodjointsoverCalifornia’shautecuisine.

Theproblemwithearliervirtualrealitydeviceswasthattheymadetheusernauseousduetothelaginimages.

LUCKEYWASNAMEDA“PIONEER”INTIMEMAGAZINE’S2016LISTOFTHE100MOSTINFLUENTIALPEOPLE.

HOMEBenFranklin.ClarenceBirdseye.TonyFadell.TheseAmericanshave

revolutionizedthewaywelive.

Inventorsinfluenceeveryareaofourlives,fromthewayweworktothewaywespendleisuretimewithourfamilies.

RenaissanceMan

BENJAMINFRANKLIN(1706–1790)Bifocals,lightningrod,andmore

InthisCurrier&Iveslithograph,BenjaminFranklinandhissonWilliamuseakiteandkeyduringastormtoprovethatlightningwaselectricity,inJune1752.

BythetimeBenjaminFranklinwas16,hehadalreadyworkedasasoap-andcandlemaker,aprinter,andawriter,andhiseclecticcareerhadbeensetinmotion.Inhismid-20s,Franklinenteredpublicservice,organizingtheUnionFireCompanyinPhiladelphia,andsoonhewaselectedtothePennsylvaniaassembly.Atthesametime,Franklinpursuedscienceandinvention—theFranklinstove,bifocals,daylightsavingstime,tonameafew—andworkedtoexpandhumanunderstandingofelectricity.

IntheAmericanGrainYetperhapsthisstatesmanandscientist’sgreatestinventionwastheAmericancharacteritself.Heembodiedtraitssuchascourage,optimism,anddedicationandemphasizedthoseinPoorRichard’sAlmanack,apublicationhewroteandproducedformorethantwodecades.Filledwithaphorismssuchas“Losttimeisnotfoundagain”and“Diligenceisthemotherofgoodluck,”thealmanacsteeredreaderstohardworkandsteadyhabits.

GoingElectricWhilevisitingBostonin1746,Franklinreadaboutsomescientificexperimentswith

WhilevisitingBostonin1746,Franklinreadaboutsomescientificexperimentswithelectricity.Anavidweatherbuff,hewasalwaysstudyingstormsandspeculatingabouttheirinnerworkings.Themorehelearned,themorehebegantobelievethatlightningmightbeaformofelectricity.Hethoughthecouldprovethistheoryusingametalrodeightto10feetlongthatcouldattractlightningandagroundingwiretotransmittheenergygeneratedbythestrike.Atthetime,ChristChurchinPhiladelphiawasplanningtobuildametalsteeple,and

Franklinthoughtthestructurewouldbeidealtotesthislightning-rodhypothesis.Butconstructiondraggedon,andbyJune1752,thesteeplehadyettobeinstalled.Franklincameupwithadifferenttackusingametalkeyattachedtoakite.Hewrappedhishandinsilkribbonandflewthekiteduringastorm.Thekeyattractedelectricityandtraveleddownthewethempkitestring,“charging”thestringandtransferringthechargetothekey.Lightningrodshavesincebeeninstalledonmillionsofstructuresandpreventedcountlessfires.

DoubleVisionFranklinneededglassessincehewasabout30,butasheaged,hisvisiongotprogressivelyworse,tothepointthathehadtroublewithbothreadingandseeingdistances.Hehadtwotypesofglasses,onepairforupcloseandtheotherforfaraway.HavingtoconstantlyswitchbackandforthbetweenthetwoannoyedFranklinbutinspiredanidea:asplitlenswherethebottompartofthelenswouldbesettoamagnificationallowinghimtoseethingsbettercloseup,whilethetoppartwouldbesettoimprovehisdistanceviewing.Hecalledhisinvention“doublespectacles,”andby1779he’dfoundtwoopticiansto

producethem.Franklinsharedtheideawithhiscircleoffriends,whoalsoordereddoublespectacles.Butitwasn’tuntil1790,whenabookaboutFranklinandhisinventionswaspublished,thatbifocalsbecamepopularintheUnitedStates.

A1767portraitofFranklinthatispartoftheWhiteHouseartcollection

WEHAVEFRANKLINTOTHANKFORDAYLIGHTSAVINGSTIME.HESUGGESTEDINA1784LETTERTOAPARISNEWSPAPERTHATMAKINGPEOPLERISEANDGOTOBEDEARLIERWOULDSAVE

MONEYONCANDLESANDOILLAMPS.

ArchitectofaNation

THOMASJEFFERSON(1743–1826)Domesticandagrarianarts

ThomasJefferson,showninan1805portraitbyartistRembrandtPeale

ThomasJeffersonwasamanofcontradictions:abonvivantwithdarksecrets,afarmerwhowasequallyathomeinthefieldsandintheEnlightenment-erasalonsofParis,andaproponentofmankind’sfreedomandequalitywhononethelessownedslaves.Bornathisfamily’sShadwell,Virginia,plantation,Jeffersonwasthethirdof10children.HegrewuptoauthortheDeclarationofIndependence,servetwotermsaspresident,andfoundtheUniversityofVirginia.

TheYoungAgrarianThepastoralsettingsandculturedatmosphereofShadwellandnearbyTuckahoePlantation(wheretheJeffersonfamilyalsolivedforseveralyears)wereinstrumentalinshapingJefferson’scharacter.Hebecameinterestedinagriculture,tookuphorsebackriding,andexcelledatlanguagesandplayingtheviolin.

riding,andexcelledatlanguagesandplayingtheviolin.AftergraduatingfromtheCollegeofWilliamandMary,inWilliamsburg,Virginia,in

1760,Jeffersonstudiedlawandestablishedhimselfasanattorney.Healsoinheritedafortunefromhisfather,includingover3,000acresoffarmlandinVirginia’sPiedmontregion.JeffersonbeganconstructinghisMonticelloplantationhomenearCharlottesville.Thestructurewascompletedby1782,buthecontinuedimprovingMonticellountiltheendofhislife.

AStudentofMonticelloBetween1785and1789,JeffersonservedasAmericanambassador,appointedtoFrance.HerehesoakeduptheFrenchculture,attendingintellectualsalons,observingitsartandarchitecture,andparticipatinginitsvibrantsociallife.HistimeinParis,aswellasexcursionsthroughoutEurope,inspiredmanyideasthathewouldtakebackwithhimtoAmerica.In1794,followinghistenureasthefirstU.S.SecretaryofState,Jeffersonbeganan

extensiveremodelingofMonticellobasedontheEuropeanarchitecturaltrends.Headdedimposingcolumnsandskylights.Hecreatedthebuilding’ssignaturedomedroof.Andintheprocess,hecreatedanewformofAmericanarchitecture.WhenMonticellowasfinallycompletedin1809,itwasacknowledgedasamasterwork.JeffersondevelopedmanyinventionsasheremodeledMonticello.Amongthemwas

anironandmoldboardplowbasedonEuropeanmodels.Theplowcouldtillfieldsinadownhilldirectionwhilesafeguardingagainstsoilerosion.Indoors,heimprovedthedumbwaiter,asmallelevatorthattraveledbetweenfloorsofahomeanddeliveredfoodtoaroom.Jefferson’stimeabroadalsogavehimanewappreciationofEuropeanwinesand

foods.DuringhistravelsinnorthernItaly,Jeffersondrewandwroteextensivelyaboutthelocalcuisineandfellinlovewithpasta,whichhereferredtoasmacaroni.HeprobablydidnotintroduceAmericanstothenoodle,butJeffersonlikelyhelpedpopularizeitbyservingittoguestsintheWhiteHousewhenhewaspresidentfrom1801to1809.

AnotherofJefferson’sinventions,aletter-copyingdevicewithtwopensattachedthathecalleda“polygraph,”sitsonhisdeskatMonticello.

CoolHeaded

OLIVEREVANS(1755–1819)Refrigeration,automatedgristmill

This1920imagecapturesthedawninAmericanhomelifeoftherefrigeratorandthetelephone.

InventorandbusinessmanOliverEvansconceivedthefirstdesignforarefrigerator,drewupplansforasolarboiler,helpedcreatetheassemblyline,andadvancedthedevelopmentofsteamengines,buthisprolificcareerwasmarkedbybattlesandfrustration.

ThroughtheMillBornintoalargefamilyincolonialDelaware,Evansapprenticedhimselftoawheelwrightatage16.Byhislate20s,hehadbeguntoworkinhisbrothers’Newportgristmillanddevisedaningenioussystemtoautomatetheprocessofgrindingwheatintoflour.Thenewwater-poweredprocessmademillingfarmoreefficient;iteliminatedhuman

laborandledtocheaperbread.Moreimportantly,ittransformedproductionintoone

laborandledtocheaperbread.Moreimportantly,ittransformedproductionintoonecontinuousprocessratherthanaseriesofjobs,aconceptthatwouldhelpspurtheIndustrialRevolution.AfterEvanssecuredapatentforthegristmilldesign,ThomasJeffersonandGeorgeWashingtonbothcommissionedEvanstomakeimprovementstotheirownmills.Thesystemcaughton,butasthepatentwassettoexpirein1805,millerswhodidn’t

wanttopayroyaltiesfoughtagainstitsextension.In1808anextensionwasgrantedandsignedbyPresidentThomasJefferson,butintheinterveningthreeyearsmanymillershadimplementedEvans’sdesigns.Evansretaliatedwithawaveoflawsuits,manyofwhichhewon.Butthebattlesdrainedhimemotionallyandfinancially,andhechanneledhisfrustrationsintoanaccountofhisexperiencetitledTheAbortionofaYoungSteamEngineer’sGuide.

KeepingCoolEvans’s1805bookalsodescribedasteam-drivenmachineforcoolingwaterormakingice.Thedescriptionbecamethebasisfortwotechnologies—refrigerationandairconditioning—thatwouldbeessentialtomodernlifeacenturylater.Thisvapor-compressionsystemtransfersheatfromanenclosedspaceorsubstancetotheoutsidebyforcingaliquidrefrigeranttoexpandintovapor(aprocessthatabsorbsheatenergy),thencompressingitagaintoliquid(whichreleasesheat,dischargedtotheoutside).In1834JacobPerkins,whohadworkedwithEvans,patentedanether-basedvapor-

compressiondeviceforcoolingandfreezingliquidsthatwasbasedonEvans’sprinciples.

A19th-centuryengravingofOliverEvans

Clean-UpAct

JOSEPHINEGARIS-COCHRANE(1839–1913)Automaticdishwasher

ThisearlydishwasherdesignwasinspiredbyJosephineGaris-Cochrane’smodel,beforeshereplacedthehandcrankwithanelectricmotor.

Theinventionoftheautomaticdishwashercanbetracedtoonewoman’sfrustrationwithhouseholdwork.Inthemid-1800s,JosephineGaris-CochranewasawealthyIllinoishousewifeinapiqueafteradinnerparty.Oneofherstaffmembershadchippedseveralchinadisheswhilewashingthem,andGaris-Cochranevowedtoinventamachinetodothejob—justastherewasforotherhouseholdchoresfromsewingtomowing.

TheBestHelpingHandThegreat-granddaughteroftheinventorofaversionofthesteamboat,Garis-Cochranebeganresearchingherideaatthelocallibrary.Soonshehadaroughsketchofamachinethatwouldcleandishesheldinrackswithpressurizedwater.Shedesignedahandcrankeddishwasherin1886andhiredamechanictohelpherbuildit.Thedishes

handcrankeddishwasherin1886andhiredamechanictohelpherbuildit.Thedishessatinwirebasketssetinsideawheelmountedwithinacoppertub.Whencranked,thewheelturned,andhot,soapywatersprayedoverthedishes.

CleaningUpGaris-Cochrane’shusbanddiedsoonafter,leavingherwithamountainofdebt.Encouragedbyherwealthyfriends,Garis-Cochranepatentedherinventionandbegansellingitthroughmagazineadvertisements.Whenanelectrifiedversionofthemachinewasdemonstratedatthe1893World’sColumbianExhibitioninChicago,ittookoffwithrestaurantsandhotels.(At$100,earlydishwasherswereahardsellforthehomemarket.)ShestartedtheGaris-CochranDishWashingMachineCompany,whichlaterjoinedKitchenAidandwaseventuallyacquiredbyWhirlpool.Thedishwasherbecameacommonhouseholdapplianceinthe1950s.

Eventually,JosephineGarisaddedantohermarriedname;sheusedacombinationofhermaidennameandoriginalmarriednametorefertoherdishwashercompany.

BreakfastChampion

JOHNHARVEYKELLOGG(1852–1943)Ready-to-eatcereal

A1913portraitofJohnHarveyKellogg

JohnHarveyKelloggwasoneofAmerica’sfirsthealthandfitnessgurus.AdevoutfolloweroftheSeventh-DayAdventistChurch,Kelloggwascommittedtotheideaofan“indwellingdivinity”thatresidedwithinhumanbeings.Hemaintainedthatahealthylifestylewould“guardthetemple”ofthebody,andadvocatedvegetarianism,exercise,andsoberlivingwithoutalcohol,tobacco,orcaffeine.Inhispassionforwellness,Kelloggalsocametoinventthecenterpieceofthebalancedbreakfast:amorningbowlofcereal.

HealthyVisionariesKellogghadEllenWhite,acofounderofSeventh-DayAdventism,tothankfortheinspiration.Shebelievedtherighteouspathinlifewastoeattwomeatlessmealsadayandexperiencedpowerfulvisionsrelatedtohealthanddiet.OnChristmasDay1865,shehadavividmentalimagethatsheshouldbuildawellnesscenter.Ayearlater,thechurchestablishedtheWesternHealthReformInstituteinBattleCreek,Michigan,

churchestablishedtheWesternHealthReformInstituteinBattleCreek,Michigan,whereAdventistshadbeguntosettle.In1875,Kelloggwasmadetheinstitute’smedicaldirector.Partofhismissionwasto

convincepatientstogiveupeatingmeat,whichhethoughtwasriddledwithbacteria.Tomakethefoodservedattheinstitutemoreappetizing,Kelloggandhiswife,EllaEaton,atraineddietitian,beganexperimentingwithnewrecipesforhealthfulfoods.

NotFlakingOutIn1894,theKelloggsmistakenlyletabatchofcookedgrainsitovernightinthelab.Theirteamranthewheatymushthrougharoller,creatingflakes,andfoundthatbakingthebitsimprovedtheirtaste.Thedishwasservedwithmilktopatientsas“Granose.”TheKelloggskeptexperimentingwiththerecipe,eventuallyhittingonaformulathatcombinedcornandrice.Withpatientsclamoringtobuybatches,Kelloggbeganproducinglimitedquantities.Hefiledapatentforflakedcerealandtheprocessthatformedthemin1895.Oneoftheinstitute’spatients,C.W.Post,sawabusinessopportunityandbegan

manufacturinghisowndrycerealin1898.Post’s“Grape-Nuts”wereahitandfueledacerealboom.Itwasn’tuntil1906thatDr.Kellogg’sbrother,W.K.Kellogg,startedtheBattleCreekToastedCornFlakeCompany.Theone-storywoodenfactoryeventuallygrewtobecometheKelloggCompany,theworld’slargestcerealmanufacturer.

FromthebeginningCornFlakesweremarketedasahealthfoodandaconvenience.

WHAT’STHEBESTWAYTOGETHEALTHY?JOHNHARVEYKELLOGGADVISEDHISPATIENTSTOSTAYAWAYFROMCOFFEE,SPICES,AND

VINEGAR.

CoolCustomer

WILLISCARRIER(1876–1950)Airconditioning

WillisCarrierholdsathermometerinsideanigloodisplay,demonstratingairconditioningatthe1939World’sFair.

InventorWillisCarrieralwayscreditedasimplelessonofhismother’sforopeninghismind.Whenhewasaboy,hewasunabletounderstandtheconceptoffractions.Hismothercutapplesintodifferent-sizepiecestodemonstrateitvisually.Carriermaintainedthatthiswasthemostimportantlessonofhislifebecauseittaughthimhowtoclearlyandeffectivelysolveproblems.

