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HIGH-VOLTAGEDIRECT-CURRENTTRANSMISSION

HIGH-VOLTAGEDIRECT-CURRENTTRANSMISSIONCONVERTERS SYSTEMSAND DC GRIDS

Dragan Jovcic and Khaled AhmedSchool of Engineering University of Aberdeen UK

This edition first published 2015copy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

Registered OfficeJohn Wiley amp Sons Ltd The Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ United Kingdom

For details of our global editorial offices for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission toreuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at wwwwileycom

The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the CopyrightDesigns and Patents Act 1988

All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by anymeans electronic mechanical photocopying recording or otherwise except as permitted by the UK Copyright Designs andPatents Act 1988 without the prior permission of the publisher

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available inelectronic books

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and productnames used in this book are trade names service marks trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective ownersThe publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book

Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book theymake no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specificallydisclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose It is sold on the understanding that thepublisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damagesarising herefrom If professional advice or other expert assistance is required the services of a competent professional should besought

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Jovcic DraganHigh-voltage direct-current transmission converters systems and DC grids Dragan Jovcic Khaled AhmedSchool of Engineering University of Aberdeen Scotland UK

pages cmIncludes bibliographical references and indexISBN 978-1-118-84666-7 (cloth)

1 Electric power distributionndashDirect current 2 Electric power distributionndashHigh tension 3 Electric current convertersI Ahmed Khaled II TitleTK3111J68 2015621319 12ndashdc23

2015011296

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Set in 95115pt Times by SPi Global Pondicherry India

1 2015

HIGH-VOLTAGEDIRECT-CURRENTTRANSMISSION

HIGH-VOLTAGEDIRECT-CURRENTTRANSMISSIONCONVERTERS SYSTEMSAND DC GRIDS

Dragan Jovcic and Khaled AhmedSchool of Engineering University of Aberdeen UK

This edition first published 2015copy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

Registered OfficeJohn Wiley amp Sons Ltd The Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ United Kingdom

For details of our global editorial offices for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission toreuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at wwwwileycom

The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the CopyrightDesigns and Patents Act 1988

All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by anymeans electronic mechanical photocopying recording or otherwise except as permitted by the UK Copyright Designs andPatents Act 1988 without the prior permission of the publisher

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available inelectronic books

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and productnames used in this book are trade names service marks trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective ownersThe publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book

Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book theymake no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specificallydisclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose It is sold on the understanding that thepublisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damagesarising herefrom If professional advice or other expert assistance is required the services of a competent professional should besought

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Jovcic DraganHigh-voltage direct-current transmission converters systems and DC grids Dragan Jovcic Khaled AhmedSchool of Engineering University of Aberdeen Scotland UK

pages cmIncludes bibliographical references and indexISBN 978-1-118-84666-7 (cloth)

1 Electric power distributionndashDirect current 2 Electric power distributionndashHigh tension 3 Electric current convertersI Ahmed Khaled II TitleTK3111J68 2015621319 12ndashdc23

2015011296

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Set in 95115pt Times by SPi Global Pondicherry India

1 2015

HIGH-VOLTAGEDIRECT-CURRENTTRANSMISSIONCONVERTERS SYSTEMSAND DC GRIDS

Dragan Jovcic and Khaled AhmedSchool of Engineering University of Aberdeen UK

This edition first published 2015copy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

Registered OfficeJohn Wiley amp Sons Ltd The Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ United Kingdom

For details of our global editorial offices for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission toreuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at wwwwileycom

The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the CopyrightDesigns and Patents Act 1988

All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by anymeans electronic mechanical photocopying recording or otherwise except as permitted by the UK Copyright Designs andPatents Act 1988 without the prior permission of the publisher

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available inelectronic books

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and productnames used in this book are trade names service marks trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective ownersThe publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book

Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book theymake no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specificallydisclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose It is sold on the understanding that thepublisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damagesarising herefrom If professional advice or other expert assistance is required the services of a competent professional should besought

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Jovcic DraganHigh-voltage direct-current transmission converters systems and DC grids Dragan Jovcic Khaled AhmedSchool of Engineering University of Aberdeen Scotland UK

pages cmIncludes bibliographical references and indexISBN 978-1-118-84666-7 (cloth)

1 Electric power distributionndashDirect current 2 Electric power distributionndashHigh tension 3 Electric current convertersI Ahmed Khaled II TitleTK3111J68 2015621319 12ndashdc23

2015011296

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Set in 95115pt Times by SPi Global Pondicherry India

1 2015

This edition first published 2015copy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

Registered OfficeJohn Wiley amp Sons Ltd The Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ United Kingdom

For details of our global editorial offices for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission toreuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at wwwwileycom

The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the CopyrightDesigns and Patents Act 1988

All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by anymeans electronic mechanical photocopying recording or otherwise except as permitted by the UK Copyright Designs andPatents Act 1988 without the prior permission of the publisher

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available inelectronic books

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and productnames used in this book are trade names service marks trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective ownersThe publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book

Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book theymake no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specificallydisclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose It is sold on the understanding that thepublisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damagesarising herefrom If professional advice or other expert assistance is required the services of a competent professional should besought

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Jovcic DraganHigh-voltage direct-current transmission converters systems and DC grids Dragan Jovcic Khaled AhmedSchool of Engineering University of Aberdeen Scotland UK

pages cmIncludes bibliographical references and indexISBN 978-1-118-84666-7 (cloth)

1 Electric power distributionndashDirect current 2 Electric power distributionndashHigh tension 3 Electric current convertersI Ahmed Khaled II TitleTK3111J68 2015621319 12ndashdc23

2015011296

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Set in 95115pt Times by SPi Global Pondicherry India

1 2015

Contents

Preface xi

Part I HVDC with Current Source Converters 1

1 Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC 311 HVDC Applications 312 Line-Commutated HVDC Components 513 DC Cables and Overhead Lines 614 LCC HVDC Topologies 715 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems 916 Conversion of AC Lines to DC 1017 Ultra-High Voltage HVDC 10

2 Thyristors 1221 Operating Characteristics 1222 Switching Characteristic 1323 Losses in HVDC Thyristors 1724 Valve Structure and Thyristor Snubbers 2025 Thyristor Rating Selection and Overload Capability 22

3 Six-Pulse Diode and Thyristor Converter 2331 Three-Phase Uncontrolled Bridge 2332 Three-Phase Thyristor Rectifier 2533 Analysis of Commutation Overlap in a Thyristor Converter 2634 Active and Reactive Power in a Three-Phase Thyristor Converter 3035 Inverter Operation 31

4 HVDC Rectifier Station Modelling Control and Synchronizationwith AC Systems 3541 HVDC Rectifier Controller 3542 Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) 36

5 HVDC Inverter Station Modelling and Control 4051 Inverter Controller 4052 Commutation Failure 42

6 HVDC System V-I Diagrams and Operating Modes 4561 HVDC-Equivalent Circuit 4562 HVDC V-I Operating Diagram 4563 HVDC Power Reversal 48

7 HVDC Analytical Modelling and Stability 5371 Introduction to Converters and HVDC Modelling 5372 HVDC Analytical Model 5473 CIGRE HVDC Benchmark Model 5674 Converter Modelling Linearization and Gain Scheduling 5675 AC System Modelling for HVDC Stability Studies 5876 LCC Converter Transformer Model 6277 DC System Model 6378 HVDC-HVAC System Model 6579 Analytical Dynamic Model Verification 65710 Basic HVDC Dynamic Analysis 66711 HVDC Second Harmonic Instability 70712 Oscillations of 100 Hz on the DC Side 71

8 HVDC Phasor Modelling and Interactions with AC System 7281 Converter and DC System Phasor Model 7282 Phasor AC System Model and Interaction with the DC System 7383 Inverter AC Voltage and Power Profile as DC Current is Increasing 7584 Influence of Converter Extinction Angle 7685 Influence of Shunt Reactive Power Compensation 7886 Influence of Load at the Converter Terminals 7887 Influence of Operating Mode (DC Voltage Control Mode) 7888 Rectifier Operating Mode 80

9 HVDC Operation with Weak AC Systems 8291 Introduction 8292 Short-Circuit Ratio and Equivalent Short-Circuit Ratio 8293 Power Transfer between Two AC Systems 8594 Phasor Study of Converter Interactions with Weak AC Systems 8995 System Dynamics (Small Signal Stability) with Low SCR 9096 HVDC Control and Main Circuit Solutions for Weak AC Grids 9097 LCC HVDC with SVC (Static VAR Compensator) 9198 Capacitor-Commutated Converters for HVDC 9399 AC System with Low Inertia 93

10 Fault Management and HVDC System Protection 98101 Introduction 98102 DC Line Faults 98103 AC System Faults 101

vi Contents

104 Internal Faults 102105 System Reconfiguration for Permanent Faults 103106 Overvoltage Protection 106

11 LCC HVDC System Harmonics 107111 Harmonic Performance Criteria 107112 Harmonic Limits 108113 Thyristor Converter Harmonics 109114 Harmonic Filters 110115 Noncharacteristic Harmonic Reduction Using HVDC Controls 118

Bibliography Part I Line Commutated Converter HVDC 119

Part II HVDC with Voltage Source Converters 121

12 VSC HVDC Applications and Topologies Performance andCost Comparison with LCC HVDC 123121 Voltage Source Converters (VSC) 123122 Comparison with Line-Commutated Converter (LCC) HVDC 125123 Overhead and SubseaUnderground VSC HVDC Transmission 126124 DC Cable Types with VSC HVDC 129125 Monopolar and Bipolar VSC HVDC Systems 129126 VSC HVDC Converter Topologies 130127 VSC HVDC Station Components 135128 AC Reactors 139129 DC Reactors 139