TheYoungEngineerAfterreceivingamaster’sdegreeinmechanicalengineeringin1901,CarriertookapostwiththeBuffaloForgeCompany,afanandventilationbusinessbasedinBuffalo,NewYork.Hewasgiventheresponsibilityofdesigningsteamheatingsystemstodryindustrialstoresoflumberandcoffee.In1902,BuffaloForgewasaskedbyaBrooklynprintingshoptocurbexcessive

humiditylevelsthatweredisruptingtheproductionprocess.Theprintersneededtoventilatearoomwhileloweringitstemperature.

ventilatearoomwhileloweringitstemperature.Standingonatrainplatformonemorning,Carrierwasenvelopedinmist.Inspiration

struck:fogwascondensedwatervapor,thesameasthesteamCarrierwasusinginhisheatingsystems.Ifhecoulddryairbysendingitthroughhotcoils,couldhedryairbypassingitovercoilsfilledwithacoolant?Theprocesswoulddrawhumidityfromtheairbyforcingittocondensearoundthecoils.Carrierhadinvented“temperatureandhumiditycontrol,”or,asherebrandeditin1906,“airconditioning.”

ConditionedResponseSupportedbyBuffaloForge,Carriercontinuedtodevelopthetechnology.By1914hehadfoundedhisowncompany.Initially,itwasmostlymanufacturerswhowereinterestedinbuyingairconditioning,butthatchangedin1924whentheJ.L.HudsonCompanydepartmentstorechainpurchasedaunitforitsDetroitlocation.Movietheatersadoptedairconditioning,advertisingthenoveltycomfortasmuchasthemovies.Post–WorldWarII,airconditioningbecameastandardoptionincars,andeventuallyresidences.Carriertodayisstilloneoftheworld’smajorairconditioningmanufacturers.Carrier

systemspreservetheinteriorsofsuchlandmarksastheSistineChapel,theGreatHallofthePeopleinBeijing,andGeorgeWashington’sMountVernonestate.

IntimateCompanionMARYPHELPSJACOB(CARESSECROSBY)(1891–1970)Brassiere

MaryPhelpsJacob—laterCaresseCrosby—ledaspiritedlife.Oneofhermostextravagantpurchaseswasa10th-centuryItaliancastle,theCastellodiRoccaSinibalda,locatedoutsideRome.

Scandalousandfree-spirited,MaryPhelpsJacobwasmorethanjustacleveryounginventorofthebra.Shewasakeyfigureinthepost–WorldWarIbohemianera,movedtoParis,changedhernametoCaresse,andpublishedearlyworksofsomeofthemostimportantauthorsinWesternliterature.

BirthoftheBraBorninNewYorkStatein1891toanupper-crustfamily,Jacoblivedaprivilegedlifeofprivateschoolsandparties.In1913,shewasdressingforadebutanteballinNewYorkCityandwasunhappywiththewayhercorsetflattenedherchest.Jacobaskedhermaidtobringhersomeribbon,twopockethandkerchiefs,andaneedleandthread,whichsheturnedintoagarmentshedubbedabrassiere(fromaFrenchtermfor“arm”).Thoughnotparticularlysupportive,therisquélingerieallowedJacobtomovemore

freelythanacorsetandimpressedherfriends.Jacobpatentedher“backlessbrassiere”

freelythanacorsetandimpressedherfriends.Jacobpatentedher“backlessbrassiere”thefollowingyearandformedasmallcompanytomakethem,butsoonsoldtherightstoaBridgeport,Connecticut,corsetmakerfor$1,500—theequivalentofabout$35,000acenturylater.

InHerCupsAt24,Jacobmarriedherlongtimeboyfriend,RichardRogersPeabody—he,too,fromoneofAmerica’smostdistinguishedfamilies.ButwhenPeabodywentofftoserveinthewar,JacobfellhardforabankingheirnamedHarryCrosby.Jacob,28,andCrosby,22,shockedtheirsocialcirclebyembarkingonaverypublicaffair.By1922,JacobhaddivorcedherhusbandandmarriedCrosby.ThenewlywedssetsailforParis,whereanumberofJazzAgeartistsandwritershadrelocated.Evenamongthehard-partyingnonconformistswhowerelivinginParis,including

ErnestHemingway,F.ScottFitzgerald,andGertrudeStein,theCrosbyswereoverthetop.Theytooknumerouslovers,hosteddinnerpartiesfromtheirbed,andspentmoneywithabandon.Athernewhusband’srequest,JacobchangedherfirstnametoCaresse,whichHarrythoughtmoresensual.TheCrosbyswerepivotalfiguresinthe1920sParisAmericanexpatriatebohemian

scene.Maintaininganopenmarriage,theyeachconductedseveralwell-publicizedaffairs,openlytookdrugs,andevenenteredintoasuicidepact(Harrydiedinonewithamistressin1929).TheyalsofoundedBlackSunPressandwereamongthefirsttopublishworksbytheirfriendsErnestHemingway,HenryMiller,AnaïsNin,andD.H.Lawrence.Anotherhusbandandseveralhigh-profileaffairslater,JacobdiedinRomein1970.

Fromitssimplebeginningswithhandkerchiefsandribbon,thebrassierehasdevelopedintoanitemwith$15billionannualglobalsales.

CARESSECROSBY,DISTANTLYRELATEDTOROBERTFULTON,ONCEREMARKEDSHEINHERITEDHERTALENTFROMHIM.“ICAN’TSAY

THATTHEBRASSIEREWILLEVERTAKEASGREATAPLACEINHISTORYASTHESTEAMBOAT,BUTIDIDINVENTIT.”

BothSidesNow

LLOYDCOPEMAN(1881–1956)Two-sidedtoaster,rubbericecubetray,andmore

LloydCopemanhadnearly700patentstohisname.

InventorLloydCopemancaughtthetinkeringbugearly.Atage10,heriggedupamachinethatcouldturnagrindstoneautomatically.ForthebathroominhisschoolhouseinFarmersCreek,Michigan,heissaidtohavedesignedaremote-controlledpaddlethatcouldwhackanunsuspectingvisitor.Overthecourseofhislifetime,Copemanwouldamasssomesevenhundredpatents.

ToastsoftheTimesThepracticeoftoastingbread,whetherinapanoronastick,datestoRomantimes.Butwiththeadventofelectricityintheearly20thcentury,inventorsbeganexperimentingwithmoreefficientmeans.

experimentingwithmoreefficientmeans.In1909thefirstelectrictoasterwasproducedbyFrankShailorofGeneralElectric.

Hecreatedaheatingelementthatcouldholdahightemperaturewithoutbreaking.TheproblemwithShailor’stoasterwasthatitonlytoastedonesideofthebreadatatime.Thebreadhadtobeturnedbyhand—adangeroustaskintheearlydaysofelectricalwires,whichwouldsometimesgetsohotthattheywouldburstintoflames.

TurningPointItwasCopeman’swife,Hazel,whogavehimtheideaforatwo-sidedtoasterafterhappeninguponawindowdisplayoftheone-sidedvariety.Hazelwonderedaloudwhetheradevicecouldbebuiltthatwouldautomaticallyturnthetoast.Copemanwenttoworktodesignsuchamachine.Copemanpatentedhisinventionin1914,andhiscompany,theCopemanElectric

StoveCompany,beganmanufacturingthem.Theyweremuchsaferthanpreviousmodelsandmarketedasthe“toasterthatturnstoast.”WestinghouseElectricpurchasedCopeman’scompanyin1918andcontinuedtomaketheappliances.

FreezingOuttheCompetitionCopemanpatentedseveralotherinventions,includingaclotheslineforhotelrooms(the“Flexo-Line”)andhismostlucrative,therubbericecubetray.Theideaforthetraycametohimashewaswalkinginthewoodsonewinterdayandnoticedthatslushandicedidnotsticktohisrubberboots.Thetrayinspirationearnedhimtheequivalentof$10millionintoday’sdollars.Copemandiedin1956,buthiscreativitylivesonthroughhisgranddaughter,thesingerLindaRonstadt,a12-timeGrammyAwardwinnerwhohassold100millionalbums.

Copeman’stwo-sideddesigninspiredelectrictoasterssuchasthisone,fromthe1920s.

TheMixMaster

FREDWARING(1900–1984)Blender

FredWaringdemonstrateshissignatureblender.

FredWaringwasnotonly“TheManWhoTaughtAmericaHowtoSing”asasinger,bandleader,andpopularradiopersonality.Healsotaughtithowtoblend—foodandbeverages,thatis.

IntheMixTheblenderthateventuallyboreWaring’snamestartedwithStephenJ.Poplawski,aPolishimmigrantlivinginRacine,Wisconsin.In1922Poplawskiattachedamotorwithbladestothebottomofacup,makingthefirstblender.HefoundedtheStevensElectricCompanytomanufacturethedeviceforsodafountainbarsatdrugstores,wheresodajerksliterallyhadto“shakeup”milkshakes.TenyearslaterPoplawski

wheresodajerksliterallyhadto“shakeup”milkshakes.TenyearslaterPoplawskipatentedamachinethatcouldliquefyfruitsandvegetables.IttookfurthertinkeringbyanotherWisconsinnative,FrederickOsius,toimproveupontheideaandgetitreadyforhomeuse.Throughoutthe1930s,Osiusworkedandreworkedhisdesignforthemass-market

liquefyingblender,firstpatentingitin1933.HeneededfinancialbackingtocontinuehisworkandheardthatWaringwasinterestedinnewgadgets.OsiustalkedhiswaybackstageattheVanderbiltTheaterinNewYork,wherethefamoussingerwascelebratingafteralivebroadcast.OsiuswasabletoeasilypersuadeWaring,inpartbecausethesingerhadanulcerandhisdoctorhadrecommendedheeatapureeofrawvegetables.Hedecidedtolendhissupporttothetuneof$25,000.

WhirlwindTakeoffUnfortunately,sixmonthsafterWaringandOsiusagreedtoadeal,Osiusstillhadn’tperfectedhisblender.Waringhiredanewdesignertocontinuetheproject.TheMiracleMixer(soontoberenamedtheWaringBlendor)debutedin1937.Bythe1950s,afteragreatpublicitypushbyWaring,theblenderswithhisnamewereinmorethanamillionhomes.Inadditiontokitchenuse,theblenderbecameanimportanttoolforscientificresearch.Dr.JonasSalkusedtheWaringBlendorinhisresearchthatledtothepoliovaccine.

DR.JONASSALKUSEDTHEWARINGBLENDORINHISRESEARCHTHATLEDTOTHEPOLIOVACCINE.

FreshFromtheFreezer

CLARENCEBIRDSEYE(1886–1956)Frozenfood

ClarenceBirdseyeexperimentingwithfreezingcarrots

Fromthetimehewasaboy,BrooklynnativeClarenceBirdseyewaskeenonbotanyandzoology,andwhenitcametimeforcollege,hechosetostudythesubjectsatAmherst.Makingtuitionwasdifficult,however,andBirdseyedroppedouttoworkfortheU.S.government,identifyingandclassifyingAmerica’snativeplantsandanimals.In1912hejoinedthemissionoftheStrathcona,acharitablehospitalshipthatpliedthecoastalwatersofLabrador,bringingmedicalcaretoremotecommunities.

InuitIntuitionDuringhisjourneys,BirdseyenotedhownativeInuitfrozefreshlycaughtfishbyexposingthefishonslabsofice,aprocesswhoseresultsweremuchmorepalatablethanthefrozenfishBirdseyehadsampledinNewYork.Birdseyewonderediftheprocesscouldbeappliedtootherfoods.

processcouldbeappliedtootherfoods.WhenhereturnedtoNewYorkin1915,Birdseyebegantoexperimentand

discoveredwhattheInuithadalreadyintuited:freezingquicklyatverylowtemperaturesinsteadofovermanyhourspreservesthetexturesoffoodsandkillsmoreharmfulbacteria.

FreezingOuttheCompetitionIn1922Birdseyeconductedfish-freezingexperimentsattheClothelRefrigeratingCompanyinNewYork.BirdseyecontinuedwithfreezingexperimentsasanemployeeofClothel.Hethenfoundedhisownfish-freezingbusiness,butitwasshort-lived.Birdseyeimprovedhistechnique,inventinganewtypeoffreezer,andformedadifferentcompanytodeployit.Thenextyear,1925,Birdseyefiledtopatenttheprocessinwhichfoodwaspackedinwaxedcardboardboxes,pressedbetweenmetalplates,andchilledtotemperaturesascoldas-50˚F.HesoldhisbusinesstothecompanythatultimatelybecameGeneralFoodsandwasbroughtontorunitsBirdsEyeFrostedFoodsdivision.ThefirstBirdsEyequick-frozenfoods,includingvegetables,fruits,seafood,and

meats,weresoldinMassachusetts;theproductswentnationwideinthe1940safterBirdseyeleasedrefrigeratedcarsforrailtransport.BythattimeBirdseyehadalsodevelopedarefrigerateddisplaycaseforgrocerystores.

AlwaysExploringTowardtheendofthe20thcenturyjustabouteverygrocerystoreinAmericahadafrozenfoodssection,bringingseafoodtoinlandcommunitiesandmakingsummerproduceavailableyear-round.Energeticandfullofwonder,Birdseyecontinueduntilhisdeathin1956toexperimentandinvent.“Change,”hewrote,“istheveryessenceofAmericanlife.”

Today,theU.S.frozenfoodindustryisa$56billionbusiness.BirdsEyetopsallsellersoffrozenvegetablesinthecountry.

CLARENCEBIRDSEYEONCESAID,“FOLLOWINGONE’SCURIOSITYISMUCHMOREFUNTHANTAKINGTHINGSEASY.”

Shreddin’

LESPAUL(1915–2009)Electricguitar

LesPaulwithhisguitararound1946.

Beforethereweretheheroesofrock‘n’roll,therewasLesPaul.LiketheGreekgodApollo,whogaveOrpheushisfirstlyre,Paulendowedmusicianswithanamazinginstrument:oneoftheworld’sfirstelectricguitars.Theinventionchangedtherulesofthemusicworldandcreatedawholenewartformintheprocess.

TheWizardofWaukeshaGrowingupinWaukesha,Wisconsin,Paulironicallywasanineptmusicalstudentwhofrustratedhisearlyteachers:theyfelthelackedtheaptitudeandtalenttolearnanythingbutthemostbasicskills.YetPaulwasdeterminedandpracticedonwhateverinstrumentshecouldfind—acousticguitar,harmonica,andbanjoamongthem.AsateenagerheplayedincountrycombosthattouredtheMidwestandcalledintoradio

teenagerheplayedincountrycombosthattouredtheMidwestandcalledintoradioshowstoplayguitarpassagesunderthename“TheWizardofWaukesha.”PaulmovedtoNewYorkinthe1930sandstartedhisownjazzband.Electricmusic

wasbecomingincreasinglypopularatthetimeandcoincidedwithanupswingindemandforguitarsloudenoughtobeheardincommercialrecordingsandatpackeddancevenues.TheconfluenceoftheexpandingusesofelectricityandtheneedforbiggersoundindancehallsgotPaulthinkingaboutdesigninganelectricallyamplifiedguitar.

TheLogBythelate1930s,Paulbeganbuildingguitarswithelectricalpickups(devicesthat“pickup”thevibrationsofguitarstringsandconvertthemtoelectricalsignalstobeamplified)andsolidbodies.“WhatIwantedwastoamplifypurestringvibration,withouttheresonanceofthewoodgettinginvolvedinthesound,”heexplained.Paul’sprototypewasnicknamed“TheLog”foritsungainlyappearance.Infact,whenhewenttotheGibsonguitarcompanytoshowthemhisnewproduct,theylikenedittoa“broomstickwithpickups.”Paulcontinuedtotinkerwithhisinventionoverthenextdecade.In1951,Gibson

presidentTedMcCartyworkedwithPaultoredesign“TheLog.”TheresultwasthefirstLesPaulmodelsingle-bodyelectricguitar.Itdebutedin1952.

YouSayYouWantaRevolutionRockpioneerChuckBerryturnedLesPaulintoahouseholdnamewhenheplayedthe“LesPaul”modelguitaron“RollOverBeethoven”in1956,andagainin1958on“JohnnyB.Goode.”Bythe1960s,theguitar’spopularityhadsurged,playedbyrockstarslikeEricClaptonoftheYardbirdsandPaulMcCartneyoftheBeatles.Paulwentontocreateotherinnovationsembracedbytherockworld,suchastape

delayandmulti-trackrecording.Afteraperiodofsemiretirementinthe1970s(duringwhichhereleasedonlytwoalbumsincollaborationwithcountryartistChetAtkins),Paulreturnedtothescenein1984whenhebeganaresidencyattheNewYorkclubFatTuesday.Hecontinuedtoplayweeklysetsuntilhisdeathin2009.

Consumersworldwidebought1.1millionelectricguitarsin2015.

ExcitingElectrons

PERCYSPENCER(1894–1970)Microwaveoven

OneoftheearliestproponentsofSpencer’smicrowavetechnology,chemistRobertSchiffmannhasservedasamicrowavecookingconsultantformorethan150companies.HereSchiffmannisseeninahumorousimage,

examiningaplateoffrenchfrieswithastethoscope.

WhenthelocalpapermillinPercySpencer’shometowninruralMaineinstalledelectricityattheturnofthecentury,itwasaturningpointforthecommunity.ThemovealsochangedSpencer’slife.Captivatedbythenewtechnology,theteenagerbegantostudyitinhisfreetime,andthehardworkpaidoff.Whenitcametimetowiretherestofthemill,Spencerwasoneofthreepeoplechosen,eventhoughhehadneverreceivedanytechnicaltraining.

ASweetDiscoveryWhileservingintheNavyduringWorldWarI,Spencerkepteducatinghimself,learningaboutwirelesscommunicationsandradiotechnologyandporingoverbooksabouttrigonometry,calculus,andmetallurgy.Uponhisdischarge,heworkedforamanufacturerofcommercialandmilitaryradioequipment,andeventuallywashiredasanengineerattheRaytheonCorporationinCambridge,Massachusetts.There,Spenceroversawthecompany’sincreasedproductionofpowertubes—vacuumtubes

thatcouldbeusedtogenerateoramplifypower—andmagnetrontubes,thecentralcomponentsinradardevicesthatuseastreamofelectronstodetectobjects.

ARadiantMindSpencerwasatRaytheonworkingonamagnetronin1946whenhediscoveredonedaythatacandybarinhispockethadmelted.Thephysicswerecleartohim:radiationfromthemagnetronhadraisedtheinternaltemperatureofthecandy,causingittosoften.Ifhecouldcontroltheelectromagneticradiation,hewouldhaveanewwaytocookfoodatamuchfasterratethanaconventionaloven.Spencerplaceddifferentfoodsnearthemagnetrontoseewhattheeffectwouldbe:

morethanafeweggsexploded,andhesucceededincreatingthefirstmicrowavepopcorn.Eventually,theengineerattachedanelectromagneticfieldgeneratortoametalboxforadevicethatheatedfoodincrediblyfast.In1954,Raytheonofferedthefirstmicrowaveovenforcommercialuse.Itweighed750pounds,stoodsixfeettall,andcost$5,000.Thirteenyearslater,

Amana,adivisionofRaytheon,introducedthefirstaffordablemicrowaveforthehomewithapricetagof$495.CalledtheRadarange,itwascompactenoughtofitonakitchencounter.By1975,priceshaddroppedsignificantly,andsalesofmicrowavessurpassedgasovens.Today,90percentofAmericanhomeshavemicrowaveovens.

THEIDEAFORTHEMICROWAVEOVENWASBORNBYACCIDENTWHENSPENCERDISCOVEREDTHATSTRAYRADIATIONHAD

MELTEDACANDYBARINHISPOCKET.

PickoftheLitter

EDWARDLOWE(1920–1995)Kittylitter

FounderofKittyLitter,EdwardLoweisshownina1986advertisementforTidyCat.Lowe’sinventionsparkedanentirelynewindustry,andLowesupportedentrepreneurshipbyothersthroughtheEdwardLoweFoundation.

In1947,EdwardLowe,a27-year-oldNavyveteran,wasworkingathisfather’ssawdustcompanyinCassopolis,Michigan,whenhewasapproachedbyaneighborwitharequest:didLowehaveanysandonhandthatshecouldusetofillhercat’slitterbox?Insteadofsand,Lowegavetheneighborapackageoffuller’searth,atypeofclaythat

hisfatherwasofferingindustrialcustomerstoabsorbgreaseonfactoryfloorsinlieuofsawdust.TheclayworkedsowellinthecatboxthatLowedecidedtomarketitasKittyLitterandsellitfor69centsabag.

MinesforFelinesAlocalpetstoreownerwasunconvincedhecouldfindcustomersforclayaslongassandwasfree,soLowetoldhimtogiveawaybagsofhisKittyLitter.Sooncatownerswerehooked,andsalestookoff.Lowespentthenextseveralyearscrisscrossingthecountry,promotingKittyLitter

fromthebackofhisChevycoupe.Anastutemarketer,LowelaunchedtheTidyCatbrandin1954tosellinsupermarkets,whilehepositionedKittyLitterasaboutiquebrandforpetstoresandveterinarians.Lowe’scatboxfillergrewintoamultimillion-dollarbusinesswithitsownclaymines.TheoperationincludedaresearchanddevelopmentcenterinCassopolis,Michigan,knownastheAll-AmericanCatterytostudyfelinebathroomhabits.In1990Lowesoldhiscompanytoagroupofventurecapitalistsfor$200million.

Afterhisdeath,itwaspurchasedbyRalstonPurinaCompanyofSt.Louis,Missouri,whichmergedwiththeSwissfoodcorporationNestléin2001.

RemoteCharacter

TONYFADELL(b.1969)Nest,self-learningthermostat,iPod

TonyFadelldisplaystheNestthermostat,whichentereditsthirdgenerationinSeptember2015.

Smartphoneanddigital-mediapioneerTonyFadellwasanentrepreneurialkid:hisfirstjobwasanegg-deliverybusinessinthethirdgrade,and,asheoncetweetedinresponsetotheLaborDay–themedhashtag#FirstJob,he“learnedaton”onhissixth-gradepaperroute.

EarlyOpportunitiesWhileastudentatUniversityofMichiganintheearly1990s,Fadellcofoundedhisowncompany,ConstructiveInstruments,whichspecializedinchildren’scomputersoftwaresuchasMediaTexttohelpstudentscreatemultimediacompositions.Upongraduating,heworkedinthedesignsectorsofvarioustechcompanies,pioneeringmanypersonalorganizerdevices.In1999,Fadelltriedunsuccessfullytolaunchasecondcompany,Fuse,focusedon

consumerelectronics.Amonghisideaswasaharddiscbasedmusicplayer.WhileFusedidnotsecureenoughfundingtogoahead,allwasnotlost:Fadell’smusic-playerconceptcaughttheattentionofApplefounderSteveJobs,whobroughthimonin2001toassistwiththedesignoftheiPod.Fadellwentontoworkon18differentversionsof

toassistwiththedesignoftheiPod.Fadellwentontoworkon18differentversionsofthedevice.HewaschargedwithdesigningthehardwareandsoftwareforthefirstthreegenerationsoftheiPhone.

AppleandAfterBurntoutbyalmosteightyearsatApple,Fadellleftthecompanyin2008totravelandreassesshisrelationshiptothetechindustry.Whilebuildingavacationhome,hewasfrustratedbythechoicesofavailablethermostatsandbeganworkonasensor-driven,programmablethermostatthatcouldbecontrolledfromasmartphone.In2010,FadellcofoundedNestLabswithanotherformerAppleemployee,MattRogers,toproduceandmarketthedevice.ThethermostatestablishedNestLabsasaleaderincutting-edgehomeproducts.The

companyhassincebranchedouttomakesmokealarmsandsecuritycamerasforthehomethatcanbeaccessedremotely.ThecompanywassoldtoGooglein2014for$3.2billion(andFadelllefthispostasNestCEOin2016,partingpathswithGoogleexcepttoadvise).Fadellhasover300patentstohisnameandhasreceivedmultipleawardsforhis

designsandinventions.In2014,Timemagazinenamedhimoneoftheir“100MostInfluentialPeopleintheWorld.”Withallofhissuccess,whatisTonyFadell’sadvicetowould-beinventors?“Ourchallengeistowakeupeachdayandsay:howcanIexperiencetheworldbetter?”hesaidinhis2015TEDTalk,“TheFirstSecrettoGreatDesign.”

FadellwashiredbySteveJobsin2001tohelpdesigntheoriginaliPod.

TONYFADELLSAYS,“IFYOUDON’THAVEANEMOTIONALLYENGAGINGDESIGNFORADEVICE,NOONEWILLCAREABOUTIT.”

HEALTHSincethe1950smoreNobelPrizesinMedicinehavebeenawardedto

scientistsintheUnitedStatesthantothoseinanyothercountry.

PaintingofWilliamT.G.Morton’sfamouspublicdemonstrationofetheranesthesiaduringsurgeryatMassachusettsGeneralHospitalonOctober16,1846.

EtherWayHORACEWELLSANDWILLIAMT.G.MORTON(1815–1848)(1819–1868)Anesthesia

WilliamT.G.Morton’spublicdemonstrationofpain-freesurgeryunderetheranesthesia.

Ittooksomehard-partyingVictoriansandafewAmericandoctorstohelpkick-startthedevelopmentofmodern-dayanesthesia.ThestorydatestotheinventionofetherinGermanyin1540.Forcenturiesafterward,

etherwasnotusedsurgically,butinsteadasatreatmentforailmentssuchasscurvyorpulmonaryinflammation.Inthe1800s,thefamouslyrestrainedVictoriansdiscoveredthatinhalingetherloosenedtheirinhibitions.Someevenheld“etherfrolics”wherepeopletookturnsbreathinginthevaporsandlaughingateachother’santics.AcrossthepondintheUnitedStates,Dr.CrawfordLong,whosometimesthrew

etherfrolicsinhismedicaloffices,realizedthatetherhadpotentialasananestheticanduseditinanoperationtoremoveatumorfromapatient’sneck.

FromAnesthesiologytoAddictionButitwastwoAmericandentists,Dr.HoraceWellsandDr.WilliamT.G.Morton,whopubliclydemonstratedanesthesiatechniques—andsufferedpainfulpersonalrepercussionsasaresult.Connecticut-basedWellsbeganusingnitrousoxide,orlaughinggas,asadentalanestheticin1844.In1845hebadlybotchedalaughinggasdemonstrationandfledtoParisinshame.Onhisreturnhefoundhisone-timeprotégé,Morton,ofBoston,hadstolenthe

spotlightbyestablishingetherastheanestheticofchoice.Afewyearslater,while

spotlightbyestablishingetherastheanestheticofchoice.Afewyearslater,whileexperimentingwithyetanotheranesthetic—chloroform—Wellsbecameanaddict.Hecommittedsuicideatage33.

FalseClaimsMorton,too,slidfromacclaimtoinfamy.Heintroducedhisaudiencetothepotentialofetherin1846,atapublicperformanceatMassachusettsGeneralHospital.ThedemonstrationmadebothMortonandthehospitaloperatingtheaterfamous.DubbedtheEtherDome,thetheaterwasdesignatedaNationalHistoricSitein1965.YetMorton’sglorywasshort-lived.Intheyearsfollowinghisethertriumph,the

dentisttriedtosayhehadinventedtheanestheticandpatentedetherunderabrandname,Letheon.Hewasshunnedbythemedicalcommunityforseekingtoprofitfromasubstancethatcouldhelpsomanypatients.Mortonspentmuchoftherestofhislifetryingtoprovethathewastherightful

inventorofetherasananesthetic.Hedied,deeplyindebtwithlegalfees,atage48.

WilliamT.G.Morton(top)andHoraceWellspioneeredtheuseofetherasthefirstgeneralanesthetic.

NoHands

WILLIAMSTEWARTHALSTED(1852–1922)Rubbermedicalglovesandmore

Today’sstringenthospitalsafetycodesrequiresterilizationproceduresandglovesforalloperations.

WilliamHalstedwasjustamiddlingstudentasayoungman,butthatchangedonceheenteredmedicalschoolinNewYorkCity.Halstedmasteredanatomicalterminology,tookhisphysician’sexamayearearly,andsoonintroducedapracticethatwouldchangemedicine:sterilization.HalstedwasinfluencedbytheBritishsurgeonJosephLister,whopromotedcarefulantisepsis,orthepracticeofmaintainingaclean,sterileenvironmentduringsurgery.HalstedbelievedthatmicroscopicorganismscouldcausediseaseandmadehandsterilizationmandatoryforsurgicalattendantsatNewYork’sBellevueHospitalin1877.

AddictionandaSecondChanceHalstedcontinuedtoadvancescience.In1881,atage29,heperformedabloodtransfusion—usinghisownblood—onhisailingsister.Thefollowingyearheperformedoneofthefirstsuccessfulgallbladdersurgeriesonhisownmother.Hiszealtoadvancethemedicalfield,however,wouldprovetobehisdownfall.Atthetime,cocainewasbeingtestedasananestheticandtofurtherresearchHalsted

Atthetime,cocainewasbeingtestedasananestheticandtofurtherresearchHalstedexperimentedbyinjectingthedrugintohisnerves.HequicklydevelopedanaddictionandleftmedicinetoenterarehabilitationfacilityinRhodeIsland.There,Halstedwasweanedoffcocaine,butwithmorphine.Hestruggledwithsubstanceabusefortherestofhislife,evenashecontinuedtowork.In1886,Halsted’sfriend,pathologistWilliamWelch,helpedhimsecureajobat

JohnsHopkinsHospital,inBaltimore.HalstedinstitutedthesamesterilizationproceduresashehadatBellevue.Hisheadnurse,SouthCarolina–bornCarolineHampton,complainedofseverecontactdermatitisonherhandsandarmsfromthecorrosivedisinfectantmercuricchloride.Sinceshewas“anunusuallyefficientwoman,”asHalstedlaterwrote,heaskedtheGoodyearRubberCompanytomakeapairofthinrubberglovesforher.Theyworkedwell,andHalstedorderedmore.HeandHamptonmarriedin1890.

TheInnovatorThesameyear,HalstedbecamefirstchiefsurgeonatJohnsHopkins.Heinnovatedimportantsurgicalprocedurestotreatbreastcancer,hernias,andthyroiddisease.ThetrusteesofJohnsHopkinsestablishedtheSchoolofMedicinein1892.TheywerewaryofgrantingHalstedafullprofessorshipduetohishistoryofaddiction,buthesucceededinchangingtheirminds,becomingtheschool’sfirstprofessorofsurgery.HewentontocreateasurgicaltrainingprogramthatbecamethemodelforresidenciesintheUnitedStates.

WilliamHalstedinhislateryears

AMONGHISMANYACCOMPLISHMENTS,HALSTEDINTRODUCEDTHEMEDICALCHARTTOTRACKPATIENTS’VITALSIGNSANDWAS

ONEOFTHEFOUNDINGPROFESSORSATJOHNSHOPKINS.

LifeBlood

CHARLESRICHARDDREW(1904–1950)Bloodbank

Drewexaminesbloodsamplesinhislab.

Thefounderofthebloodbankmayhavebeenaworld-classathleteinhighschoolandastarstudentincollege,butasanAfricanAmericaninthe1930s,hewasunabletofindamedicalschooltoaccepthim.HeworkedfortwoyearsteachingbiologyandcoachingatMorganCollege,inBaltimore,beforedecidingtoseekopportunitiesoutsidethecountry.