13 IGBT Switches and VSC Converter Losses 141131 Introduction to IGBT and IGCT 141132 General VSC Converter Switch Requirements 142133 IGBT Technology 142134 High Power IGBT Devices 147135 IEGT Technology 148136 Losses Calculation 148137 Balancing Challenges in Series IGBT Chains 154138 Snubbers Circuits 155

14 Single-Phase and Three-Phase Two-Level VSC Converters 156141 Introduction 156142 Single-Phase Voltage Source Converter 156143 Three-Phase Voltage Source Converter 159144 Square-Wave Six-Pulse Operation 159

15 Two-Level PWM VSC Converters 167151 Introduction 167152 PWM Modulation 167153 Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation (SPWM) 168154 Third Harmonic Injection (THI) 171

viiContents

155 Selective Harmonic Elimination Modulation (SHE) 172156 Converter Losses for Two-Level SPWM VSC 173157 Harmonics with Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) 175158 Comparison of PWM Modulation Techniques 178

16 Multilevel VSC Converters 179161 Introduction 179162 Modulation Techniques for Multilevel Converters 181163 Neutral Point Clamped Multilevel Converter 182164 Flying Capacitor Multilevel Converter 184165 H-Bridge Cascaded Converter 185166 Half Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC) 186167 MMC Based on Full Bridge Topology 199168 Comparison of Multilevel Topologies 208

17 Two-Level PWM VSC HVDC Modelling Control and Dynamics 209171 PWM Two-Level Converter Average Model 209172 Two-Level PWM Converter Model in DQ Frame 210173 VSC Converter Transformer Model 212174 Two-Level VSC Converter and AC Grid Model in ABC Frame 213175 Two-Level VSC Converter and AC Grid Model in DQ Rotating

Coordinate Frame 213176 VSC Converter Control Principles 214177 The Inner Current Controller Design 215178 Outer Controller Design 218179 Complete VSC Converter Controller 2211710 Small-Signal Linearized VSC HVDC Model 2241711 Small-Signal Dynamic Studies 224

18 Two-Level VSC HVDC Phasor-Domain Interaction with AC Systems andPQ Operating Diagrams 226181 Power Exchange between Two AC Voltage Sources 226182 Converter Phasor Model and Power Exchange with an AC System 230183 Phasor Study of VSC Converter Interaction with AC System 232184 Operating Limits 234185 Design Point Selection 235186 Influence of AC System Strength 236187 Influence of Transformer Reactance 236188 Operation with Very Weak AC Systems 239

19 Half Bridge MMC Converter Modelling Control and Operating PQ Diagrams 246191 Half Bridge MMC Converter Average Model in ABC Frame 246192 Half-Bridge MMC Converter-Static DQ Frame and Phasor Model 249193 Differential Current at Second Harmonic 254194 Complete MMC Converter DQ Model in Matrix Form 255195 Second Harmonic Circulating Current Suppression Controller 256196 DQ Frame Model of MMC with Circulating Current Controller 259197 Phasor Model of MMC with Circulating Current Suppression Controller 261198 Dynamic MMC Model Using Equivalent Series Capacitor CMMC 262199 Full Dynamic Analytical MMC Model 2651910 MMC Converter Controller 267

viii Contents

1911 MMC Total Series Reactance in the Phasor Model 2671912 MMC VSC Interaction with AC System

and PQ Operating Diagrams 269

20 VSC HVDC under AC and DC Fault Conditions 271201 Introduction 271202 Faults on the AC System 271203 DC Faults with Two-Level VSC 272204 Influence of DC Capacitors 276205 VSC Converter Modelling under DC Faults and VSC Diode Bridge 277206 Converter-Mode Transitions as DC Voltage Reduces 284207 DC Faults with Half-Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter 286208 DC Faults with Full-Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter 287

21 VSC HVDC Application for AC Grid Support and Operation withPassive AC Systems 291211 VSC HVDC High-Level Controls and AC Grid Support 291212 HVDC Embedded inside an AC Grid 292213 HVDC Connecting Two Separate AC Grids 293214 HVDC in Parallel with AC 293215 Operation with a Passive AC System and Black Start Capability 294216 VSC HVDC Operation with Offshore Wind Farms 294217 VSC HVDC Supplying Power Offshore and Driving a MW-Size

Variable-Speed Motor 296

Bibliography Part II Voltage Source Converter HVDC 298

Part III DC Transmission Grids 301

22 Introduction to DC Grids 303221 DC versus AC Transmission 303222 Terminology 304223 DC Grid Planning Topology and Power-Transfer Security 304224 Technical Challenges 305225 DC Grid Building by Multiple Manufacturers 306226 Economic Aspects 306

23 DC Grids with Line-Commutated Converters 307231 Multiterminal HVDC 307232 ItalyndashCorsicandashSardinia Multiterminal HVDC Link 308233 Connecting LCC Converter to a DC Grid 309234 Control of LCC Converters in DC Grids 311235 Control of LCC DC Grids through DC Voltage Droop Feedback 311236 Managing LCC DC Grid Faults 313237 Reactive Power Issues 315238 Large LCC Rectifier Stations in DC Grids 315

24 DC Grids with Voltage Source Converters and Power-Flow Model 316241 Connecting a VSC Converter to a DC Grid 316242 DC Grid Power Flow Model 317243 DC Grid Power Flow under DC Faults 321

ixContents

25 DC Grid Control 324251 Introduction 324252 Fast Local VSC Converter Control in DC Grids 324253 DC Grid Dispatcher with Remote Communication 326254 Primary Secondary and Tertiary DC Grid Control 327255 DC Voltage Droop Control for VSC Converters in DC Grids 328256 Three-Level Control for VSC Converters with Dispatcher Droop 329257 Power Flow Algorithm When DC Powers are Regulated 330258 Power Flow and Control Study of CIGRE DC Grid-Test System 334

26 DC Grid Fault Management and DC Circuit Breakers 339261 Introduction 339262 Fault Current Components in DC Grids 340263 DC System Protection Coordination with AC System Protection 342264 Mechanical DC Circuit Breaker 342265 Semiconductor Based DC Circuit Breaker 345266 Hybrid DC Circuit Breaker 349267 DC Grid-Protection System Development 351268 DC Grid Selective Protection System Based on Current Derivative or

Travelling Wave Identification 352269 Differential DC Grid Protection Strategy 3532610 DC Grid Selective Protection System Based on Local Signals 3542611 DC Grids with DC Fault-Tolerant VSC Converters 355

27 High Power DCDC Converters and DC Power-Flow Controlling Devices 362271 Introduction 362272 Power Flow Control Using Series Resistors 363273 Low Stepping-Ratio DCDC Converters 366274 DCDC Converters with DC Polarity Reversal 371275 High Stepping Ratio Isolated DCDC Converter 373276 High Stepping Ratio LCL DCDC Converter 373277 Building DC Grids with DCDC Converters 375278 DC Hubs 377279 Developing DC Grids Using DC Hubs 3802710 North Sea DC Grid Topologies 380

Bibliography Part III DC Transmission Grids 384

Appendix A Variable Notations 386

Appendix B Analytical Background for Rotating DQ Frame 388

Appendix C System Modelling Using Complex Numbers and Phasors 399

Appendix D Simulink Examples 401

Index 419

x Contents

Preface

At the time of writing there are over 170 high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) links installedworldwide The largest installations operate at plusmn800 kV DC voltage and the highest DC current ratingsare over 4500 A Although alternating current was the predominant method for transmitting electricalenergy in the twentieth century HVDC was demonstrated to be the best solution for many specificapplication areas and the number of installations per year has been constantly increasing at thebeginning of twenty-first century Despite significant converter-station costs HVDC is techno-economically preferred in general applications for

bull long-distance large-scale power transferbull subsea and long-distance cable-power transmissionbull interconnecting asynchronous AC systems or systems with different frequenciesbull controllable power transfer between different nodes in an electricity market or marketsbull AC grid-stability support ancillary service provision and resilience to blackoutsbull connecting isolated systems like offshore wind farms or oil platforms

DC transmission technology was used in many instances in very early power systems but modernHVDC transmission begins with the 1954 SwedenndashGotland installation This system and all the otherHVDCs commissioned until the mid-1970s were based on mercury arc valves A significant technicaladvance came with the introduction of solid-state valves (thyristors) although they only support theline-commutated converter (LCC) concept In the first decade of the twenty-first century there hasbeen very rapid development of fundamentally new technologies and an increasing demand forHVDC technology The introduction of voltage-source converters (VSCs) requires new valves whichuse insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and also new protection and control approaches Themodular multilevel converters have eventually emerged as the most cost effective VSC converterconcept which practically eliminates filtering needs with HVDC and removes voltage limits withVSC valves

In the second decade of the twenty-first century it has become apparent that DC transmission gridsare a technically feasible and viable solution to large-scale energy challenges The primary applicationdrivers come from initiatives like the North Sea DC grid Medtech Desertec the European overlaysuper grid and Atlantic Wind It is accepted that the DC transmission grids must have levels of reliabil-ity and technical performance that are similar to or better than an AC transmission system This level ofperformance security and reliability is technically feasible although in many aspects DC grids will be

substantially different from traditional AC systems The development of DC grids brings significanttechnical advances in HVDC technologies in particular related to DC circuit breakers (CBs) DCDC converters and DC protection systems and substantial further research and development areanticipated

Nowadays HVDC and DC grids are associated with green energy as facilitators of large-scalerenewable energy plants This helps with public acceptance and image and facilitates furtherinvestments in large public projects HVDC is perceived as the technology that avoids pylons by usinglong underground cables further strengthening arguments for future funding decisions