PlasmaTransfusionsDrewenrolledatMcGillUniversity’smedicalschool,inMontreal,Canada,graduatingsecondinhisclassin1933.HereturnedtotheUnitedStateshopingforaresidencyattheMayoClinicbutwasnotofferedone;thewhitepatientsofsuchinstitutionsroutinelyrefusedtobeseenbyblackdoctors.HeacceptedapositionasaprofessorofsurgeryatHowardUniversity,ablackcollegeinWashington,D.C.,in1935.

surgeryatHowardUniversity,ablackcollegeinWashington,D.C.,in1935.In1938hewasawardedafellowshipatPresbyterianHospitalinNewYorkand

studiedforaPhDatColumbiaUniversity.Drewbeganresearchingwaystomakebloodtransfusionsmoreefficient.Alongwithothercolleagues,hefiguredoutwaystoseparatebloodcellsfromplasma,theclear,liquidportionofblood.Plasmaiseasiertotransport;itcanbestoredlongerandiswellsuitedforemergencysituations.Drewprovedthatplasmatransfusionscouldbeusedinpatientsofanybloodtype.He

inventedatechniquefordryingplasmaandreconstitutingit.Healsobeganablood-bankingprogramatPresbyterianHospitalinNewYork,establishinghimselfasaleaderinthefield.

JoiningtheWarEffortBy1940AdolfHitlerwasonthemarchinEurope,andDrewjoinedthewareffort.AsheadofaprogramcalledBloodforBritain,hedesignedasystemtocollectbloodintheU.S.,processitintoplasma,andshipitoverseas.BasedonthesuccessofBloodforBritain,DrewwasaskedtodirectapilotprogramforanationalbloodbankwiththeAmericanRedCross.Herehepioneeredtheuseofmobileblooddonationstations,commonlyknownas“bloodmobiles.”TheprogramexpandedwhentheUnitedStatesenteredWorldWarIIin1941.Drew

helpedrecruitsome100,000donorstoamassmorethan13millionpintsofbloodfortransfusionstoAmericansoldiersincombat.TheeffortearnedDrewrecognitionasthe“fatherofthebloodbank.”WhenthemilitaryrequestedthatbloodfromAfricanAmericansbelabeledand

segregatedfromthatofwhitedonors,makingDrewunabletoparticipateintheveryprogramhehelpedcreate,heresignedinprotest.HereturnedtoHowardUniversityandpromptlybecamethechiefsurgeonatFreedmen’sHospital.Hespokeouteloquentlyagainstinstitutionalprejudice,especiallythecontroversialpracticesoftheAmericanbloodbank.“Itisunfortunatethatsuchaworthwhileandscientificbitofworkshouldhavebeenhamperedbysuchstupidity,”hesaidatanawardsceremonyin1944.

Baby’sFirstTest

VIRGINIAAPGAR(1909–1974)Neonatalassessment

NobettersystemforassessinginfanthealthhasemergedsincetheApgarscoringsystemwasfirstdevelopedover60yearsago.

VirginiaApgarexcelledatschoolgrowingupandcouldhavepursuedmanycareers,butfamilytragedymayhavepushedhertowardmedicine.Oneofherbrothersdiedyoung,oftuberculosis,whileanotherbattledchronicillness.Sheimmersedherselfinthesciencesasanundergraduate,studyingzoology,physiology,andchemistry,thenenteredtheColumbiaUniversityCollegeofPhysiciansinNewYorkatatimewhentherewerefewwomeninthemedicalfield.Aftergraduatingatthetopofherclass,Apgardecidedtospecializeinanesthesia,whichtraditionallyhadbeenhandledmostlybynurses.Between1938and1948—whileshewasbuildingananesthesiologydivisionat

PresbyterianHospitalinNewYork—anincreasingnumberofwomenbegangoingtothehospitaltodelivertheirbabies.Nevertheless,hospitaldeliverymethodswerehardlyideal.Laboringmothersweretypicallygivengeneralanesthesia,andtherewasnowaytomonitorthebaby’svitalsignsduringlabororafterdelivery.Infantscontinuedtodieinthefirst24hoursoflife—aproblemApgarbelievedcouldbeaddressedwithasystematiccheckatbirth.

systematiccheckatbirth.

ApgarInventsAPGARApgarurgedherphysicianstocarefullylookovereachnewborntobesureitwasbreathingandthriving.Whenaresidentstoppedheronedayinthehospitalcafeteriatoaskhowtoconducttheassessment,Apgarjotteddownfivekeythingsmedicalworkersshouldcheckwithinaminuteofbirth:thebaby’sheartrate,respiration,color,muscletone,andreflexes.Babieswerescoredineachcategoryonascaleof0(meaning“absent”)to2(meaning“present”),with1somewhereinbetween.Thosewithtotalscoresbetween7and10weremorelikelytosurvive;thosewithlowerscoresneededimmediateintervention.In1953Apgarpublishedapaperintroducingthescoretoassessanewborn’s

condition.Thesystemwaswidelyadopted,and,muchtoApgar’sdelight,hernamewasturnedintoanacronymforthefivecriteria:Appearance,Pulse,Grimace,Activity,andRespiration.AfterleavingColumbiain1958,ApgarjoinedtheMarchofDimes,speakingand

writingwidely.AlongwithjournalistJoanBeck,sheauthoreda1972bestsellingbook,IsMyBabyAllRight?

VirginiaApgardevelopedherassessmenttocounterthehighinfantmortalityrateatthetime.

EliminatingaScourge

JONASSALK(1914–1995)Poliovaccine

Whileaninjectionmaynotbefun,thepoliovaccinehassavedcountlesslives.Todaypoliovaccinationcampaignscontinueinvulnerableareasthroughouttheworld.

Themanwhodevelopedtheworld’sfirstpoliovaccinealmostdidn’tgointomedicine.Bornin1914intheBronx,NewYork,JonasSalkwastheeldestsonofRussianJewishimmigrantswhohadlittleschooling.Salk,however,wastheproductofanexcellentpublicschooleducationandinitiallyintendedtostudylawandthenrunforpoliticaloffice.Butwhenhegraduatedcollegein1934,itwaswithadegreeinchemistry;medicalschoolandaninternshipatNewYork’sMountSinaiHospitalfollowed.SalkthenreceivedafellowshiptostudyfluvirusesattheUniversityofMichigan,whichstartedhimonthepathofmedicalresearch.

AttackingtheVirusPoliohasexistedsinceancienttimes.IntheUnitedStates,otherviruses—includinginfluenza—werefarmoreprevalentinSalk’sdayandkilledmorepeople.Butbythe1920s,thecountryhadseenseveralwavesofpolio,andthediseasewasterrifying.Some

1920s,thecountryhadseenseveralwavesofpolio,andthediseasewasterrifying.Somewhocontracteditbecamepermanentlyparalyzed;otherswereunabletobreatheandhadtoremaininmassiveventilators,knownasironlungs,whiletheyrecuperated.Stillothersdied.Whatmadepolioevenmorefrighteningwasthatnooneknewhowitwascontracted.

Peoplewereafraidofswimmingandotherpublicactivities.Itwaslaterdiscoveredthatthediseasespreadviacoughsandsneezes,andalsothroughcontactwiththestooloftheinfectedperson.In1947SalkwasmadethedirectoroftheVirusResearchLaboratoryatthe

UniversityofPittsburghSchoolofMedicine.AgrantfromtheNationalFoundationforInfantileParalysis(laterknownastheMarchofDimes)providedhimtheinitialroundoffundingforresearchofapoliocure.Ittooksevenyearsandtestingononemillionchildren(nicknamed“PolioPioneers”),

butbyApril1955Salkhadfoundhiscure.Thevaccinehedevelopedwasbasedonthethennovelandcontroversialideathataliveviruswasnotrequiredtoinduceimmunity;adeadviruscouldalsostimulateaprotectiveimmuneresponse.Thevaccinewassoonwidelyavailable.

ThePeople’sVaccineTheannouncementthatSalkhaddevelopedaneffectivevaccineagainstthediseasewasmetwithnationwiderejoicing.TheNewYorkTimesfrontpageonApril13,1955,cheeredthesuccessfulconclusionofthelargestmedicalfieldtrialinhistory.“SalkPolioVaccineProvesSuccess;MillionsWillBeImmunizedSoon;CitySchoolsBeginShotsApril25,”proclaimedajumboheadline.“Theworldlearnedtodaythatitshopesforfindinganeffectiveweaponagainstparalyticpoliohadbeenrealized,”begantheleadarticle.Withinseveralyearsofthevaccine’sintroduction,newpoliocasesplungedfromanannualaverageof45,000tofewerthanathousand.Hailedasahero,Salkwentontofoundaresearchfacility,theSalkInstituteof

BiomedicalStudies,inLaJolla,California.Butonethinghedidn’tdowaspatenthisvaccine.Ina1955televisioninterviewwithjournalistEdwardR.Murrow,Salksaidthatthemedicalbreakthrough,whichhadbeenpubliclyfunded,belongedtothepeople.Makingadramaticcomparisonwithsomethingelsethatcouldnotbeprivatelyowned,heaskedMurrowrhetorically,“Couldyoupatentthesun?”

JonasSalk,developerofthepoliovaccine,inthelaboratory,mid-20thcentury

AFTERTHEPOLIOVACCINEWASINTRODUCED,THENUMBEROFNEWCASESPLUNGEDFROMANANNUALAVERAGEOF45,000TOFEWERTHANATHOUSAND.

PumpItUp

ROBERTJARVIK(b.1946)Artificialheart

RobertJarvikholdstheJarvik2000,aleft-ventricularassistsystem.

PerhapsRobertJarvikwasdestinedforacareerinthemedicalsciences.Asachild,hewasabletoobservehisphysicianfatherperformsurgeries,andbythetimehegraduatedhighschool,hehadalreadydesignedanautomaticstaplertoclosesutures.Incollege,Jarvikchosetobecomeanarchitectbutwasinspiredtoswitchtopremedwhenhisfatherdevelopedheartdisease.Hispathtomedicalschoolwasbynomeansaneasyone;afterbeingrejectedbyseveralAmericanschoolsforhisaveragegrades,JarviktriedhisluckinItaly.HeattendedbutdidnotcompletecourseworkatthemedicalschooloftheUniversityofBologna,returningtotheUnitedStatesin1971andeventuallyearningadegree.

TheJarvik-7Inthe1970s,experimentalartificialheartshadsucceededinkeepingahumanpatient

Inthe1970s,experimentalartificialheartshadsucceededinkeepingahumanpatientaliveonlyforacoupleofdaysandanimalsforaweekortwo.ButJarvik,thenascientistattheUniversityofUtah,believedheandhiscolleaguescouldcreateapermanentimplantableheartforuseinhumans.Eventually,theteamunveiledadevicecalledtheJarvik-7,andin1982aretiredSeattledentistnamedBarneyClark,whoseheartwasfailing,agreedtobethefirstrecipientofthedevice,evenknowinghemightnotsurviveforlong.TheJarvik-7washardlyperfect.Thoughitwassmallenoughtofitinsideaperson’s

chest,itwaspoweredbyanoutsidemachinecalledadriver.Sincethepersonhadtobeattachedtotheexternalmachinebyaseriesoftubes,thislimitedhisorhermobilityandmadethedesignimpractical.Italsowasunabletokeeppeoplealiveforverylong.Clarklivedforalittleoverthreemonths;asecondpatientwhoreceivedaJarvik-7survivedforalittleundertwoyears.Recipientsweresusceptibletocomplications,includingstrokesandinfections,andrequiredintensivemedicalcare.

FurtherDevelopmentsBecauseoftheassociatedhazards,thefederalgovernmentplacedlimitsontheuseofartificialheartsin1985andcutoffresearchfundingin1988.Jarvikpressedon,formingJarvikResearch,Inc.,inNewYorkCitytocontinuehisstudies.Since2000hehasfocusedonaleft-ventricularassistsystem,adevicethathelpsweakenedheartspumpbloodfromtheventricletotheaortaandthenthroughoutthebody.Morethan350patientshaveusedtheJarvik-7since1982.Theyarestillinusetoday:

asmallerversionoftheJarvik-7canbuytimeforpatientsawaitingahearttransplant.Anothermodelisreservedforpeoplewithend-stageheartfailurewhoarenottransplantcandidates.Jarvikisn’ttheonlypowerfulintellectinhisfamily.Hisuncle,Dr.MurrayJarvik,

studiedsmokingaddictionandwasoneoftheinventorsofthenicotinepatch,whilehiswife,thecolumnistMarilynvosSavant,wasrecognizedtohavethehighestknownIQbytheGuinnessBookofWorldRecords.

BreatheEasy

JOHNGIBBON(1903–1973)Heart-lungmachine

JohnGibbon,theinventorofthefirstsuccessfulheart-lungmachine

JohnH.GibbonJr.camefromalonglineofmedicalprofessionals.Hisgrandfather,great-grandfather,andgreat-great-grandfatherwerealldoctors,andoneofhisgreat-uncleswasanotedConfederatesurgeonduringtheCivilWar.ThoughGibbonJr.wantedtobreakwithfamilytraditionandpursueacareerasawriter,hisfatherconvincedhimtostaythecourse.GibbonJr.followedhisfather’sadvice,andin1930hewasmadeasurgicalfellowatHarvardMedicalSchool,doingworkatnearbyMassachusettsGeneralHospital.

Twenty-three-YearCommitmentOneofGibbon’sfirstassignmentswastoassistDr.EdwardChurchill,asurgeonwhopioneeredtreatmentsforthyroidandheartconditions,inanemergencyproceduretoremovebloodclotsfromawoman’sheart.Whilethetwodoctorssuccessfullyremovedthecoagulations,thewomandidnotsurvivethesurgeryduetoblockedlungcirculation.TheexperienceinspiredGibbontocreateamachinethatcouldtemporarilyfunctionasapatient’scardiovascularsystemduringheartsurgery,

temporarilyfunctionasapatient’scardiovascularsystemduringheartsurgery,oxygenatingandpumpingbloodwhilethepatient’sownheartwasbeingrepaired.ThoughGibbon’scolleagueswereskepticalofhisproject,hedevotedhimselftoitfor

thenext23years,workingontheideainhissparetime.HeeventuallymetandmarriedMaryHopkinson,amedicalresearcher,andthetwobegancollaborating.AfterastintservinginWorldWarII,GibbonwasnamedchiefofsurgeryatJeffersonMedicalCollegeHospitalinPhiladelphia.There,heteamedupwithIBMengineerstoperfectaprototype.

RefiningtheProcessOnMay6,1953,Gibbonperformedsurgerytorepairaheartdefectinan18-year-oldpatientnamedCeceliaBavolek.For26minutes,afterhestoppedherhearttorepairit,Gibbon’smachinediditswork,circulatingBavolek’sbloodandkeepingheralive.Whenthesurgerywasfinished,herheartrestarted,andshemadeafullrecovery.Gibbonwasdemoralizedafterlosingtwopatientsinsimilaroperationsthatsame

year.Butlaterinventors,notablyDr.JohnW.KirklinattheMayoClinicinRochester,Minnesota,refinedthemachine.Bythelate1950s,Kirklin’stweakstoGibbon’sinventionhadhelpedimprovesurvivalrates,allowingforsignificantadvancesinheartsurgery.Gibbondiedofaheartattackin1973whileplayingtennis,mostlikelytheresultofa

lifetimeofsmoking.Hisworkledtomanysurgicalprocedures,fromcoronarybypasssurgerytosuccessfulrepairsofcongenitalheartdefects.

Theheart-lungmachinetemporarilytakesoverthecardiopulmonaryfunctions.

BEFOREGIBBON’SINVENTION,CARDIACSURGEONSHADNOOPTIONBUTTOOPERATEONABEATINGHEART;PATIENTSOFTEN

DIDNOTSURVIVE.

ASurprisingTrioJOHNROCK,GREGORYPINCUS,ANDMARGARETSANGER(1890–1994)(1903–1967)(1879–1966)Birthcontrolpill

Oralcontraceptiveswerepromotedasanaturalmeansofbirthcontrolbecausetheyusedprogesterone,anaturallyoccurringhormone,tocontrolcycles.

Itwasanunlikelyteamthatrewrotetherulesofwomen’sreproductivehealth.ActivistMargaretSanger,scientistGregoryPincus,anddoctorJohnRockallcamefromdifferentbackgrounds,beliefsystems,andareasofexpertise,buttheircollaborativeeffortsledtooneofmedicalhistory’smostrevolutionaryinventions:thebirthcontrolpill.

PavingtheWayTheanti–birthcontrolmovementstartedaftertheCivilWar,whenNewYorksalesmanAnthonyComstock,aferventChristian,wasoffendedbythelustheobservedwhileoutonhisbeat.By1873hehadconvincedCongresstopassabillthatmadeitillegaltoownanythingsex-related,includingcontraceptives.Sanger,anurseontheLowerEastSideofManhattan,hadseenupclosethefateof

womenwholackedaccesstobirthcontrol.HerownmotherdiedoftuberculosiswhenSangerwasjust19,herbodyweakenedbythestressof11childbirthsandsevenmiscarriages.Inherdayjob,Sangerworkedwithwomenwhohadself-inducedabortions,someofwhomdiedfromtheprocedure.Appalledbyhighmaternalmortality,shelaunchedacampaigntooverturntheComstocklawsaround1914.Sangeropenedthecountry’sfirstbirthcontrolclinicin1916butwasarrestedand

Sangeropenedthecountry’sfirstbirthcontrolclinicin1916butwasarrestedandsentencedtotimeinaworkhouseforviolationsoftheComstocklaws.Inthe1930sSangeragaindefiedtheComstocklawbyorderingadiaphragmfromJapan.Shewasinstrumentalinwinninga1936U.S.CircuitCourtofAppealsdecisionthatmadeitpossiblefordoctorstodistributecontraceptivesacrossstatelines—arulingthatpavedthewayforthelegitimizationofbirthcontrol.

MeetingsoftheMindsAsthe1940sprogressed,SangerbeganworkinNewYorkfoundingtheInternationalCommitteeonPlannedParenthood,awomen’shealthorganization.Aboutthesametime,endocrinologistDr.GregoryPincuswasdirectingtheWorcesterFoundationforExperimentalBiology,ineasternMassachusetts,andconductingresearchonhormones.Pincus’sworkfocusedonmammalianreproductionandtheeffectsofhormonesonfertility.Hecausedasensationin1934whenheorchestratedthesuccessfulinvitrofertilizationofarabbitbutwaspilloriedinthepressbycriticswhothoughthisresearchcouldleadtodangerousexperimentswith“testtubebabies.”Atadinnerpartyin1951,SangermetPincusandpersuadedhimtoworkonahuman

birthcontrolpill.SheenlistedheiressandactivistKatharineMcCormicktocontributeover$2millioninfundingfortheproject,andPincusbegantestingthehormoneprogesteroneanditseffectsonovulation.Heconfirmedthatthehormonepreventedovulationinanimalsin1952—afindingthatwouldbethebasisforthepill.Laterthatyear,PincustappedDr.JohnRocktohelphimwithclinicaltrialsforthe

contraceptive.AsaCatholic,Rockwasanunlikelyconverttothebirthcontrolcause.Buthisexperienceasagynecologist,wherehewitnessedthesufferingcausedbyunwantedpregnancies,convincedhimthataccessiblecontraceptivescouldhelpalleviatethepovertyandhealthrisksrelatedtochildbirth.

Birthof“ThePill”PincusandRockhadtocircumventstatelawsforbiddingbirthcontroltocarryoutthenecessarytrialsoftheirprogesterone-basedoralcontraceptive.Firsttheyclaimedthattheywerestudyinginfertilitysotheycouldadministerthefirsthumantrials,inMassachusetts,in1954.TwoyearslatertheycontinuedtheirtestsonalargerscaleinPuertoRico.TheislandwasselectedforitsproximitytotheUnitedStates,thefactthatithadnobansoncontraception,anditsextensivenetworkofbirthcontrolclinics.Italsoaffordedscientiststheopportunitytotestthepillonwomenofdifferentbackgrounds.Afterthesetrials,theFoodandDrugAdministration(FDA)initiallyapprovedthepill

in1957totreatmenstrualdisorders.In1960,theFDAauthorizedthetabletasasafemeansofbirthcontrol.“ThePill”wasnotonlythefirstoralcontraceptivebutalsothefirstmedicationapprovedtopreventaconditionratherthantreatanillness.Withina

firstmedicationapprovedtopreventaconditionratherthantreatanillness.Withinafewyearsmillionsofwomenwereusingtheproduct.AccordingtotheGuttmacherInstitute,anonprofitorganizationfocusingonreproductivehealth,morethanhalfofallwomenwhousethepillrelyonit,atleastinpart,fornoncontraceptivepurposessuchashelpwithcramps,migranes,oracne.Pincuswentontoconductimportantresearchontheuseofsynthetichormonesfor

emergencypostcoitalcontraceptionbeforedyingofarareblooddiseasein1967.Rockalsocontinuedtoworkonthebirthcontrolissue,penningthe1963bookTheTimeHasCome:ACatholicDoctor’sProposaltoEndtheBattleOverBirthControl.

GregoryPincusina1960sportrait

JohnRockinhisobstetricsandgynecologyoffice

MargaretSangeratherwritingdeskinthe1920s

THEONEWEEKOFSUGARPILLS,ALLOWINGMENSTRUATION,WASNOTMEDICALLYNECESSARYBUTAROSEFROMROCK’SCATHOLIC

FAITHANDWHATHEBELIEVEDTOBENATURAL.

EmergencyCare

JAMESELAM(1918–1995)

CPR

JamesElam’searlyworkinmouth-to-mouthresuscitationlaidthegroundworkforhislatercollaborationonCPR.

Dr.JamesElamwasalwaysinterestedinhelpingpeoplebreathe.Itmayhavecomefromapersonalexperienceherecountedoften:bornprematurely,theinfantElamweighedlessthantwopounds.Thephysicianwhodeliveredhimtoldhismotherto“spankhimeverytimehestopsbreathing.”Shetooktheadvice,andElamsurvived—ararethingforaprematurebabyinthosedays.

ProfessionalChallengesElam’sfirstprofessionalchallengeaftercompletingmedicalschoolwastreatingapolioepidemicinMinnesota,wherehehadgonetoseekfurthertraining.Heneededawaytorevivepoliopatientswhohadstoppedbreathing.Atthetime,themostcommonresuscitationmethodinvolvedliftingapatient’sarmsabovehishead,thenpressingthembackdownagainsthischesttoinflateandemptythelungs.Butpolioparalyzed

thembackdownagainsthischesttoinflateandemptythelungs.Butpolioparalyzedthebody,soElamexperimentedwithmouth-to-maskventilationaswellasatechniqueheknewmidwivesusedtogetnewbornsbreathing:blowingintothenoseormouth.

WordofMouthThoughthemouth-to-mouthtechniqueseemedtoworkwell,noonehadadequatelystudiedittomakesureitwassafe.Withfurtherresearch,Elamprovedthateventhoughanexhaledbreathcontainedcarbondioxide,itstillhadenoughoxygentokeepanonbreathingpersonalive.Intheearly1950s,ElamteamedwithDr.PeterSafer,thechiefofanesthesiologyatBaltimoreCityHospital,inMaryland.Thetwocollaboratedandperfectedthemethodofmouth-to-mouthresuscitationin1957.Theirmethodmadeitpossibleforpeopletoadministertreatmentoutsideofhospitals,withoutequipmentsuchasventilators.

RescueBreathingIn1959,theNewYorkStateHealthCommissionerHermanHilliboerequestedthatElamwriteaninstructionalmethodtospreadwordofthenewemergencycaretechnique.Theresultingbooklet,titledRescueBreathing,wasdistributednationally.ElamandSafaralsocontractedaNorwegiantoymakertodesignananatomicallycorrectdolltohelppeoplepracticethetechnique.Thedoll,knownas“RescueAnnie,”isstillinusetoday.By1960,SafarhadteamedupwithresearchersfromJohnsHopkinsHospital,alsoin

Baltimore,whohadshownthatchestcompressionscancirculatebloodinpatientswhoseheartshadstopped.Safarandhispartnerspromotedatwo-partrescuetechniquenowknownaroundtheworldascardiopulmonaryresuscitation,orCPR.

TagTeam

ROSALYNYALOWANDSOLOMONBERSON(1921–2011)(1918–1972)Radioimmunoassay

YalowandBersoninthelaboratorywheretheyconductedtheirgroundbreakingresearchAsitdidformanywomen,WorldWarIIopenedthedoorinunexpectedwaysformedicalresearcherRosalynYalow.AsecretaryinNewYorkCitywhentheconflictbrokeout,Yalowwasabletoenteraphysicsdoctoralprogramoncethousandsofyoungmen

deployedtoEuropeandthePacific.Afterthewar,whentheU.S.governmentbeganexploringhowradioactiveelementscouldbeusedinmedicalresearch,Yalowwaswell-positionedtocontribute.

MedicalPhysicsYalowjoinedtheBronxVeteransAdministrationMedicalCenterin1947asanuclearmedicineresearcher.Shewasinterestedinapplyingthephysicsofradioactiveisotopestomedicalquestionsbutneededsomeonewhounderstoodinternalmedicinetohelpadvanceherresearch.WhenshemetSolomonBerson,aphysicianandscientistwithacolorfulpastasbothamusicianandchessaficionado,sheknewimmediatelyshe’dfoundherpartner.Thetwojoinedforcesandspentthenext22yearsstudyinghowradioactivematerialscouldmeasureminisculeamountsofsubstancesinthehumanbody.Theirfirstprojectwasaimedtowardhelpingpeoplewithdiabetes.Diabeticscannot

produceenoughinsulin,thehormonethatturnssugarintoenergy,soitmustbeinjected.Tostudythepathinsulintakesinthebody,YalowandBersonaddeda

injected.Tostudythepathinsulintakesinthebody,YalowandBersonaddedaradioactiveisotopeofiodinetoamoleculeofinsulin.Asinsulinpassedthroughthebody,thetinyamountofradiationgivenoffbytheisotopeallowedthemtotracktheinsulin’smovementandseehowlongitwasretained.Theirfindingsledtothereplacementoflivestock-basedinsulinwithhumaninsulin,whichcouldbeprocessedmuchfaster.

TracingandTaggingYalowandBerson’sexperimentswithdiabeticsledtothedevelopmentoftheirmostlastingachievement,theradioimmunoassaytechnique.Thisisadiagnostictestthatcandetectminuteamountsofsubstancesinthebloodandisusedtotestpatientsforeverythingfromcancertumormarkerstothyroidproblemstopregnancyhormones.Physicianstagwhateversubstancetheywanttomeasureinapatientwitharadioactivelabelthatmakesittraceable.Themixtureofsubstanceandlabelisthenaddedtoasolutioncontainingthesubstance’santibody,whichisthenaddedtoasampleofthepatient’sblood.Basedonthewaythattheelementsofthemixtureseparateintoradioactiveandnonradioactivegroups,aresearchercanmeasuretheamountofthesubstanceintheblood.YalowandBersonwerebothawardedprofessorshipsaftertheirbreakthrough.When

Bersondiedin1972,YalowrenamedtheirlaboratoryintheBronxtheSolomonA.BersonResearchLaboratory.Shedidthissothathisnamewouldbeoneveryresearchpapershesubsequentlypublished.In1977YalowbecameonlythesecondwomaninhistorytowintheNobelPrizeinPhysiologyorMedicine.

Wholebloodserumispreparedforhepatitistestingthroughradioimmunoassay.

YALOW’SINSPIRATIONWASTHEPOLISH-FRENCHCHEMISTANDPHYSICISTMARIECURIE,WHOCONDUCTEDPIONEERING

RESEARCHONRADIOACTIVITY.

InsideLook

RAYMONDDAMADIAN(b.1936)Magneticresonanceimaging

MRIofanormalbrain

ArmenianAmericanphysicianandinventorRaymondDamadianisgenerallycreditedwithdevelopingthefirstmagneticresonanceimaging(MRI)machine.Butunlikemanyinthescientificcommunity,Damadianwasacreationist,believingthattheuniverseresultedfromadivineactratherthanevolution.SomeofDamadian’ssupportersfeelthatthesebeliefsmayhavecosthimaNobelPrize.

IntensePainAboutofintenseabdominalpainledDamadiantocreatetheMRImachine.Whenhetookillintheearly1960s,x-rayscouldproduceimagesofbonystructures.Buttheonlywaytoknowwhatwasgoingoninternallywithaperson’ssofttissuewastooperate.

waytoknowwhatwasgoingoninternallywithaperson’ssofttissuewastooperate.Thoughhissymptomseventuallyimprovedwhenhecutdownonhiscaffeineconsumption,Damadianwasintriguedwithhowtocaptureimagesofabody’ssofttissues.

FlippingOutOverthenextdecade,Damadianexploredhowamagneticfieldandradiowavescouldbeusedtorenderimagesofthebody’sinternalorgans.Subjectedtoamagneticfield,thenucleiofatoms—includingtheplentifulhydrogenatomsofthewateryhumanbody—alignthemselvesineitherparallelorantiparallelfashion.Radiowavescan“flip”thesenuclei.Astheradiowavesarewithdrawn,thenuclei“flip”backintoalignmentatdifferentrates.This“relaxationtime,”readablebytheradiowavesthenucleiemitastheymove,variesamongthedifferenttissuesofthebody.Damadianusedthisprocesstodifferentiatecanceroustumorsinrats.Hepublishedhisconceptin1971.

SeeingItThroughIn1977,DamadianandcolleaguesatDownstateMedicalCenter,inBrooklyn,NewYork,usedtheirprimitiveimagingmachine—the“Indomitable,”theycalledit—toproducearoughpictureofagraduatestudent’sheartandlungs.Themethod,however,wasimpractical,asitreliedonapoint-by-pointreadingoftheentirebody.WorkingseparatelyatLongIsland’sStateUniversityofNewYorkatStonyBrook,

chemistPaulLauterburmademagneticresonanceimagingfeasible.Lauterburcreatedawayofbuildingupanimagebyapplyingamagneticfieldthatvariesinstrengthacrossthebody.Theprocessallowedthescannertomapexactlywherethesignalsoriginated.Lauterbur’sgradientfieldisusedinMRItechnologytoday.MRIrevolutionizeddiagnosticimagingasanoninvasivemethodforpeeringunder

theskintocloselyexaminesuchstructuresastheorgansofthechestandabdomen,thespinalcolumnandnerves,thetendonsandligaments,andeventhebrain.TheworkearnedLauterbur,alongwithEnglishphysicistPeterMansfield,the2003

NobelPrizeinPhysiologyorMedicine.Therewascontroversyaboutthis,assomescientistsfeltthatLauterburandMansfield’stechnologicaladvanceswouldhavebeenimpossiblewithoutDamadian’searlierresearch.HisoriginalMRImachineisnowinthecollectionoftheSmithsonian.

RaymondDamadianplayedakeyroleindevelopingMRI.

MoodBooster

DAVIDWONG(b.1936)Prozac

Wong’stestingprovedthatfluoxetinecouldincreasefeelingsofwell-being.

DavidWong,oneofthekeyresearcherswhoinventedProzacatEliLillyandCompany,arguablyendedupontheteambecauseofhisgrandmother—atleastinpart.WhenWongwasjobhuntingafterfinishinghisdoctorateinchemistry,herememberedtheLillylogoonthediabetesmedicinehisgrandmothertookanddecidedtoapplyforapositionatthecompany.Lillyhiredhimasaseniorbiochemistin1968.Itwasagooddecision.ProzacbecameoneofLilly’salltimebestsellers,andWong

wouldalsodopioneeringworkonanotherofLilly’stopearners,theantidepressantCymbalta.