The timing of this book is therefore in step with an increased interest in HVDC and a projectedsignificant increase in its use

The book is organized in three parts in order to study all three major HVDC concepts ndash linecommutated HVDC VSC HVDC and DC grids current research developments Each part will reviewtheoretical concepts and analyse aspects of technology interaction with AC grids modelling controlfaults and protection with particular emphasis on practical implementation aspects and on reportedoperational issues

The technical field of HVDC transmission and DC grids straddles three major traditional electricalengineering disciplines

bull Power transmission engineering The impact of HVDC systems on the connecting AC transmissionsystems and the national grid is of primary importance The influence of AC systems onHVDC is alsoof significance in terms of technical performance stability protection and power transfer security ingeneral Harmonic interaction will be studied in some depth

bull Power electronics Each HVDC link involves at least two ACDC converters whereas DC grids willhave many more including semiconductor DC CBs and DCDC converters These converters havefeatures that are similar to those of traditional low-power converters but many other unique require-ments exist to develop valves and converter assemblies capable of sustaining up to 800 kV andperhaps over 4500 A The protection of valves and converters is very important and is a definingpower electronics feature in HVDC

bull Control engineering Modelling and simulation of HVDC is essential for design and operation andseveral different modelling approaches exist depending on the model application In particularbecause of the high costs of HVDC testing and the consequences of any design issues model accur-acy and simulation speed play crucial role in the system design The control systems for HVDC haveevolved into very complex technologies which are always multivariable nonlinear and with multiplecontrol layers

The above three technical disciplines will be employed in this book in order to analyse all essentialtechnical aspects of HVDC and DC grids which is aimed to facilitate learning by researchers and engin-eers who are interested in this field

The material in this book includes contributions from many HVDC researchers and engineers andit is developed from research projects funded by several research councils and private firms Moreimportantly the studies are inspired by and build on previous work by numerous great HVDCengineers

The authors are particularly grateful to ALSTOM Grid UK for providing their comprehensivereport HVDC Connecting to the Future as well as to SIEMENS Germany and ABB Sweden fortheir HVDC photographs We are also indebted to the researchers at the University of Aberdeen PowerSystems Group and in particular to DrWeixing Lin Dr Ali Jamshidifar DrMasood Hajian Dr HuibinZhang and Dr Lu Zhang for their contributions

We would like to give our special thanks to SSE Scotland and in particular to Andrew Robertsonfor their support for the HVDC course at University of Aberdeen which provided important materialfor this book

xii Preface

The authors are also grateful to the following organizations which supported related research studiesat the University of Aberdeen

bull Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) UKbull European Research Council (ERC) FP 7 Ideas Programmebull Reacuteseau de Transport drsquoEacutelectriciteacute (RTE) France

Dragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmed

xiiiPreface

Part IHVDC with CurrentSource Converters

1Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

11 HVDC Applications

Thyristor-based high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission has been used in over 150point-to-point installations worldwide In each case it has proven to be technologically andor econom-ically superior to AC transmission Typical HVDC applications can be grouped as follows

bull Submarine power transmission The AC cables have large capacitance and for cables over 40ndash70 kmthe reactive power circulation is unacceptable This distance can be extended somewhat with reactivepower compensation For larger distances HVDC is more economical A good example is the580 km 700MW plusmn450 kV NorNed HVDC between Norway and the Netherlands

bull Long-distance overhead lines Long AC lines require variable reactive power compensation Typically600ndash800 km is the breakeven distance and for larger distances HVDC is more economical A goodexample is the 1360 km 31 GW plusmn500 kV Pacific DC intertie along the west coast of the United States

bull Interconnecting two AC networks of different frequencies A good example is the 500MW plusmn79 kVback-to-back Melo HVDC between Uruguay and Brazil The Uruguay system operates at 50 Hzwhereas Brazilrsquos national grid runs at 60 Hz

bull Interconnecting two unsynchronized AC grids If phase difference between two AC systems is largethey cannot be directly connected A typical example is the 150MW plusmn42 kV McNeill back-to-backHVDC link between Alberta and Saskatchewan interconnecting asynchronous eastern and westernAmerican systems

bull Controllable power exchange between two AC networks (for trading) The AC power flow is deter-mined by the line impedances and it cannot therefore be controlled directly in each line In complexAC networks it is common to observe loop power flow or even overloading or underutilization ofsome AC lines Many HVDC systems participate directly in trading power and one typical exampleis the 200MW plusmn57 kV Highgate HVDC between Quebec and Vermont

There are other less common applications of LCC (line-commutated converter) HVDC technologyincluding the 300MW Levis De-Icer HVDC project Here one standard HVDC converter station ndash a

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

converter from a Static Var Compensator (SVC) ndash is used to provide a very high DC current of up to7920A (feeding essentially a DC short circuit) to enable heating of remote Canadian overhead linesin order to prevent ice buildup

An important argument for selecting HVDC instead of an AC for a new transmission line is thecontribution to the short-circuit level High-voltage direct current is able to limit the fault currentand therefore it will not require the upgrading of substation equipment

Figure 11 shows a comparison of costs for DC and AC transmission lines In the case of HVDC theinitial capital investment is much higher because of the converter costs As the transmission distanceincreases the benefits of DC offset the capital investment and at certain distance the total cost of anHVDC system is same as an AC line The breakeven distance is in the range of 40ndash70 km for submarinecables and in the range of 600ndash800 km for overhead lines Figure 12 shows an aerial view of the

HVDC station costs

Line length

Breakeven distanceFor cables 40ndash70 km

For overhead lines 600ndash800 kmHVAC station costs

HVAC

HVDC

Cost

Figure 11 HVDC and HVAC transmission cost comparison

Figure 12 Terminal station of Moyle HVDC interconnector (Bipole 2 times 250MW plusmn250 kV with light triggeredthyristors commissioned in 2001) Reproduced with permission of Siemens

4 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

terminal station of the 500 MW Moyle HVDC link This HVDC enables a controllable bidirectionalpower exchange between Scotland and Northern Ireland

12 Line-Commutated HVDC Components

Figure 13 shows a typical LCC HVDC schematic interconnecting AC systems 1 and 2 It consistsof two terminals and a DC line between them Each terminal (converter station) includes converterstransformers filters reactive power equipment control station and a range of other components Thereare two DC lines in this figure while one line is at ground potential

As shown in Figure 13 the major components of an HVDC system include

bull Converters They typically include one or more six-pulse thyristor (Graetz) bridges Each bridgeconsists of six thyristor valves which in turn contain hundreds of individual thyristors With largesystems bridges are connected in series in 12-pulse or 24-pulse configuration The 12-pulse converterscan be connected into poles or bipoles

bull Converter transformers These are a special converter transformer type which is somewhat moreexpensive than typical AC transformers of the same rating The converter transformers are designedto operate with high harmonic currents and they are designed to withstand AC and DC voltage stressIn most cases converter transformers will have tap changers which enable optimization of HVDCoperation

bull Smoothing reactors on DC side Typical inductance for large HVDC systems is 01ndash05 H which isdetermined considering DC fault responses commutation failure and dynamic stability The reactorsare of air-core natural air-cooling type and costs are modest

bull Reactive power compensation The converters typically require reactive power of around 60 ofthe converter power rating A large portion of this reactive power is supplied with filter banksand the remaining part with capacitor banks Reactive power demand varies with DC power levelso the capacitors are arranged in switchable banks

bull Filters A typical 12-pulse thyristor terminal will require 11th 13th 23rd and 25th filters on the ACside A high-pass filter is frequently included In some cases third harmonic filters are required SomeHVDC systems with overhead lines also employ DC-side filters

Reactive power

compensationReactive powercompensation

FiltersFilters

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Terminal 1 Terminal 2Smoothing

reactorSmoothing

reactor

Thyristorbridge

α1 α2

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Electrodes

Station 1

control

Station 2

controlCommunication

system

DC line

DC lineI1dc I2dc

V1dcpV2dcp

CB

CB

CB

CB

V1g V2g

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

AC system 23 phase V2g f2

Y ΔYΔ

YYY Y

Figure 13 Typical HVDC schematic (12-pulse monopole with metallic return)

5Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

bull Electrodes Some old HVDC systems normally operate with seaground return but most grid oper-ators no longer allow permanent ground currents for environmental reasons Electrodes demandongoing maintenance costs Many new bipolar systems are allowed to operate with ground returnat half power for a short time (10ndash20 minutes) in case of loss of an HVDC pole This implies thatelectrodes are designed for full current but carry no current in normal operation

bull Control and communication system Each terminal will have a control system consisting of severalhierarchical layers A dedicated communication link between terminals is needed but speed is notcritical An HVDC link can operate in the event of a loss of a communication link

13 DC Cables and Overhead Lines

131 Introduction

Line-commutated converter HVDC has been implemented using overhead lines and undergroundsubsea DC cables Overhead lines are vulnerable to lightning strikes which are essentially DC faultsNevertheless DC faults only cause transient disturbances and they are readily managed by LCCHVDCOn the other hand with voltage source converter (VSC) HVDC as will be discussed later DC faultscause much more serious disturbances

The most common cable technologies that have been developed so far include

bull mass-impregnated (MI) cablesbull low-pressure oil-filled (LPOF) cablesbull extruded cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables

The above cable types have same conductors and their construction is similar but the insulationmaterial is substantially different The cable voltage rating depends on the capability of the insulation(dielectric) material and there are two main types of dielectrics namely lapped and extruded

132 Mass-impregnated (MI) Cables

Since 1895 MI cables have been used in power transmission In MI cables the dielectric is lappedpaper insulation which is impregnated with high-viscosity fluid For bulk power transmission massimpregnated cables still prove to be the most suitable solution because of their capacity to work upto 500 kV DC These cables also tolerate fast DC voltage polarity reversal making them suitablefor LCC HVDC The MI cables have a long record of field operation at voltages of 500 kV and trans-mission capacity of over 800 MW (16 kA) for monopole HVDC but 600 kV and 1000 MW ratingshave been announced An HVDCwith a bipolar connection is therefore able to transmit up to 2000MWwith MI cables These cables can be installed at depths to 1000 m under the sea level and with nearlyunlimited transmission length The capacity of this system is limited by the conductor temperaturewhich can reduce overload capabilities The 580 km-long 700MW 450 kV cable link between Norwayand the Netherlands represents the greatest power and length for this cable type At present over 90 ofsubmarine cables are of the MI type

133 Low-pressure Oil-filled Cables

Low-pressure oil-filled cables are similar in construction to MI cables but the cables are insulated withpaper impregnated with low viscosity oil under an overpressure of a few bars The technology availabletoday ensures voltages up to 500 kV and powers up to 2800MW for underground installation It can beused for bothACandDC transmission applicationsAs oil flow is required along the cable cable length islimited to around 80 km The risk of oil leakage must be taken into account for environmental reasons

6 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

134 Extruded Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE) Cables

Extruded cross-linked polyethylene cables cannot withstand fast polarity reversal and they are not nor-mally used with LCC HVDC (unless it is a unidirectional system) They will be discussed further withVSC HVDC

The above three types of cables are used for both underground and submarine cables and their basicproperties are shown in Table 11 The difference between the underground and submarine cables is inthe conductor material and the armour layer Armour strengthening is used in submarine cables to with-stand the axial mechanical tension during laying and operation

Cables with copper conductors are used for submarine applications whereas aluminium conductorsare generally preferred for underground Copper has high electrical conductivity and mechanical prop-erties It is also simpler to implement strong joints using copper However it is heavy and more expen-sive and for these reasons it is used when the mechanical properties are mandatory as in submarinecables Aluminium has low conductivity and low mechanical properties Splicing is more difficultIt is lighter and less expensive than copper

14 LCC HVDC Topologies

High-voltage direct-current systems are divided into transmission systems and back-to-back HVDCHigh-voltage direct-current transmission can be bipolar or monopolar

Monopolar HVDC is typically used for smaller systems and the topology is shown in Figure 14Typically positive DC voltage is adopted because of less corona issues The return current can runthrough ground or a dedicated cable can be employed If a return cable is used (metallic return) it will

Table 11 DC cables types for underground and submarine application

Type Mass impregnated Oil filled XLPE

Conductor CuAl CuAl CuAlInsulation Paper and mass Paper and fluid Cross-linked PEVoltage (kV) 600 500 320 (525 kV is available)Capacity per cable (MW) 1000 2800 1000Converter type LCC or VSC LCC or VSC VSC or unidirectional LCCDistance Unlimited Limited because of oil Unlimited

Y Y

Y ΔYΔ

YY

V1gV2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

V1dcp V2dcp

DC cable (p)I1dc I2dc

α1α2

Figure 14 Twelve-pulse monopolar HVDC with ground return

7Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

be at ground potential with low insulation level (typically around 10 kV) and costs are therefore lowerthan positive-pole DC cable A 12-pulse topology is shown with two six-pulse converters in series

Figure 15 shows a bipolar HVDC Bipolar HVDC has two independent poles and it can operate athalf power if one DC cable or pole is out of service Normally the poles are balanced and there is noground current but ground return would be used if one pole is out of service In modern grid codesground current would not be allowed because of environmental concerns In some national standardsground currents are allowed only for short periods of time in emergency situations (eg secondaryreserve startup for 10ndash20 minutes) Instead of ground return a third cable or DC cable from the faultedpole can sometimes be used

Figure 16 shows a back-to-back HVDC which is frequently monopolar In this topology bothconverter terminals are located in a single station and DC cables are very short The main purposeof back-to-back HVDC is to provide controllable power transfer between two asynchronous AC

α1

α1

α2

α2

Y Δ Δ

Y Y

Y Δ

Y Y

Y

Y

Δ Y

Y

Y

Y

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

Negative

pole

Negative

pole

Positive

polePositive

pole

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

Terminal 1

Bridge

Bridge

Bridge Bridge

Bridge

Bridge

Electrodes Electrodes

Bridge

Bridge

Terminal 2

DC cable (p)

DC cable (n)

V1dcp

V1dcn

V2dcp

V2dcn

I1dc I2dc

V1g V2g

Figure 15 Bipolar HVDC (12-pulse) with ground return

Y ΔΔ

Y Y

Y

YY

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2

V1gV2g

α1α2

V1dcp

I1dc

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

Figure 16 Back-to-back HVDC topology

8 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

systems or AC systems with different frequency As DC cables are very short and therefore transmis-sion losses are low back-to-back HVDC are designed at low voltage (as high current as possible) inorder to reduce costs (costs are proportional to insulation level) The smoothing reactors are very smallor not required because there is a low probability of DC line faults Back-to-back HVDC allows foroperation with variable DC voltage and this facilitates some limited reactive power control capability

15 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems

The losses in HVDC systems will include converter station losses and DC cable losses Figure 17shows the main components of typical HVDC station losses The total LCC HVDC station losses willdepend on the size of HVDC station the voltage level configuration and typically may amount to05ndash1 of the power transfer

At partial loading the percentage losses will generally increase Figure 18 shows the load depen-dence of major loss components As an example magnetizing current in converter transformers willbe constant irrespective of loading and at 10 loading the transformer losses are 20

3

25

8

2

5

1

56

Auxiliaries

Converter valves

AC harmonic filters

Valve cooling plant

DC smoothing reactors

HF filter

Converter transformer

Figure 17 Breakdown of typical LCC HVDC station losses at 1 pu power

100

Loss c

om

ponent (

)

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Converted valves

Converted transformer

AC harmonic filters

DC smoothing reactor

DC power ()

Figure 18 Variation of HVDC station losses with the DC power shown relative to 1 pu losses

9Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

16 Conversion of AC Lines to DC

There have been many studies worldwide on converting existing AC lines into DC This mainly resultsfrom the desire to increase AC line capacity or to remove stability constraints These issues usuallyrequire costly line upgradesreconductoring series compensation or installing a device from the flexibleAC transmission systems (FACTS) family In such cases conversion to HVDC can usually offer thehighest capacity increase and a range of other benefits Typically towers and conductors will not bechanged but insulators may need to be upgraded to operate with DC lines

The main advantages of converting existing AC line to HVDC are

bull an increase in capacitybull fewer corona issues and a generally higher operating voltagebull better control of active and reactive power and other system-level benefitsbull better stability limits and active stabilization of the gridbull lower transmission losses

Some of the disadvantages of conversion to HVDC include

bull more pollution is attracted to insulators energized with DC ndash insulator upgrade is recommendedbull converter station costs

Figure 19 shows some common options for converting a single-circuit three-phase AC transmissioninto DC which include

bull The first option employs all three conductors for a single DC pole while the ground is used for returnThis method will significantly increase current carrying capacity but ground return will not beallowed in many modern systems

bull The second option adopts DC bipole with metallic return The neutral conductor can be used formonopolar operation

bull The third option is based on the tripole HVDC concept This method uses the third conductor alter-natively as a positive or negative pole which exploits the long thermal constants of conductors Thecapacity increase of around 37 is achieved (over bipole configuration) using lines and the RMSvalues of current in the conductors (over 10 minutes) are equal to the conductor rating An additionalbidirectional converter is required

17 Ultra-High Voltage HVDC

The standard DC voltage for HVDC is 500 kV and the Itaipu 3150MW plusmn600 kV HVDC has used thehighest DC voltage for a long period However the emerging requirements for bulk power transmission

R S

+

0

+

ndash

+

+

+ndash ndash+

TAC

DC monopole with ground return

DC bipole with metalic return

DC tripole with metalic return

Figure 19 Options for conversion of three-phase AC lines into DC

10 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

over long distances of 5ndash10 GW in Asia Africa and South America in late 1990s have resulted in theprogressive development of UHVDC (ultra-high voltage direct current)

XiangjiabandashShanghai 6400MW plusmn800 kV UHVDC implemented in 2010 was the first commercialUHVDC and four other plusmn800 kV systems have been implemented in 2011ndash2013 while studies areunderway for 1100 kV DC voltages The progress towards UHVDC has demanded a lot of researchand development effort and the main challenges are summarized below

bull improving insulation in particular in polluted areasbull transformer development including bushingsbull developing ultra-high voltage (UHV) test centres

It is important to appreciate that all the equipment including auxiliaries that connect to DC linesmust be changed to UHV In practice this translates to longer units ndash bushings arresters VT (voltagetransducers) CT (current transducers) and so forth ndash with more series-connected basic elementsFrequently the main challenge is the need for mechanical strength in the face of increased forces fromseismic requirements wind and other factors

The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes a standard method of increasinginsulation levels although developing UHV insulators and bushings remains challenging

The UHV valve design is not considered to be a significant obstacle

11Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

5 HVDC Inverter Station Modelling and Control 4051 Inverter Controller 4052 Commutation Failure 42

6 HVDC System V-I Diagrams and Operating Modes 4561 HVDC-Equivalent Circuit 4562 HVDC V-I Operating Diagram 4563 HVDC Power Reversal 48