InCollaborationWhiletherewereearlyantidepressants,manyweremarredbysideeffects:compromisedvision,dizziness,andconstipationamongthem.TwoscientistsatEliLillyhadbeenworkingonantidepressantssincetheearly1960s:RayFullerandBryan

Lillyhadbeenworkingonantidepressantssincetheearly1960s:RayFullerandBryanMolloy.Fullerhadexperimentedwithratstoseehowtheirserotonin(thechemicalinthebrainthatproducesfeelingsofhappiness)reactedtodifferentdrugs.Molloyresearchedhowantidepressantscouldfunctionwithoutdisruptingacetylcholine,theneurotransmitterresponsibleformusclestimulation,amongotherthings.

GivingOthersaLiftWhenWongjoinedtheantidepressantteamin1971,hewasresponsiblefortestingthechemicalcompoundsMolloyhaddevisedinhisresearch.ThemethodWongusedwasabitunorthodoxbutworkedforhispurposes:heremovedthenerveendingsfromground-upratbrainssotheywouldfunctionjustlikelivingnervecells.WhenheusedthesetotestMolloy’scompounds,hediscoveredthatoneofthecompounds,calledfluoxetine,blockedthenerveendingfromreabsorbingtheneurotransmitterserotonin.Theteamtestedthecompoundfurtheronalivingratandfounditachievedthesameeffect—meaningthatmoreserotoninwasavailableinthebrain,andthereforemorefeelingsofhappiness.FluoxetinewastrademarkedunderthenameProzac.Lillyintroducedittothepublic

in1988.Propelledbyamassivemarketingcampaign,Prozacbecameablockbuster.By1990,lessthanthreeyearsafteritsdebut,ProzacwasLilly’stop-sellingmedicationandthemostwidelyprescribedantidepressantintheUnitedStates.Antidepressantsasacategorybecameamasssocialphenomenon,themostcommonlyprescribeddrugforAmericansages18to44.Thedrug’spatentexpiredin2001,andnowitcompeteswithgenericandbrandnamealternatives.

Prozacusheredinanewerainpsychopharmacology.

PROPELLEDBYAMASSIVEMARKETINGCAMPAIGN,PROZACBECAMEABLOCKBUSTER.BY1990,LESSTHANTHREEYEARSAFTER

ITSDEBUT,PROZACWASLILLY’STOP-SELLINGMEDICATION.

TRANSPORTATIONTheUnitedStatesisvast—about3.8millionsquaremiles.Sowhatisthequickestandmostefficientwaytomovepeople,goods,andrawmaterials

acrosstheland?

OrvilleandWilburWright’sFlyerI—theworld’sfirstpower-drivenflyingmachine—usedspruce,ash,andmuslinfabricinitsconstruction.

PowerPlayer

ROBERTFULTON(1765–1815)Steamboat

RobertFultonneverlivedtoseetransatlanticsteamboattraveltakeoff.

ThemanwhohelpedcreatetheAmericanshippingeconomyofthe19thcenturybeganhiscareerasanartist.RobertFultonwasaportraitandlandscapepainterin18th-centuryPennsylvania.Butalifelonginterestindrawingmachinery,coupledwithanexplosionincanal-building,promptedFultontoexperimentwithboatdesignandengineering.

RunningOutofSteamThefirstworkablesteamenginewascreatedbyScottishinventorJamesWattin1775.Thedevelopmentusheredinaneraofautomation,whereeventuallyeverythingfromfarmimplementstofactorymachinerywaspower-driven.WhileanumberofinventorsattemptedtoattachWatt’ssteamenginetoboats,noneweresuccessful.In1787,AmericaninventorsJohnFitchandJamesRumseybuiltarowboatwitha

steamengine—themotorpoweredtwopoles,whichmadearowofoarsturninthewater.AfterGeorgeWashingtonandBenjaminFranklinwitnessedademonstrationoftheboat,FitchandRumseywereawardedagovernmentcontracttodeveloptheidea.ButtheduowasunabletoimproveontheirinitialdesignandFitch,frustratedby

ButtheduowasunabletoimproveontheirinitialdesignandFitch,frustratedbyfailure,committedsuicidein1798.

FrenchConnectionFultonwasthemantoperfectthesteamboat.Healreadyhaddesignedcanalboats,introducedimprovementstocanalmechanisms,andevenbuiltthefirstworkingsubmarine,theNautilus.In1802,whilelivinginFrance,hemetRobertLivingston,anAmericanministerwhocamefromanold,moneyedNewYorkfamilyandwhohadexclusiverightstosteamboatuseontheHudsonRiver.FultonandLivingstonformedapartnershiptobuildaboatforcommercialtransportanddevelopedtheprototypeinFrance.WhenFultontestedthesteamboatontheSeineRiverin1803,itsunkinaviolent

storm.Herebuiltitandtesteditagainlaterthatyear.Thistimeitsailedsuccessfully.FultonreturnedtoAmericain1806tobuildafull-sizeshipfortheHudson.

OnwardtoAlbanyFulton’sAmericanmodelincorporatedsomenewelements.Insteadofusingoarstopropeltheboat,Fultonequippeditwithawaterwheel.Heorderedaspecial24-horsepowerWattengineandhaditshippedfromEnglandtotheshipyardontheEastRiverinNewYork.Whenthevesselwascompletedin1807,FultonchristenedittheClermontafterLivingston’shomeontheHudson.OnAugust17,the150-foot-longshipwasreadyforitsinauguralvoyage.Itsailedfrom

NewYorktoAlbany,150milesuptheriver,in30hourswithanovernightstop.Withitssmokestacksandnoisypaddlewheels,theshipscaredfishermenonthebanksoftheriverwhohadneverseenanythinglikeit.TheClermontreturnedtoNewYorkand,withsomemodifications,wasreadyforpassengertravelwithinamonth.

TradeTransformationThefirststeamboattocrosstheoceanwasbuiltbyMosesRogersandmadea25-daytripfromSavannah,Georgia,toLiverpool.By1818,suchvoyageswerebecomingroutine.ThesteamboatwouldtransformtheAmericanshippingeconomy.Fulton,however,nevergottoseethefar-reachingeffectsofhisinvention.Walking

acrossthefrozenHudsonRiverwithhisfriendThomasAddisEmmetonenightin1815,Emmetfellthroughtheice;Fultonrescuedhim,butintheprocesswassoakedwithcoldwaterandcontractedpneumoniaandthentuberculosis.Hediedsoonthereafter,leavingbehindawifeandfourchildren.

This19th-centurycoloredengravingshowsFulton’ssteamboat,theClermont,ontheHudsonin1807.

ATRAINEDARTISTWHOSPECIALIZEDINPORTRAITSANDLANDSCAPES,ROBERTFULTONBEGANDRAWINGMACHINERY

BEFOREHEEVERCONSIDEREDBUILDINGIT.

HavingaFieldDay

JOHNDEERE(1804–1886)Tractorandplow

ThecompanyJohnDeerefoundedtomanufacturefarmmachineryisstillheadquarteredinMoline,Illinois.

JohnDeerewasjustaboywhenhisfather,atailor,disappeared,andhewasraisedinRutland,Vermont,byhismother.Deereworkedasablacksmith’sapprenticeandwassoonknownasoneofthemosttalentedsmithsinthestate.DecliningbusinessopportunitiesintheNortheastpromptedDeeretoheadwestin1837.HeestablishedhimselfinGrandDetour,Illinois,withhiswifeandtheirfivechildrenfollowinghimoutthenextyear.

DiggingInAthisnewshop,Deerenoticedthathewasconstantlymakingrepairstoplows.Thethick,stickyprairiedirtjammedtheircast-ironandwoodenparts,andoperatorshadtostopworkalmosthourlyforcleaning.Hisclientswerefrustrated.Deerebegantoconceiveofaplowthatcouldbettertilltheprairiesoil.Achildhoodmemoryservedasfodder.Deererememberedwatchinghisfatherpolish

sewingneedleswithsand,andthattheneedlesrarelygotstuckorjammed.Inhisshop

sewingneedleswithsand,andthattheneedlesrarelygotstuckorjammed.InhisshopinGrandDetour,Deerealreadyhadbeguntomakepitchforksfromsteelandnotedhowthemetalrarelycakedwithdirtandmud.Steel,itappeared,wouldbeaneffectivematerialforplowblades.In1837hepolishedabrokensteelsawmillbladetoahighsheen,thenfashioneditintoaplowblade.Hegaveitacurvedratherthanstraightedgesoitcouldbetterdigintothedirtandliftthesoil.

GrowthoftheSoilDeeresoldthesteel-bladedplowtoalocalfarmer,whosharedhisnewpurchasewithpeers,manyofwhomwantedoneoftheirown.WithlocalinvestorsheformedacompanyandopenedafactoryinMoline,Illinois,tokeepupwithdemand.By1849hewasproducing2,000steelplowsannually,andby1857thecompanywasofferingninedifferentmodelstohandledifferentterrains.Afterbuyingouthisinitialinvestors,DeerebroughthissonCharlesonboard.Charles

tookoverday-to-dayoperationsofthecompanyin1858,freeinghisfathertoengageincivicaffairs.InhislaterlifeDeerewasthedirectorofthetownlibrary,becameatrusteeofhischurch,andevenservedasMoline’smayorfortwoyears.

TeamingUpfortheTractorEvenbeforeDeere’sdeathin1886,steamengineshadbeguntoreplacedraftanimalsontheAmericanfarmscene.By1891,inventorJohnFroelichofWaterloo,Iowa,revolutionizedthemachinerybyswappingoutthesteamenginewithagas-poweredinternalcombustionengine.Althoughtheword“tractor”wouldnotcomeintouseuntil1901,Froelich’sinventionofwhathecalleda“tractionenginethresher”wasinfactthefirstmoderntractor.Itcouldharvest10timesfasterthanahorse-drawnplow.Deere&CompanyboughtFroelich’scompanyin1918.

DrivingForce

CHARLESGOODYEAR(1800–1860)Vulcanizedrubber

YearsafterGoodyeardied,anindustrialistfoundedatirecompanyandnameditaftertheinventorasatribute.

Inthe1830s,theworldfellinandoutoflovewithrubber—butonemanremainedenamored.CharlesGoodyear,aPhiladelphiahardwaremerchant,becameobsessedwiththesubstanceandremainedso,evenwhenhisrubberexperimentsledtofinancialhardshipanddebtors’prison.“Thereisprobablynootherinertsubstancewhichsoexcitesthemind,”Goodyearopined.

EarlyRejectionsIn1834,GoodyearwasinbankruptcywhenheapproachedtheRoxburyIndiaRubberCompanyofNewYorkwithaninvention:avalvetousewithrubberlifepreservers.Goodyear’sideawasingenious.Histimingwasnot.ThoughmanufacturershadbeenpromotingthenaturalwaterproofgumfromBrazilasawondermaterialthatcouldprotectshoesandboots,thekinkshadnotyetbeenworkedout.Noonecouldfigureouthowtokeeptherubberfrommeltinginthesummerheatandfreezinginthewinter.RoxburywasgivinguponthesubstanceandadvisedGoodyeartodothesame.Yettheinventorwasadamant.Evenwithunpaidbillsthatlandedhimbehindbars,

Goodyearcontinuedtoexperimentwithrubber,sometimeswhileincarcerated.Hemixeditwithwhateversubstanceshecouldfind,fromwitchhazeltocreamcheese,andwhatevertoolswereathand—includingarollingpinbroughtinbyhiswife.Upon

whatevertoolswereathand—includingarollingpinbroughtinbyhiswife.Uponrelease,GoodyearmovedtoNewYorktoescapehiscreditors,hadsomesmallsuccesseswithrubber,andwasgivenamedalbyaNewYorktradeshowforhisefforts.Theupsanddownscontinued.WhenGoodyeardiscoveredthatnitricacidimproved

rubber’sdurability,helinedupaninvestortobackproduction.Thefinancialcrisisin1837,however,scuttledthedeal,andGoodyearhadtofeedhisfamilybyfishingofftheStatenIslandHarbor.HemovedbacktoMassachusetts,wherenewbackerscontractedwiththegovernmenttoproduce150mailbagsfortheU.S.PostalServiceusingthenitricacid–basedrubber.Goodyearproducedtheorder,buttherubbermeltedwhenheleftthesackstoolonginanoverheatedroom.

TheBreakthroughIn1839,Goodyearfinallyhadhisbreakthrough.HetookasampleofrubbermixedwithsulfurtoageneralstoreinWoburn,Massachusetts.Whilewavingthefist-sizedsamplearoundtomakeapoint,Goodyearaccidentallythrewitontoastove.Thistimetherubberdidn’tmelt—itcharred.Aroundtheedgewasaspringy,dryrimofgumelastic,suggestingthattheheatandsulfurhadsomehowtransformedtherubber.Butwhatwastherighttemperature?Goodyearcontinuedhisexperiments,heatingbitsofrubberinsandandstreamsofsteam.Andthereweremorehardships.Goodyear’sinfantsondied,andhisfinancesstrained.

Tosupporthiswork,hehadtopawnhiswatchandsellhishouseholdfurniture.Finally,in1840,Goodyearhituponaprocessofsteamunderpressureandheatthatproduceduniformrubberthatwasweatherproofanddurable.

PoorDealingsandPosthumousFameStill,Goodyearwashauntedbyinfringersandbadbusinessdecisions.Apatentobtainedin1844failedtopreventmanufacturersfrompiratinghisidea,andevenwiththehelpoffamedlawyerDanielWebster,Goodyearwasunabletorecoverthelostincome.Bynotsecuringforeignpatentsinatimelymanner,Goodyearopenedthedoorforanotherinventor,ThomasHancockofEngland,to“reinvent”rubberin1843.HancockfiledaBritishpatentfor“vulcanizedrubber,”namedforVulcan,theRomangodoffire.WhenGoodyeardiedin1860,hewas$200,000indebt.Hisbiggestsuccesscame

withtheriseoftheautomobile,decadeslater,whenvulcanizedrubbermadeitpossibletocreatesturdytires.In1898,industrialistFrankSeiberlingstartedacar-tirecompanyandnamedittheGoodyearTireCompanyinhonoroftheoriginalinventorofvulcanizedrubber.

Startingin1925,Goodyearbeganusingitsfleetofblimpsasanadvertisingandpublicrelationsvehicle.

Vulcanizedrubberfounditsgreatestmarketinautomobiletires.

CHARLESGOODYEARWASWILDABOUTRUBBER.HEONCEREMARKED,“THEREISPROBABLYNOOTHERINERTSUBSTANCE

WHICHSOIGNITESTHEMIND.”

CableGuy

JOHNROEBLING(1806–1809)Suspensionbridge

TheBrooklynBridge,whichopenedin1883,wasthefirststeel-wiresuspensionbridge.

Theinventorofthemodernsuspensionbridgeisbestrememberedasabrilliantcivilengineer.ButJohnRoeblingwasalsoarenaissancemanwhostudiedunderphilosopherGeorgHegel,hadadeepinterestinnaturalphilosophy,andevenplannedtoestablishautopia.ThePrussian-bornRoeblingdiscoveredhisinterestinmathandengineeringearly,

studiedwithprominentarchitectsandengineersattheUniversityofBerlin,andbecameenamoredwithsuspensionbridges.Aftergraduation,RoeblingtookajobbuildingpublicroadsinWestphalia,andhetriedtoconvincehissuperiorstoexecuteoneofhisdesigns,albeitunsuccessfully.