7 HVDC Analytical Modelling and Stability 5371 Introduction to Converters and HVDC Modelling 5372 HVDC Analytical Model 5473 CIGRE HVDC Benchmark Model 5674 Converter Modelling Linearization and Gain Scheduling 5675 AC System Modelling for HVDC Stability Studies 5876 LCC Converter Transformer Model 6277 DC System Model 6378 HVDC-HVAC System Model 6579 Analytical Dynamic Model Verification 65710 Basic HVDC Dynamic Analysis 66711 HVDC Second Harmonic Instability 70712 Oscillations of 100 Hz on the DC Side 71

8 HVDC Phasor Modelling and Interactions with AC System 7281 Converter and DC System Phasor Model 7282 Phasor AC System Model and Interaction with the DC System 7383 Inverter AC Voltage and Power Profile as DC Current is Increasing 7584 Influence of Converter Extinction Angle 7685 Influence of Shunt Reactive Power Compensation 7886 Influence of Load at the Converter Terminals 7887 Influence of Operating Mode (DC Voltage Control Mode) 7888 Rectifier Operating Mode 80

9 HVDC Operation with Weak AC Systems 8291 Introduction 8292 Short-Circuit Ratio and Equivalent Short-Circuit Ratio 8293 Power Transfer between Two AC Systems 8594 Phasor Study of Converter Interactions with Weak AC Systems 8995 System Dynamics (Small Signal Stability) with Low SCR 9096 HVDC Control and Main Circuit Solutions for Weak AC Grids 9097 LCC HVDC with SVC (Static VAR Compensator) 9198 Capacitor-Commutated Converters for HVDC 9399 AC System with Low Inertia 93

10 Fault Management and HVDC System Protection 98101 Introduction 98102 DC Line Faults 98103 AC System Faults 101

vi Contents

104 Internal Faults 102105 System Reconfiguration for Permanent Faults 103106 Overvoltage Protection 106

11 LCC HVDC System Harmonics 107111 Harmonic Performance Criteria 107112 Harmonic Limits 108113 Thyristor Converter Harmonics 109114 Harmonic Filters 110115 Noncharacteristic Harmonic Reduction Using HVDC Controls 118

Bibliography Part I Line Commutated Converter HVDC 119

Part II HVDC with Voltage Source Converters 121

12 VSC HVDC Applications and Topologies Performance andCost Comparison with LCC HVDC 123121 Voltage Source Converters (VSC) 123122 Comparison with Line-Commutated Converter (LCC) HVDC 125123 Overhead and SubseaUnderground VSC HVDC Transmission 126124 DC Cable Types with VSC HVDC 129125 Monopolar and Bipolar VSC HVDC Systems 129126 VSC HVDC Converter Topologies 130127 VSC HVDC Station Components 135128 AC Reactors 139129 DC Reactors 139

13 IGBT Switches and VSC Converter Losses 141131 Introduction to IGBT and IGCT 141132 General VSC Converter Switch Requirements 142133 IGBT Technology 142134 High Power IGBT Devices 147135 IEGT Technology 148136 Losses Calculation 148137 Balancing Challenges in Series IGBT Chains 154138 Snubbers Circuits 155

14 Single-Phase and Three-Phase Two-Level VSC Converters 156141 Introduction 156142 Single-Phase Voltage Source Converter 156143 Three-Phase Voltage Source Converter 159144 Square-Wave Six-Pulse Operation 159

15 Two-Level PWM VSC Converters 167151 Introduction 167152 PWM Modulation 167153 Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation (SPWM) 168154 Third Harmonic Injection (THI) 171

viiContents

155 Selective Harmonic Elimination Modulation (SHE) 172156 Converter Losses for Two-Level SPWM VSC 173157 Harmonics with Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) 175158 Comparison of PWM Modulation Techniques 178

16 Multilevel VSC Converters 179161 Introduction 179162 Modulation Techniques for Multilevel Converters 181163 Neutral Point Clamped Multilevel Converter 182164 Flying Capacitor Multilevel Converter 184165 H-Bridge Cascaded Converter 185166 Half Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC) 186167 MMC Based on Full Bridge Topology 199168 Comparison of Multilevel Topologies 208

17 Two-Level PWM VSC HVDC Modelling Control and Dynamics 209171 PWM Two-Level Converter Average Model 209172 Two-Level PWM Converter Model in DQ Frame 210173 VSC Converter Transformer Model 212174 Two-Level VSC Converter and AC Grid Model in ABC Frame 213175 Two-Level VSC Converter and AC Grid Model in DQ Rotating

Coordinate Frame 213176 VSC Converter Control Principles 214177 The Inner Current Controller Design 215178 Outer Controller Design 218179 Complete VSC Converter Controller 2211710 Small-Signal Linearized VSC HVDC Model 2241711 Small-Signal Dynamic Studies 224

18 Two-Level VSC HVDC Phasor-Domain Interaction with AC Systems andPQ Operating Diagrams 226181 Power Exchange between Two AC Voltage Sources 226182 Converter Phasor Model and Power Exchange with an AC System 230183 Phasor Study of VSC Converter Interaction with AC System 232184 Operating Limits 234185 Design Point Selection 235186 Influence of AC System Strength 236187 Influence of Transformer Reactance 236188 Operation with Very Weak AC Systems 239

19 Half Bridge MMC Converter Modelling Control and Operating PQ Diagrams 246191 Half Bridge MMC Converter Average Model in ABC Frame 246192 Half-Bridge MMC Converter-Static DQ Frame and Phasor Model 249193 Differential Current at Second Harmonic 254194 Complete MMC Converter DQ Model in Matrix Form 255195 Second Harmonic Circulating Current Suppression Controller 256196 DQ Frame Model of MMC with Circulating Current Controller 259197 Phasor Model of MMC with Circulating Current Suppression Controller 261198 Dynamic MMC Model Using Equivalent Series Capacitor CMMC 262199 Full Dynamic Analytical MMC Model 2651910 MMC Converter Controller 267

viii Contents

1911 MMC Total Series Reactance in the Phasor Model 2671912 MMC VSC Interaction with AC System

and PQ Operating Diagrams 269

20 VSC HVDC under AC and DC Fault Conditions 271201 Introduction 271202 Faults on the AC System 271203 DC Faults with Two-Level VSC 272204 Influence of DC Capacitors 276205 VSC Converter Modelling under DC Faults and VSC Diode Bridge 277206 Converter-Mode Transitions as DC Voltage Reduces 284207 DC Faults with Half-Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter 286208 DC Faults with Full-Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter 287

21 VSC HVDC Application for AC Grid Support and Operation withPassive AC Systems 291211 VSC HVDC High-Level Controls and AC Grid Support 291212 HVDC Embedded inside an AC Grid 292213 HVDC Connecting Two Separate AC Grids 293214 HVDC in Parallel with AC 293215 Operation with a Passive AC System and Black Start Capability 294216 VSC HVDC Operation with Offshore Wind Farms 294217 VSC HVDC Supplying Power Offshore and Driving a MW-Size

Variable-Speed Motor 296

Bibliography Part II Voltage Source Converter HVDC 298

Part III DC Transmission Grids 301

22 Introduction to DC Grids 303221 DC versus AC Transmission 303222 Terminology 304223 DC Grid Planning Topology and Power-Transfer Security 304224 Technical Challenges 305225 DC Grid Building by Multiple Manufacturers 306226 Economic Aspects 306

23 DC Grids with Line-Commutated Converters 307231 Multiterminal HVDC 307232 ItalyndashCorsicandashSardinia Multiterminal HVDC Link 308233 Connecting LCC Converter to a DC Grid 309234 Control of LCC Converters in DC Grids 311235 Control of LCC DC Grids through DC Voltage Droop Feedback 311236 Managing LCC DC Grid Faults 313237 Reactive Power Issues 315238 Large LCC Rectifier Stations in DC Grids 315

24 DC Grids with Voltage Source Converters and Power-Flow Model 316241 Connecting a VSC Converter to a DC Grid 316242 DC Grid Power Flow Model 317243 DC Grid Power Flow under DC Faults 321

ixContents

25 DC Grid Control 324251 Introduction 324252 Fast Local VSC Converter Control in DC Grids 324253 DC Grid Dispatcher with Remote Communication 326254 Primary Secondary and Tertiary DC Grid Control 327255 DC Voltage Droop Control for VSC Converters in DC Grids 328256 Three-Level Control for VSC Converters with Dispatcher Droop 329257 Power Flow Algorithm When DC Powers are Regulated 330258 Power Flow and Control Study of CIGRE DC Grid-Test System 334

26 DC Grid Fault Management and DC Circuit Breakers 339261 Introduction 339262 Fault Current Components in DC Grids 340263 DC System Protection Coordination with AC System Protection 342264 Mechanical DC Circuit Breaker 342265 Semiconductor Based DC Circuit Breaker 345266 Hybrid DC Circuit Breaker 349267 DC Grid-Protection System Development 351268 DC Grid Selective Protection System Based on Current Derivative or

Travelling Wave Identification 352269 Differential DC Grid Protection Strategy 3532610 DC Grid Selective Protection System Based on Local Signals 3542611 DC Grids with DC Fault-Tolerant VSC Converters 355

27 High Power DCDC Converters and DC Power-Flow Controlling Devices 362271 Introduction 362272 Power Flow Control Using Series Resistors 363273 Low Stepping-Ratio DCDC Converters 366274 DCDC Converters with DC Polarity Reversal 371275 High Stepping Ratio Isolated DCDC Converter 373276 High Stepping Ratio LCL DCDC Converter 373277 Building DC Grids with DCDC Converters 375278 DC Hubs 377279 Developing DC Grids Using DC Hubs 3802710 North Sea DC Grid Topologies 380

Bibliography Part III DC Transmission Grids 384

Appendix A Variable Notations 386

Appendix B Analytical Background for Rotating DQ Frame 388

Appendix C System Modelling Using Complex Numbers and Phasors 399

Appendix D Simulink Examples 401

Index 419

x Contents

Preface

At the time of writing there are over 170 high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) links installedworldwide The largest installations operate at plusmn800 kV DC voltage and the highest DC current ratingsare over 4500 A Although alternating current was the predominant method for transmitting electricalenergy in the twentieth century HVDC was demonstrated to be the best solution for many specificapplication areas and the number of installations per year has been constantly increasing at thebeginning of twenty-first century Despite significant converter-station costs HVDC is techno-economically preferred in general applications for

bull long-distance large-scale power transferbull subsea and long-distance cable-power transmissionbull interconnecting asynchronous AC systems or systems with different frequenciesbull controllable power transfer between different nodes in an electricity market or marketsbull AC grid-stability support ancillary service provision and resilience to blackoutsbull connecting isolated systems like offshore wind farms or oil platforms

DC transmission technology was used in many instances in very early power systems but modernHVDC transmission begins with the 1954 SwedenndashGotland installation This system and all the otherHVDCs commissioned until the mid-1970s were based on mercury arc valves A significant technicaladvance came with the introduction of solid-state valves (thyristors) although they only support theline-commutated converter (LCC) concept In the first decade of the twenty-first century there hasbeen very rapid development of fundamentally new technologies and an increasing demand forHVDC technology The introduction of voltage-source converters (VSCs) requires new valves whichuse insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and also new protection and control approaches Themodular multilevel converters have eventually emerged as the most cost effective VSC converterconcept which practically eliminates filtering needs with HVDC and removes voltage limits withVSC valves

In the second decade of the twenty-first century it has become apparent that DC transmission gridsare a technically feasible and viable solution to large-scale energy challenges The primary applicationdrivers come from initiatives like the North Sea DC grid Medtech Desertec the European overlaysuper grid and Atlantic Wind It is accepted that the DC transmission grids must have levels of reliabil-ity and technical performance that are similar to or better than an AC transmission system This level ofperformance security and reliability is technically feasible although in many aspects DC grids will be

substantially different from traditional AC systems The development of DC grids brings significanttechnical advances in HVDC technologies in particular related to DC circuit breakers (CBs) DCDC converters and DC protection systems and substantial further research and development areanticipated

Nowadays HVDC and DC grids are associated with green energy as facilitators of large-scalerenewable energy plants This helps with public acceptance and image and facilitates furtherinvestments in large public projects HVDC is perceived as the technology that avoids pylons by usinglong underground cables further strengthening arguments for future funding decisions

The timing of this book is therefore in step with an increased interest in HVDC and a projectedsignificant increase in its use

The book is organized in three parts in order to study all three major HVDC concepts ndash linecommutated HVDC VSC HVDC and DC grids current research developments Each part will reviewtheoretical concepts and analyse aspects of technology interaction with AC grids modelling controlfaults and protection with particular emphasis on practical implementation aspects and on reportedoperational issues

The technical field of HVDC transmission and DC grids straddles three major traditional electricalengineering disciplines

bull Power transmission engineering The impact of HVDC systems on the connecting AC transmissionsystems and the national grid is of primary importance The influence of AC systems onHVDC is alsoof significance in terms of technical performance stability protection and power transfer security ingeneral Harmonic interaction will be studied in some depth

bull Power electronics Each HVDC link involves at least two ACDC converters whereas DC grids willhave many more including semiconductor DC CBs and DCDC converters These converters havefeatures that are similar to those of traditional low-power converters but many other unique require-ments exist to develop valves and converter assemblies capable of sustaining up to 800 kV andperhaps over 4500 A The protection of valves and converters is very important and is a definingpower electronics feature in HVDC

bull Control engineering Modelling and simulation of HVDC is essential for design and operation andseveral different modelling approaches exist depending on the model application In particularbecause of the high costs of HVDC testing and the consequences of any design issues model accur-acy and simulation speed play crucial role in the system design The control systems for HVDC haveevolved into very complex technologies which are always multivariable nonlinear and with multiplecontrol layers

The above three technical disciplines will be employed in this book in order to analyse all essentialtechnical aspects of HVDC and DC grids which is aimed to facilitate learning by researchers and engin-eers who are interested in this field

The material in this book includes contributions from many HVDC researchers and engineers andit is developed from research projects funded by several research councils and private firms Moreimportantly the studies are inspired by and build on previous work by numerous great HVDCengineers

The authors are particularly grateful to ALSTOM Grid UK for providing their comprehensivereport HVDC Connecting to the Future as well as to SIEMENS Germany and ABB Sweden fortheir HVDC photographs We are also indebted to the researchers at the University of Aberdeen PowerSystems Group and in particular to DrWeixing Lin Dr Ali Jamshidifar DrMasood Hajian Dr HuibinZhang and Dr Lu Zhang for their contributions

We would like to give our special thanks to SSE Scotland and in particular to Andrew Robertsonfor their support for the HVDC course at University of Aberdeen which provided important materialfor this book

xii Preface

The authors are also grateful to the following organizations which supported related research studiesat the University of Aberdeen

bull Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) UKbull European Research Council (ERC) FP 7 Ideas Programmebull Reacuteseau de Transport drsquoEacutelectriciteacute (RTE) France

Dragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmed

xiiiPreface

Part IHVDC with CurrentSource Converters

1Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

11 HVDC Applications

Thyristor-based high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission has been used in over 150point-to-point installations worldwide In each case it has proven to be technologically andor econom-ically superior to AC transmission Typical HVDC applications can be grouped as follows

bull Submarine power transmission The AC cables have large capacitance and for cables over 40ndash70 kmthe reactive power circulation is unacceptable This distance can be extended somewhat with reactivepower compensation For larger distances HVDC is more economical A good example is the580 km 700MW plusmn450 kV NorNed HVDC between Norway and the Netherlands

bull Long-distance overhead lines Long AC lines require variable reactive power compensation Typically600ndash800 km is the breakeven distance and for larger distances HVDC is more economical A goodexample is the 1360 km 31 GW plusmn500 kV Pacific DC intertie along the west coast of the United States

bull Interconnecting two AC networks of different frequencies A good example is the 500MW plusmn79 kVback-to-back Melo HVDC between Uruguay and Brazil The Uruguay system operates at 50 Hzwhereas Brazilrsquos national grid runs at 60 Hz

bull Interconnecting two unsynchronized AC grids If phase difference between two AC systems is largethey cannot be directly connected A typical example is the 150MW plusmn42 kV McNeill back-to-backHVDC link between Alberta and Saskatchewan interconnecting asynchronous eastern and westernAmerican systems

bull Controllable power exchange between two AC networks (for trading) The AC power flow is deter-mined by the line impedances and it cannot therefore be controlled directly in each line In complexAC networks it is common to observe loop power flow or even overloading or underutilization ofsome AC lines Many HVDC systems participate directly in trading power and one typical exampleis the 200MW plusmn57 kV Highgate HVDC between Quebec and Vermont

There are other less common applications of LCC (line-commutated converter) HVDC technologyincluding the 300MW Levis De-Icer HVDC project Here one standard HVDC converter station ndash a

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

converter from a Static Var Compensator (SVC) ndash is used to provide a very high DC current of up to7920A (feeding essentially a DC short circuit) to enable heating of remote Canadian overhead linesin order to prevent ice buildup

An important argument for selecting HVDC instead of an AC for a new transmission line is thecontribution to the short-circuit level High-voltage direct current is able to limit the fault currentand therefore it will not require the upgrading of substation equipment

Figure 11 shows a comparison of costs for DC and AC transmission lines In the case of HVDC theinitial capital investment is much higher because of the converter costs As the transmission distanceincreases the benefits of DC offset the capital investment and at certain distance the total cost of anHVDC system is same as an AC line The breakeven distance is in the range of 40ndash70 km for submarinecables and in the range of 600ndash800 km for overhead lines Figure 12 shows an aerial view of the

HVDC station costs

Line length

Breakeven distanceFor cables 40ndash70 km

For overhead lines 600ndash800 kmHVAC station costs

HVAC

HVDC

Cost

Figure 11 HVDC and HVAC transmission cost comparison

Figure 12 Terminal station of Moyle HVDC interconnector (Bipole 2 times 250MW plusmn250 kV with light triggeredthyristors commissioned in 2001) Reproduced with permission of Siemens

4 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

terminal station of the 500 MW Moyle HVDC link This HVDC enables a controllable bidirectionalpower exchange between Scotland and Northern Ireland

12 Line-Commutated HVDC Components

Figure 13 shows a typical LCC HVDC schematic interconnecting AC systems 1 and 2 It consistsof two terminals and a DC line between them Each terminal (converter station) includes converterstransformers filters reactive power equipment control station and a range of other components Thereare two DC lines in this figure while one line is at ground potential

As shown in Figure 13 the major components of an HVDC system include

bull Converters They typically include one or more six-pulse thyristor (Graetz) bridges Each bridgeconsists of six thyristor valves which in turn contain hundreds of individual thyristors With largesystems bridges are connected in series in 12-pulse or 24-pulse configuration The 12-pulse converterscan be connected into poles or bipoles

bull Converter transformers These are a special converter transformer type which is somewhat moreexpensive than typical AC transformers of the same rating The converter transformers are designedto operate with high harmonic currents and they are designed to withstand AC and DC voltage stressIn most cases converter transformers will have tap changers which enable optimization of HVDCoperation

bull Smoothing reactors on DC side Typical inductance for large HVDC systems is 01ndash05 H which isdetermined considering DC fault responses commutation failure and dynamic stability The reactorsare of air-core natural air-cooling type and costs are modest

bull Reactive power compensation The converters typically require reactive power of around 60 ofthe converter power rating A large portion of this reactive power is supplied with filter banksand the remaining part with capacitor banks Reactive power demand varies with DC power levelso the capacitors are arranged in switchable banks

bull Filters A typical 12-pulse thyristor terminal will require 11th 13th 23rd and 25th filters on the ACside A high-pass filter is frequently included In some cases third harmonic filters are required SomeHVDC systems with overhead lines also employ DC-side filters