AYouthfulPassionIn1831,RoeblingemigratedtoAmericawithCarl,hisbrother,andJohannAdolphusEtzler,anearlyproponentofrenewableresources.ThethreeplannedtostartautopiancommunityinruralPennsylvania,thoughdifferencesforcedthegrouptosplit.Instead,JohnandCarlstartedanagriculturalcollectivecalledSaxonburg,inwesternPennsylvania.Asitturnedout,farmingdidn’tsuitRoebling,andin1837,hereturnedtoengineering.Hetookapositionhelpingtobuildanetworkofcanalsacross

toengineering.HetookapositionhelpingtobuildanetworkofcanalsacrossPennsylvania.Aspartofthejob,Roeblingdesignedastrongwireropetohaulbargesthatreplacedtheweakhempropeofthetime,andhereceivedapatentfortheinventionin1842.Theropewouldproveakeyelementofhissuspensionbridgedesigns.

CablesandPiersIn1845,Roeblingcompletedhisfirstmajorcabled-bridgeproject,anaqueductthatspannedtheAlleghenyRiverinPittsburgh.HefollowedthisupwithasuspensionbridgeovertheMonongahelaRiver,alsoinPittsburgh.AsRoebling’sfamespread,hewaschosentoconstructmoreandmoreprojects.In1848itwasfoursuspensionaqueductsontheDelawareandHudsonCanal,andin1851hewashiredtocreateabridgespanningtheNiagaraRivernearthefamousNiagaraFalls.Today,RoeblingispracticallysynonymouswiththeBrooklynBridge,linkingthe

boroughsofBrooklynandManhattanovertheEastRiverinNewYorkCity.Thiswasalsotheprojectthattookhislife.Duringthefirstyearofconstruction,1869,Roeblingwasdirectingthepositioningofthebridge’stowersfromadock.Hisfootwascrushedbyanincomingferry,andtheengineerlosthistoes.Aftertheamputation,theonlymedicaltreatmentRoeblingallowedwasflushingthewoundwithwater.Twenty-fourdayslaterhediedoftetanus.Hisson,Washington,oversawtherestoftheconstruction.Thebridgeopenedin1883andremainsalandmarkofAmericanengineering.

Ittook14yearstobuildtheBrooklynBridgeandcost$375millionintoday’smoney.

AportraitinoiloncanvasbyThéobaldChartranofWashingtonAugustusRoebling,whofinishedhisfather’screationoftheBrooklynBridgeandwentontobuildtheGoldenGateBridgeinSanFrancisco

JOHNROEBLINGONCEDESCRIBEDHISVISIONFORTHE3,460-FOOT-LONGBROOKLYNBRIDGEAS“THEPERFECT

EQUILIBRIUMOFNATURE.”

HePutItTogether

HENRYFORD(1863–1947)Assemblyline/affordablecars

HenryFordin1919,ayearafterherepresentedDemocratsasapeacecandidateinMichigan’sU.S.SenateraceHenryFord,thefounderandpresidentoftheFordMotorCompany,wasamanofcontradictions.Heopposedunions,believingtheystifledproductiontoincreaseemploymentopportunities.Yetsomeofhispracticeswere

inarguablypro-labor:hedoubledthestandarddailywageofhisemployeesandwasagenerous,paternalboss.Hewasknownforhisanti-Semiticviews,buthewasamongthefirstindustrialiststohireAfricanAmericans,women,andthosewithdisabilities.ApacifistintheearlyyearsofWorldWarI,Fordbecamealeadingmilitarysupplier.

LuxuryModelsGrowingupinDearborn,Michigan,Fordwasanaturalmechanic.Byage13,healreadyhadbegunworkingasawatchrepairman,andat16,hesecuredanapprenticeshipworkingonsteamenginesinDetroit.AftermarryingClaraBryant,Fordbrieflytriedhishandatfarming,butwhenthatdidn’tworkout,hetookajobasanengineerworkingforThomasEdisonatEdisonIlluminatingCompanyofDetroit.Fordrosequicklythroughtheranksandwasnamedchiefengineerin1893.Herehemadehisfirstdesignsfor“horselesscarriages,”orautomobiles,suchastheFordQuadricycle.In1903FordbrokeawayfromEdisonandformedtheFordMotorCompany.Inthoseearlydaysoftheautoindustry,manufacturingwascomplicatedbecausethere

Inthoseearlydaysoftheautoindustry,manufacturingwascomplicatedbecausetherewasnostandardenginedesign,andcarswereassembledoneatatimebyteams.Onceavehiclewasdone,theteammovedontothenext.Thetime-andlabor-consumingprocessmadecarssoexpensivethatonlytheverywealthycouldaffordthem.OneofFord’searliestmodelssoldfor$1,300,orabout$36,000today.ButFordhadhissightssetonthemassmarket:thereweremoremiddle-classpeoplethanrichpeople,hereasoned,andifhecouldproduceacarthateveryonecouldafford,hewouldgetverywealthy.Thechallengewashowtolowerthecostwhileensuringqualityandreliability.

LegacyoftheLineFordexecutiveCharlesSorensenandaforemannamedCharlieLewiscameupwithasolutionfortheirbossbyturningthemanufacturingprocessinsideout.Insteadofcreatingcarsonebyone,SorensenandLewisadaptedaproductionlinewherelaborersperformedasingleprocess,suchasattachingbumpersorsteeringwheels,overandover.Byrepeatingthesingletask,theworkersbecamequiteproficient.The“assemblyline”forcarproductionslashedthetimeittooktomakeaModelTfrom12hourstosix.Pricesquicklycamedown.In1908,whenFordintroducedtheModelT,thestickerpricewas$850;by1912itwasdownto$575;andby1924,Fordswereretailingat$265apiece.Fordmaynothaveinventedtheautomobile,butformostAmericans,hedidsomethingevenmoreimportant:hemadeitpossibletoaffordone.

TheassemblylinemadeitpossibleforFordtosell15millionModelTsin1927,halftheglobalcarmarket.

ALTHOUGHTOYOTAHASSURPASSEDFORDASTHEWORLD’SLEADERINCARSALES,THEINDUSTRIALPROCESSFORDCREATEDSETTHESTANDARDFORMANUFACTURERSOFALLTYPESAROUND

THEGLOBE.

CranklessWonder

CHARLESKETTERING(1876–1958)Automatictransmission

CharlesKetteringwasnotonlyaprolificinventorbutawittyaphoristaswell.“Ninety-ninepercentofsuccessisbuiltonfailure”and“Ifyouhavealwaysdoneitthatway,itisprobablywrong”areamonghisquotes.

Itisimpossibletopigeonholeinventor,engineer,andbusinessmanCharlesKettering.ThetechnologiesKetteringcreatednotonlychangedtheautomotiveandrailroadindustries,theyalsohelpedadvancemedicine,aviation,andevencashregisterdesign.AmongKettering’sinventions:theautomatictransmission,syntheticaviationfuel,artificialfevertherapy,atreatmentforvenerealdisease,anincubatorforprematureinfants,anengine-drivengenerator,quick-dryingautomotivepaint,andshockabsorbers.Afterearninganengineeringdegreein1904,Ketteringlandedajobasastaffinventor

attheNationalCashRegisterCompany(NCR).Overthenextfiveyears,Ketteringdevelopedandpatentedmorethan100technologiesforNCR,includinganelectricallyoperatedcashregisterthatnotonlyrunguppurchases,buteventually,withthe

operatedcashregisterthatnotonlyrunguppurchases,buteventually,withtheadditionofcomputerchips,couldstoresalesreports.TheinnovationhelpedpavethewayforNCRtobecomealeaderinthefield(todayitisoneofthelargestU.S.manufacturersofcashregisters)andpropelledKettering’scareerinmechanicaldesign.Ketteringsoonturnedhisattentiontothenascentautomobileindustry.Atthetime,

carshadtobestartedmanuallywithacrank.Turningthecrankmovedthepistonsuntiltheenginebuiltenoughmomentumtorun,butitwasalsodangerous—thecrankcouldrecoilunexpectedlyandhitthepersonoperatingit.ThefounderofCadillacMotorCar,HenryLeland,evenhadafriendwhowaskilledinsuchanaccident.

ARealSelf-StarterKetteringdrewinspirationfromhiselectriccashregister.Hethoughtofhowasmallmotorallowedtheregisterdrawertobeopenedwiththepushofabutton.Hedesignedamotorandothercomponentsthatwouldstart,light,andignitetheengineasaself-containedsystem.WithanotherNCRemployee,KetteringformedDaytonEngineeringLaboratoriesCompany(Delco)in1909tomanufacturethesystem.Cadillacitselfhadattemptedtomakeaself-starter,butDelco’swasbetter.CadillactappedDelco’stechnologyforapush-buttonstarterin1912,placinganinitialorderfor12,000units.Soon,electricignitionswerestandardequipmentinnearlyeverynewU.S.automobile.

LaterCareerIn1916,KetteringsoldDelcotoUnitedMotors,acompanythatsoonbecameGeneralMotors.Ketteringwasnamedtheheadofresearchandoversawhundredsofprojectsuntilhisretirementin1947.Healsoexploredprojectsoutsideoftheautomotivefield,suchasalightweightdieselenginefortrains,andFreon,usedinrefrigerationandair-conditioning.Kettering’shomeinDayton,Ohio,waseventhefirsthouseinthecountrytobeair-conditioned.WithhisdeeprootsinOhio,thetownwhereheandhiswifeandsonlivedwasnamedforhiminthe1950s.TodayKettering’sformerhome,RidgeleighTerrace,isaNationalHistoricLandmark.

ReachingfortheSky

ORVILLEANDWILBURWRIGHT(1871–1948)/(1867–1912)Airplane

ThiscolorizedphotographshowstheWrightsatKittyHawk.

AschildreninDayton,Ohio,brothersOrvilleandWilburWrightwerefascinatedwiththeideaofflyingmachines.Theydevouredbooksabouthotairballoons,gliders,andmannedkites.Inadulthood,themenopenedabicycleshowroomandrepairshop,whichbythe1890swassuccessfulenoughtoprovidethemoneyandtimetopursuetheirdreamofbuildinganairplane.

WingWarpingTolearntheprinciplesofflight,theWrightsstudiedbirdsandthewaytheyusedtheirwingstoturnandchangedirection.Applyingtheconceptstoaboxkite,thebrotherscreatedasystemtheydubbed“wingwarping”thatreliedoncablestomimicbirdmotionsandtotwistthetipsofthekite’swings.Duringthelate1890s,theWrightbrotherstestedtheirideaforapropeller-powered

airplanebybuildingsix-foot-longboxkiteswithwingsandworkingwithunmannedgliders.TheyeventuallymovedtheirbaseofoperationsfromOhiotoKittyHawk,

gliders.TheyeventuallymovedtheirbaseofoperationsfromOhiotoKittyHawk,NorthCarolina,becausetheydeterminedtheareahadidealwindconditionsforflighttrials.

TakingFlightAstheWrightsrefinedtheirdesign,theyrealizedthatiftheystabilizedtheplane’stailandconnectedittothewing-warpingcables,theycouldkeeptheaircraftaloftforalongerperiodoftime.TheyhopedtoprovetheirtheorywithTheFlyer,a700-poundmachinewithwingwarping,arearstabilizer,andamotor-drivenpropeller.TheWrightslaunchedTheFlyeronDecember17,1903,fromadownhilltrackto

providemomentum.WithOrvilleWrightatthewheel,TheFlyertraveled20feetabovethegroundfor12secondsandcovered120feet.Itwasthefirstmannedmechanicalflightinhistory.Theplanemadethreemoreflightsthatday;thelongestwasWilbur’sat59secondsand852feet.

Post-FlightTofurtherdeveloptheirairplane,theWrightsneededfunding.UnabletoattractinvestorsintheUnitedStates,WilburtraveledtoEuropein1908.HewasfollowedbyOrvilleandyoungersisterKatharinein1909,andsoonthebrotherswerefixturesacrossthecontinent,demonstratingtheirflyingmachine,offeringridestoprominentstatesmen,andsecuringcontractstobuildaircraft.WordcrossedtheAtlantic,andbythetimetheWrightsreturnedtoAmericain1909,thegroundworkwaslaidfortheWrightCompany,headquarteredinDayton,Ohio.Orville,moretheright-brainedofthetwo,workedintensivelyrefiningdesigns,while

Wilbur,withthesavvierbusinessmind,becamepresident.Thearrangementwasshort-lived,however,asthestressesoftheday-to-dayoperationsandaflurryofpatentfightstooktheirtollonWilbur.Worndown,hecontractedtyphoidfeverin1912anddiedofthediseaseamonthlater,atage45.Orvillecarriedonaspresidentofthebusiness,whichhesoldin1916.Helivedtoseethedawnofthejetagehehelpedinspire.In1944,heflewaLockheed

ConstellationonatestrunatWrightFieldinDayton—thepowerfulpropellerplaneprovidedtrooptransportationinWorldWarIIandinVietnamandwasthefirstmodelofplanetobe“AirForceOne.”

TheWrightbrothers’featearnedtheminternationalfame.ThisFrenchmagazine,celebratingtheirflight,wasoneofcountlessaccolades.

KingAlfonsoXIIIofSpain(left)sitsinthecockpitofoneoftheWrights’planeswithWilbur.

THETWOBROTHERSHADVERYDIFFERENTPERSONALITIES.ORVILLEWASEXTREMELYSHYWITHSTRANGERS,WHILEWILBURWASOUTGOINGANDGREGARIOUS.WILBURALWAYSSPOKEFOR

THETWOINPUBLIC.

BlazingaTrail

GARRETTMORGAN(1877–1963)Gasmaskandtrafficlight

GarrettMorgan,showninhis40s,madeafortuneinhairproducts.

GarrettMorganmaybebestrememberedforinventingthegasmask,butanequallyimpressiveaccomplishmentwasconvincingtheU.S.publicthatthedevicewouldsavelivesoffirefightersandcivilians.Whiletouringcitiesinthe1910stopromotethemask,Morgan,anAfricanAmerican,foundaudienceswereresistant.Sohehiredawhiteactortoposeas“theinventor,”andhedressedhimselfas“BigChiefMason,”aNativeAmericancharacterandsidekick.Morganbuiltafireusingtar,manure,andsulfurinsideatent,thenenteredthestructurewearingthegasmask.Heemerged20minuteslaterunharmed.Thestrategyworked,andsalestookoff.

AdventuresomeSpiritThesonofslaves,MorganwasborninKentuckyandattendedschooluntilhewasinthefifthgrade.Helefthomeasateenagerinthe1890stoseekbetteropportunitiesacrosstheOhioRiverinCincinnati.Itwasn’teasy.Morganatfirstsurvivedbyworkingoddjobs,andaftermovingtoCleveland,hefoundworkasahandyman.Discoveringhe

oddjobs,andaftermovingtoCleveland,hefoundworkasahandyman.Discoveringhehadanaptitudeformachines,Morganopenedasewingmachineandshoerepairshopin1907.Hegotmarriedthenextyearandbeganraisingafamily.

HelpingFiremenEndlesslycurious,Morganfoundinspirationfornewinventionsineverydaylife.Whenaneedleoverheatedoneday,hetriedtomakealubricatingliquidtoreducethefrictionbetweentheneedleandcloth.Afterdiscoveringthattheliquidstraightenedhumanhair,heformedG.A.MorganRefiningCompanytosellthecompound.Afewyearslater,consideringtherisksfiremenfaceddoingtheirjobs,hecameupwiththeideaforagasmask.Inessence,itwasahoodwithtwotubes—onewhichwenttothegroundtosuckincoolairandasecondtubetoprovideanescapeforexhaust.Thetubetothegroundusedawetspongetofilteroutsmokeandcooltheair.Theideawasingenious,butthepublicwasnotreadytoembracetheideasofan

AfricanAmerican.In1916,workersinClevelandwhilediggingatunnelunderLakeErieencounteredapocketofnaturalgas,whichcausedanexplosion.Morganandhisbrotherusedthemaskstosavetwoworkers’livesandrecoverfourbodies.FiredepartmentsfromacrossthecountryorderedMorgan’ssafetyhood,thencanceledwhentheylearnedMorganwasblack.Itwasn’tuntilAmericaenteredWorldWarIandtheArmyboughtmasksforU.S.soldiersfacingchemicalwarfarethatthedeviceswereembraced.