Reactive power

compensationReactive powercompensation

FiltersFilters

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Terminal 1 Terminal 2Smoothing

reactorSmoothing

reactor

Thyristorbridge

α1 α2

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Electrodes

Station 1

control

Station 2

controlCommunication

system

DC line

DC lineI1dc I2dc

V1dcpV2dcp

CB

CB

CB

CB

V1g V2g

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

AC system 23 phase V2g f2

Y ΔYΔ

YYY Y

Figure 13 Typical HVDC schematic (12-pulse monopole with metallic return)

5Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

bull Electrodes Some old HVDC systems normally operate with seaground return but most grid oper-ators no longer allow permanent ground currents for environmental reasons Electrodes demandongoing maintenance costs Many new bipolar systems are allowed to operate with ground returnat half power for a short time (10ndash20 minutes) in case of loss of an HVDC pole This implies thatelectrodes are designed for full current but carry no current in normal operation

bull Control and communication system Each terminal will have a control system consisting of severalhierarchical layers A dedicated communication link between terminals is needed but speed is notcritical An HVDC link can operate in the event of a loss of a communication link

13 DC Cables and Overhead Lines

131 Introduction

Line-commutated converter HVDC has been implemented using overhead lines and undergroundsubsea DC cables Overhead lines are vulnerable to lightning strikes which are essentially DC faultsNevertheless DC faults only cause transient disturbances and they are readily managed by LCCHVDCOn the other hand with voltage source converter (VSC) HVDC as will be discussed later DC faultscause much more serious disturbances

The most common cable technologies that have been developed so far include

bull mass-impregnated (MI) cablesbull low-pressure oil-filled (LPOF) cablesbull extruded cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables

The above cable types have same conductors and their construction is similar but the insulationmaterial is substantially different The cable voltage rating depends on the capability of the insulation(dielectric) material and there are two main types of dielectrics namely lapped and extruded

132 Mass-impregnated (MI) Cables

Since 1895 MI cables have been used in power transmission In MI cables the dielectric is lappedpaper insulation which is impregnated with high-viscosity fluid For bulk power transmission massimpregnated cables still prove to be the most suitable solution because of their capacity to work upto 500 kV DC These cables also tolerate fast DC voltage polarity reversal making them suitablefor LCC HVDC The MI cables have a long record of field operation at voltages of 500 kV and trans-mission capacity of over 800 MW (16 kA) for monopole HVDC but 600 kV and 1000 MW ratingshave been announced An HVDCwith a bipolar connection is therefore able to transmit up to 2000MWwith MI cables These cables can be installed at depths to 1000 m under the sea level and with nearlyunlimited transmission length The capacity of this system is limited by the conductor temperaturewhich can reduce overload capabilities The 580 km-long 700MW 450 kV cable link between Norwayand the Netherlands represents the greatest power and length for this cable type At present over 90 ofsubmarine cables are of the MI type

133 Low-pressure Oil-filled Cables

Low-pressure oil-filled cables are similar in construction to MI cables but the cables are insulated withpaper impregnated with low viscosity oil under an overpressure of a few bars The technology availabletoday ensures voltages up to 500 kV and powers up to 2800MW for underground installation It can beused for bothACandDC transmission applicationsAs oil flow is required along the cable cable length islimited to around 80 km The risk of oil leakage must be taken into account for environmental reasons

6 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

134 Extruded Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE) Cables

Extruded cross-linked polyethylene cables cannot withstand fast polarity reversal and they are not nor-mally used with LCC HVDC (unless it is a unidirectional system) They will be discussed further withVSC HVDC

The above three types of cables are used for both underground and submarine cables and their basicproperties are shown in Table 11 The difference between the underground and submarine cables is inthe conductor material and the armour layer Armour strengthening is used in submarine cables to with-stand the axial mechanical tension during laying and operation

Cables with copper conductors are used for submarine applications whereas aluminium conductorsare generally preferred for underground Copper has high electrical conductivity and mechanical prop-erties It is also simpler to implement strong joints using copper However it is heavy and more expen-sive and for these reasons it is used when the mechanical properties are mandatory as in submarinecables Aluminium has low conductivity and low mechanical properties Splicing is more difficultIt is lighter and less expensive than copper

14 LCC HVDC Topologies

High-voltage direct-current systems are divided into transmission systems and back-to-back HVDCHigh-voltage direct-current transmission can be bipolar or monopolar

Monopolar HVDC is typically used for smaller systems and the topology is shown in Figure 14Typically positive DC voltage is adopted because of less corona issues The return current can runthrough ground or a dedicated cable can be employed If a return cable is used (metallic return) it will

Table 11 DC cables types for underground and submarine application

Type Mass impregnated Oil filled XLPE

Conductor CuAl CuAl CuAlInsulation Paper and mass Paper and fluid Cross-linked PEVoltage (kV) 600 500 320 (525 kV is available)Capacity per cable (MW) 1000 2800 1000Converter type LCC or VSC LCC or VSC VSC or unidirectional LCCDistance Unlimited Limited because of oil Unlimited

Y Y

Y ΔYΔ

YY

V1gV2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

V1dcp V2dcp

DC cable (p)I1dc I2dc

α1α2

Figure 14 Twelve-pulse monopolar HVDC with ground return

7Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

be at ground potential with low insulation level (typically around 10 kV) and costs are therefore lowerthan positive-pole DC cable A 12-pulse topology is shown with two six-pulse converters in series

Figure 15 shows a bipolar HVDC Bipolar HVDC has two independent poles and it can operate athalf power if one DC cable or pole is out of service Normally the poles are balanced and there is noground current but ground return would be used if one pole is out of service In modern grid codesground current would not be allowed because of environmental concerns In some national standardsground currents are allowed only for short periods of time in emergency situations (eg secondaryreserve startup for 10ndash20 minutes) Instead of ground return a third cable or DC cable from the faultedpole can sometimes be used

Figure 16 shows a back-to-back HVDC which is frequently monopolar In this topology bothconverter terminals are located in a single station and DC cables are very short The main purposeof back-to-back HVDC is to provide controllable power transfer between two asynchronous AC

α1

α1

α2

α2

Y Δ Δ

Y Y

Y Δ

Y Y

Y

Y

Δ Y

Y

Y

Y

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

Negative

pole

Negative

pole

Positive

polePositive

pole

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

Terminal 1

Bridge

Bridge

Bridge Bridge

Bridge

Bridge

Electrodes Electrodes

Bridge

Bridge

Terminal 2

DC cable (p)

DC cable (n)

V1dcp

V1dcn

V2dcp

V2dcn

I1dc I2dc

V1g V2g

Figure 15 Bipolar HVDC (12-pulse) with ground return

Y ΔΔ

Y Y

Y

YY

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2

V1gV2g

α1α2

V1dcp

I1dc

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

Figure 16 Back-to-back HVDC topology

8 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

systems or AC systems with different frequency As DC cables are very short and therefore transmis-sion losses are low back-to-back HVDC are designed at low voltage (as high current as possible) inorder to reduce costs (costs are proportional to insulation level) The smoothing reactors are very smallor not required because there is a low probability of DC line faults Back-to-back HVDC allows foroperation with variable DC voltage and this facilitates some limited reactive power control capability

15 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems

The losses in HVDC systems will include converter station losses and DC cable losses Figure 17shows the main components of typical HVDC station losses The total LCC HVDC station losses willdepend on the size of HVDC station the voltage level configuration and typically may amount to05ndash1 of the power transfer

At partial loading the percentage losses will generally increase Figure 18 shows the load depen-dence of major loss components As an example magnetizing current in converter transformers willbe constant irrespective of loading and at 10 loading the transformer losses are 20

3

25

8

2

5

1

56

Auxiliaries

Converter valves

AC harmonic filters

Valve cooling plant

DC smoothing reactors

HF filter

Converter transformer

Figure 17 Breakdown of typical LCC HVDC station losses at 1 pu power

100

Loss c

om

ponent (

)

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Converted valves

Converted transformer

AC harmonic filters

DC smoothing reactor

DC power ()

Figure 18 Variation of HVDC station losses with the DC power shown relative to 1 pu losses

9Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

16 Conversion of AC Lines to DC

There have been many studies worldwide on converting existing AC lines into DC This mainly resultsfrom the desire to increase AC line capacity or to remove stability constraints These issues usuallyrequire costly line upgradesreconductoring series compensation or installing a device from the flexibleAC transmission systems (FACTS) family In such cases conversion to HVDC can usually offer thehighest capacity increase and a range of other benefits Typically towers and conductors will not bechanged but insulators may need to be upgraded to operate with DC lines

The main advantages of converting existing AC line to HVDC are

bull an increase in capacitybull fewer corona issues and a generally higher operating voltagebull better control of active and reactive power and other system-level benefitsbull better stability limits and active stabilization of the gridbull lower transmission losses

Some of the disadvantages of conversion to HVDC include

bull more pollution is attracted to insulators energized with DC ndash insulator upgrade is recommendedbull converter station costs