ShowStopperMeanwhile,Cleveland,whereMorganhadhisshop,wasonthemove.Pedestrians,streetcars,horse-pulledwagons,andautomobilesallsharedthesamenarrowstreets.AbusydowntownintersectioninspiredMorgan’snextbigidea.Someofthecrossingswereoutfittedwithmanuallyoperatedtrafficsignalsthatswitchedbetweenjusttwopositions—“stop”and“go.”Therewasnosignalwarningdrivers,walkers,orhorseriderstogetoutofan

intersectionbeforetrafficstartedintheoppositedirection.Morganwitnessedanumberofaccidentsbeforeherealizedwhatwasneeded—atransitionalperiodbetweenstopandgo.In1923,Morganreceivedapatentforathree-positiontrafficsignal.Thesignalpole

waselectricallyriggedandhadatransitionallightbetween“stop”and“go”thattolddriverstoslowdownastheyapproachedanintersection...ortogetoutofthewaysotheydidn’tblockit.MorgansoldtherightstohisinventiontoGeneralElectricfor$40,000.

SocialJustice

Morganbecameoneofthewealthiestinventorsoftheearly20thcenturyanddevotedmuchofhislaterlifetopromotingcivilrights.HewasanearlyleaderintheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(NAACP)andcontributedheavilytoAfricanAmericancolleges.Whenblackswerenotallowedtoadvertiseinwhitenewspapers,hestartedhisown,theClevelandCall,tofocusspecificallyonAfricanAmericanconcerns.TowardtheendofhislifehewasfinallycreditedforhisheroismatLakeErie,thoughthecityofClevelandnevergavehimpensionbenefitsforinjuriesincurredduringtherescue.

ThegasmasksusedinWorldWarIweredevelopedfromMorgan’sdesign.

Therearemorethan300,000trafficlightsintheUnitedStates.

MORGAN,WHOLEFTSCHOOLAFTERFIFTHGRADE,USEDHISGREATWEALTHTOADVANCECIVILRIGHTSANDEDUCATIONAL

CAUSES.

FlyingHigh

ELDORADOJONES(1860–1932)Airplanemuffler

Ararelikenessfroma1931ModernMechanicsarticle

Itisoneoftheengineeringworld’sunlikeliestofconnections:withaspeechatthe1893ChicagoWorld’sFair,suffragetteSusanB.Anthonyhelpedspurtheinventionoftheairplanemuffler.Intheaudiencethatdaywasaformerschoolteacherandinsurancesaleswoman,33-

year-oldElDoradoJonesofMoline,Illinois.InspiredbyAnthony’swords,Jonesbegantorealizeherlifecouldtakeadifferentpathandthattherewasmoneytobemadecreatingandpatentingproductsthatotherpeoplesold.Shedecidedtobecomeaninventorandfoundshehadaknackforit.

CaféInspirationOverthenext20years,Jonespatentedamoisture-blockingsaltshaker,atraveliron,acompactironingboard,andmanymoregadgets.In1913sheopenedafactoryinMoline,Illinois,tomakeherinventions,hiringonlywomenovertheageof40—agroupshefeltwasignoredandexploited.Hermostmemorablecreation,however,wasduetosomeperfectlytimed

eavesdropping.Sittinginacaféin1919,Jonesoverheardtwomendiscussingthemass-

eavesdropping.Sittinginacaféin1919,Jonesoverheardtwomendiscussingthemass-marketpotentialforairtravel—ifonlytherewereawaytomakeplanesquieter.Atthetime,acommercialflightamountedtoacharteredpropellerplaneflighttoday:itwasexpensive;theplanewastiny,seatingonlyoneortwopeople;anditwasveryloud.Jonesresolvedtofindasolution,andby1923,shehadnotonlycomeupwithamufflerdesign,shehadpatentedit.

FiercelyIndependentButJones’sdistrustofmenworkedagainsther.Ifanairlineorfinancialinstitutionsentamalerepresentative,shewouldrefusetomeet.Shetemporarilyshelvedtheproject,thentriedtoreviveitin1930,payingtohavethemufflertestedonabiplaneoutsideNewYorkCity.Whatlittlecapitalsheoncehaddwindledaway;in1932,shewaslivingonpublicsupportinadingyapartmentintheEast30s.Whenafriendcalledonherfordinner,shediscoveredthatJoneshaddiedthenightbefore.Theinventorstillhadnotsoldtheairplanemuffler,andfewrealizedhercontributiontotheindustry.Inreportingherdeath,theNewYorkTimesreferredtoher“successinseveralwalksoflife,”butnotedthatshehadfailedaltogetherinrecruitinginvestorstoherairplanemufflerinvention.TheAmericanWomen’sAssociationinNewYorkCityhadtoarrangeJones’sfuneral.

Theindustryadoptedhersilencinginventionwithinadecadeofherdeath,and21st-centurymufflerpatentsstillciteherworkofalmost100yearsago.

ThepatentartforElDoradoJones’smuffler,whichusedaseriesofbladeslikelittlepinwheelstobreakupsoundwavesShootingfortheMoon

ROBERTGODDARD(1882–1945)Liquid-fueledrocket

Nineyearsafterhisfirstsuccessfullaunch,Goddardmadearocketfasterthansound.

GrowingupinMassachusetts,RobertGoddardlovedreadingworksofsciencefiction,suchasFromtheEarthtotheMoonbyJulesVerne,inwhichthreementraveledtoouterspaceinacapsuleshotfromacannon.TheboyhoodpastimewouldinformtherestofGoddard’slife,steeringhimtoacareerasanengineer,inventor,physicist,andleadingrocketscientist.

EarlyEffortsIn1904,GoddardenrolledinWorcesterPolytechnicInstitute(WPI),createdaftertheCivilWartotrainentrepreneurialscientistsandengineersfortherigorsofthenewindustrialage.Goddardwasverypopular,voted“BrightestStudent”inapollbytheyearbook,whichheedited,servedinstudentgovernment,andsanginthegleeclub.Healsobeganhislife’swork,experimentingwithcruderocketsthatusedgunpowderasapropellant.Inonefailedattempt,heeventriedtofirearocketfromthebasementofWPI’sphysicsbuilding.Itwascleartotheyoungstudentthatgunpowder,whichonlyconverted2percentofavailableenergyintomotion,hadmajordrawbacks,buthealsowassurethatoncehediscoveredtherightfuel,rocketscouldreachthemoonorbeyond.

JusttheRightDistanceThroughoutthe1910sand1920s,asGoddarddevelopeddesignsforrocketsandtheoreticalcalculationsfortheirflight,heconcentratedonsolvingthefuelproblem.By

theoreticalcalculationsfortheirflight,heconcentratedonsolvingthefuelproblem.By1926,Goddardhadcalculatedthatacombinationofgasolineandliquidoxygenwouldworkbestbecausetheoxygenwouldhelpthegasolineburninthecombustionchamber.Thechallengewasstrikingtherighttemperature:forthefueltoignite,theliquidoxygenhadtobeheatedtoextremelyhightemperaturesbutnotsohotastointerruptthecombustion.Goddard’ssolutionwasarocketwithanoxygentankthatwasclose—butnottooclose—tothecombustionchamber.Thecompletedprojectilewas7feettallandweighed10pounds.OnMarch16,1926,GoddardlauncheditinAuburn,Massachusetts.Therocketshot41feetintheair,thencrashed—butitworked.

ManontheMoonFundedbybenefactorssuchastheGuggenheimfamilyandaviationpioneerCharlesLindbergh,Goddardcommittedtherestofhislifetorocketry.HerelocatedtoRoswell,NewMexico,inthe1930s,andintheflat,desolatedesertlandscapelaunched31rocketsin15years.EventuallyGoddard’smissilesreachedheightsofamileandahalfandspeedsfasterthansound.HisdesignsprovidedaroadmapforengineerswhocreatedthepropulsionsystemtopowerSaturnV,NASA’srocketthatpropelledtheApollomissions.Hewasright:withjusttherightfuel—liquidfuelofhisowninvention—mancouldreachthemoon.Hisadvancesnettedhimmorethan200patents.

OntheSafeSide

SAMUELALDERSON(1914–2005)Crashtestdummy

AldersonwasposthumouslyinductedintotheNationalInventorsHallofFamein2013.

WithSamuelAlderson’srésumé,itwasonlynaturalhewouldsteerthedesignofcrashtestdummies.Asayoungman,AldersonloggedmanyhoursinhisRomanianimmigrantfather’ssheet-metalshop.Hewentontostudywithoneofthecreatorsoftheatomicbomb,RobertJ.Oppenheimer,andworkedwithmissile-guidancetechnologyduringWorldWarII.Afterthewar,hespenttimeatIBMdevelopingaprostheticlimbinthemid-1940s.

SierraSamPost-war,theaeronauticsandautomobileindustriesusedsomeunorthodoxwaystotesttheeffectsofaccelerationanddecelerationonthebody.Insomecases,braveindividualsvolunteeredtobestrappedintorocketsleds;inothers,inventorswouldusehumancadaverstotestcarprototypes;evenlivinganimalslikepigswouldbebeltedintovehicles.Whilethesemethodssavedhundredsoflives,itwasdifficulttocollectreliabledatawithsomanydifferentbodytypes.AldersonwenttoworkwithSierraEngineeringin1949toprovidebettersimulacra

fordatacollection.SierracreatedthefirstversionofthecrashtestdummyfortheU.S.

AirForce.Usingrocketsledstosimulatea600-mile-per-hourflight,Sierrascientists“piloted”thesledswiththedolltheydubbed“SierraSam.”Itmatchedtheheightandweightofanadultmaleinthe95thpercentile—ifataller,heaviermancouldwithstandtheseat,theyfigured,thenanybodycould.SoonAldersonfoundedhisownengineeringfirm,AldersonResearchLaboratories,basedinNewYork,andin1952contractedwiththeAirForcetodesignadummytotestthecrashimpactofaircraftejectionseats.Aldersonkeptbusywithaviationwork,butitwouldbeanotherdecadebeforethecrashdummieswouldbeembracedbythecarindustry.

NextGenerationItwasconsumeradvocateRalphNader’s1965book,UnsafeatAnySpeed—onthefailureoftheautoindustrytointroducecertainsafetymeasures—thatprovidedtheimpetus.Promptedbywavesofconsumeranger,theU.S.NationalHighwayTrafficSafetyAdministrationbegantosearchforbetterwaysoftestingautomobiles.TheautoindustrytooknoticeofAlderson’swork,andARLwoncontractswithGMandFordtomakedummiestotesttheimpactofcaraccidents.Asthedecadedrewtoaclose,ARLandSierrabecameintensecompetitors.AldersonintroducedtheV.I.P.,adummywithasteelribcageandflexiblejointsandneck.Itcloselyresembledanaverageman’sweightdistributionandresponsetoacceleration.Sierracounteredwiththeirversion,the“SierraStan.”GMparlayedwithbothcompanies,anditsengineersstandardizedthebestelementsofbothdesignsintotheHybridIdummy.ModificationsresultedintheHybridIIandIII.TheHybridIIIistoday’sindustrystandard.Itprovidesengineersvaluable,realisticdataaboutwhathappensduringacarcrash,leadingtowaystobuildsafercarswithcrumplezones,seatbelts,andairbags.Alderson’scareerinprostheticsandsimulatedbodiesincluded“medical

phantoms”—mixedcreationsoffleshandsyntheticsusedformedicalandspaceresearch.Aldersoncontinuedhisworkondummiesforthehealthcarefielduntilmonthsbeforehediedin2005.Ason,whogrewupwithskeletonsandmockbodypartsaroundhischildhoodhome,recalledhisfather’sassessmentofhislivelihood:“It’sanoddballbusiness.”

Crashtestdummiesarethestandardfortestingautomobilesafety.

EXPERTSESTIMATETHATMORETHAN300,000LIVESHAVEBEENSAVEDBYAUTOMOBILESAFETYFEATURESPERFECTEDWITH

CRASHTESTDUMMIES.

RocketMan

ELONMUSK(b.1971)SpaceX/TeslaMotors

ElonMuskfoundedTeslaMotorsin2003.

WhendirectorJonFavreauwantedtoinspireIronManleadactorRobertDowneyJr.,hesenthimtospend10dayswithaninventorwhohaspushedmoreboundariesthantheeccentricTonyStark.EntrepreneurElonMuskisknownforhispioneeringworkinspacetravel,electriccars,solarpower,andotherhigh-techindustriesthatarechangingthewayshumansinteractwiththeearth—andperhapsevenotherplanets,too.

PayingItForwardMuskwasbornin1971inPretoria,SouthAfrica.Hewasacomputerprodigyanddesignedhisfirstcomputergameatage12.HeleftSouthAfricaforCanadaatage17,

thenrelocatedtotheUnitedStatestoattendtheUniversityofPennsylvaniaandearnedtwobachelor’sdegrees.MuskenteredaPhDprogramatStanfordUniversitybutleftaftertwodaystopursuehisownprojects.ThefirstofthesewasacompanycalledZip2,anearlyincarnationofInternetdirectorysitesthatprovidedinformationonbusinesses.AftersellingZip2,Muskself-financedanonlinebankingsitecalledX.com.Oneofitsmostpopularfeatureswasamoney-transferservicethatallowedpeopletosendpaymentsonline.Musk’scompanymergedwithanothercalledConfinitytocreatePayPal.

IntotheStratosphereButthatwasjustthebeginning.In2002,alsotheyearhebecameaU.S.citizen,MuskfoundedSpaceX,anexplorationcompanyaimingtomakespacetravelaffordable—andultimatelytocreatea“spacefaringcivilization”withpeopleinhabitingMars.WhileSpaceX’sfirstthreeattemptstolaunchrocketsfailed,itsucceededonitsfourth,andtheresultwasa$1.6billioncontractfromNASAforthelaunchingof12rocketstotheInternationalSpaceStation.In2004,MuskfocusedonmoreterrestrialconcernswhenhestartedTeslaMotorstoproduceaffordable,electriccarstodecreasetheautoindustry’srelianceonfossilfuels.Teslavehicleshaveearnedrecord-highsafetyandconsumerratings.Thecompany’sannouncementoftheM3mid-pricedmodelinApril2016wasmetwith100,000preorders,a$14billioncommitmentfromfuturebuyers.Tesla,namedfortheeccentricengineerNikolaTesla,iscurrentlybuildingmorelithiumionbatteriesandincreasingthenumberof“superchargerstations”acrossNorthAmerica.Muskalsoworkswithhissolarenergycompany,SolarCity,todevelopsolarpowersystemsthroughouttheUnitedStatesandoverseesresearchanddevelopmentofHyperloop,ahigh-speedtransitsystem.

Muskbecameamultimillionaireinhislate20sduringtheInternetboom.

SpaceXwasthefirstprivatecompanytosendaspacecrafttotheInternationalSpaceStation.

ELONMUSKHASBEENCALLED“THEREALLIFEIRONMAN”FORHISPIONEERINGEFFORTSINSPACETRAVEL,ELECTRICCARS,SOLAR

POWER,ANDOTHERHIGH-TECHVENTURES.

OneofaKindItistheAgeofJobs.Music.Computing.Phones.EvenpersonalexpressionitselfseemstooccurinaworldthatSteveJobsfairlydraggedintobeing.Itisnotthesupremacyofdevicesheengendered;itismoretheethosthataesthetics

matter.Jobsbroughtdesigntotheculturalcenter.Healsotalkedalotaboutit—andconsumerswhomadehiscompanyintermittentlythelargestintheworldwerepersuadedthatoutwardbeautymaysometimesreflectinnerharmony.

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