Figure 19 shows some common options for converting a single-circuit three-phase AC transmissioninto DC which include

bull The first option employs all three conductors for a single DC pole while the ground is used for returnThis method will significantly increase current carrying capacity but ground return will not beallowed in many modern systems

bull The second option adopts DC bipole with metallic return The neutral conductor can be used formonopolar operation

bull The third option is based on the tripole HVDC concept This method uses the third conductor alter-natively as a positive or negative pole which exploits the long thermal constants of conductors Thecapacity increase of around 37 is achieved (over bipole configuration) using lines and the RMSvalues of current in the conductors (over 10 minutes) are equal to the conductor rating An additionalbidirectional converter is required

17 Ultra-High Voltage HVDC

The standard DC voltage for HVDC is 500 kV and the Itaipu 3150MW plusmn600 kV HVDC has used thehighest DC voltage for a long period However the emerging requirements for bulk power transmission

R S

+

0

+

ndash

+

+

+ndash ndash+

TAC

DC monopole with ground return

DC bipole with metalic return

DC tripole with metalic return

Figure 19 Options for conversion of three-phase AC lines into DC

10 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

over long distances of 5ndash10 GW in Asia Africa and South America in late 1990s have resulted in theprogressive development of UHVDC (ultra-high voltage direct current)

XiangjiabandashShanghai 6400MW plusmn800 kV UHVDC implemented in 2010 was the first commercialUHVDC and four other plusmn800 kV systems have been implemented in 2011ndash2013 while studies areunderway for 1100 kV DC voltages The progress towards UHVDC has demanded a lot of researchand development effort and the main challenges are summarized below

bull improving insulation in particular in polluted areasbull transformer development including bushingsbull developing ultra-high voltage (UHV) test centres

It is important to appreciate that all the equipment including auxiliaries that connect to DC linesmust be changed to UHV In practice this translates to longer units ndash bushings arresters VT (voltagetransducers) CT (current transducers) and so forth ndash with more series-connected basic elementsFrequently the main challenge is the need for mechanical strength in the face of increased forces fromseismic requirements wind and other factors

The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes a standard method of increasinginsulation levels although developing UHV insulators and bushings remains challenging

The UHV valve design is not considered to be a significant obstacle

11Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

104 Internal Faults 102105 System Reconfiguration for Permanent Faults 103106 Overvoltage Protection 106

11 LCC HVDC System Harmonics 107111 Harmonic Performance Criteria 107112 Harmonic Limits 108113 Thyristor Converter Harmonics 109114 Harmonic Filters 110115 Noncharacteristic Harmonic Reduction Using HVDC Controls 118

Bibliography Part I Line Commutated Converter HVDC 119

Part II HVDC with Voltage Source Converters 121

12 VSC HVDC Applications and Topologies Performance andCost Comparison with LCC HVDC 123121 Voltage Source Converters (VSC) 123122 Comparison with Line-Commutated Converter (LCC) HVDC 125123 Overhead and SubseaUnderground VSC HVDC Transmission 126124 DC Cable Types with VSC HVDC 129125 Monopolar and Bipolar VSC HVDC Systems 129126 VSC HVDC Converter Topologies 130127 VSC HVDC Station Components 135128 AC Reactors 139129 DC Reactors 139

13 IGBT Switches and VSC Converter Losses 141131 Introduction to IGBT and IGCT 141132 General VSC Converter Switch Requirements 142133 IGBT Technology 142134 High Power IGBT Devices 147135 IEGT Technology 148136 Losses Calculation 148137 Balancing Challenges in Series IGBT Chains 154138 Snubbers Circuits 155

14 Single-Phase and Three-Phase Two-Level VSC Converters 156141 Introduction 156142 Single-Phase Voltage Source Converter 156143 Three-Phase Voltage Source Converter 159144 Square-Wave Six-Pulse Operation 159

15 Two-Level PWM VSC Converters 167151 Introduction 167152 PWM Modulation 167153 Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation (SPWM) 168154 Third Harmonic Injection (THI) 171

viiContents

155 Selective Harmonic Elimination Modulation (SHE) 172156 Converter Losses for Two-Level SPWM VSC 173157 Harmonics with Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) 175158 Comparison of PWM Modulation Techniques 178

16 Multilevel VSC Converters 179161 Introduction 179162 Modulation Techniques for Multilevel Converters 181163 Neutral Point Clamped Multilevel Converter 182164 Flying Capacitor Multilevel Converter 184165 H-Bridge Cascaded Converter 185166 Half Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC) 186167 MMC Based on Full Bridge Topology 199168 Comparison of Multilevel Topologies 208

17 Two-Level PWM VSC HVDC Modelling Control and Dynamics 209171 PWM Two-Level Converter Average Model 209172 Two-Level PWM Converter Model in DQ Frame 210173 VSC Converter Transformer Model 212174 Two-Level VSC Converter and AC Grid Model in ABC Frame 213175 Two-Level VSC Converter and AC Grid Model in DQ Rotating

Coordinate Frame 213176 VSC Converter Control Principles 214177 The Inner Current Controller Design 215178 Outer Controller Design 218179 Complete VSC Converter Controller 2211710 Small-Signal Linearized VSC HVDC Model 2241711 Small-Signal Dynamic Studies 224

18 Two-Level VSC HVDC Phasor-Domain Interaction with AC Systems andPQ Operating Diagrams 226181 Power Exchange between Two AC Voltage Sources 226182 Converter Phasor Model and Power Exchange with an AC System 230183 Phasor Study of VSC Converter Interaction with AC System 232184 Operating Limits 234185 Design Point Selection 235186 Influence of AC System Strength 236187 Influence of Transformer Reactance 236188 Operation with Very Weak AC Systems 239

19 Half Bridge MMC Converter Modelling Control and Operating PQ Diagrams 246191 Half Bridge MMC Converter Average Model in ABC Frame 246192 Half-Bridge MMC Converter-Static DQ Frame and Phasor Model 249193 Differential Current at Second Harmonic 254194 Complete MMC Converter DQ Model in Matrix Form 255195 Second Harmonic Circulating Current Suppression Controller 256196 DQ Frame Model of MMC with Circulating Current Controller 259197 Phasor Model of MMC with Circulating Current Suppression Controller 261198 Dynamic MMC Model Using Equivalent Series Capacitor CMMC 262199 Full Dynamic Analytical MMC Model 2651910 MMC Converter Controller 267

viii Contents

1911 MMC Total Series Reactance in the Phasor Model 2671912 MMC VSC Interaction with AC System

and PQ Operating Diagrams 269

20 VSC HVDC under AC and DC Fault Conditions 271201 Introduction 271202 Faults on the AC System 271203 DC Faults with Two-Level VSC 272204 Influence of DC Capacitors 276205 VSC Converter Modelling under DC Faults and VSC Diode Bridge 277206 Converter-Mode Transitions as DC Voltage Reduces 284207 DC Faults with Half-Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter 286208 DC Faults with Full-Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter 287

21 VSC HVDC Application for AC Grid Support and Operation withPassive AC Systems 291211 VSC HVDC High-Level Controls and AC Grid Support 291212 HVDC Embedded inside an AC Grid 292213 HVDC Connecting Two Separate AC Grids 293214 HVDC in Parallel with AC 293215 Operation with a Passive AC System and Black Start Capability 294216 VSC HVDC Operation with Offshore Wind Farms 294217 VSC HVDC Supplying Power Offshore and Driving a MW-Size

Variable-Speed Motor 296

Bibliography Part II Voltage Source Converter HVDC 298

Part III DC Transmission Grids 301

22 Introduction to DC Grids 303221 DC versus AC Transmission 303222 Terminology 304223 DC Grid Planning Topology and Power-Transfer Security 304224 Technical Challenges 305225 DC Grid Building by Multiple Manufacturers 306226 Economic Aspects 306

23 DC Grids with Line-Commutated Converters 307231 Multiterminal HVDC 307232 ItalyndashCorsicandashSardinia Multiterminal HVDC Link 308233 Connecting LCC Converter to a DC Grid 309234 Control of LCC Converters in DC Grids 311235 Control of LCC DC Grids through DC Voltage Droop Feedback 311236 Managing LCC DC Grid Faults 313237 Reactive Power Issues 315238 Large LCC Rectifier Stations in DC Grids 315

24 DC Grids with Voltage Source Converters and Power-Flow Model 316241 Connecting a VSC Converter to a DC Grid 316242 DC Grid Power Flow Model 317243 DC Grid Power Flow under DC Faults 321

ixContents

25 DC Grid Control 324251 Introduction 324252 Fast Local VSC Converter Control in DC Grids 324253 DC Grid Dispatcher with Remote Communication 326254 Primary Secondary and Tertiary DC Grid Control 327255 DC Voltage Droop Control for VSC Converters in DC Grids 328256 Three-Level Control for VSC Converters with Dispatcher Droop 329257 Power Flow Algorithm When DC Powers are Regulated 330258 Power Flow and Control Study of CIGRE DC Grid-Test System 334

26 DC Grid Fault Management and DC Circuit Breakers 339261 Introduction 339262 Fault Current Components in DC Grids 340263 DC System Protection Coordination with AC System Protection 342264 Mechanical DC Circuit Breaker 342265 Semiconductor Based DC Circuit Breaker 345266 Hybrid DC Circuit Breaker 349267 DC Grid-Protection System Development 351268 DC Grid Selective Protection System Based on Current Derivative or

Travelling Wave Identification 352269 Differential DC Grid Protection Strategy 3532610 DC Grid Selective Protection System Based on Local Signals 3542611 DC Grids with DC Fault-Tolerant VSC Converters 355

27 High Power DCDC Converters and DC Power-Flow Controlling Devices 362271 Introduction 362272 Power Flow Control Using Series Resistors 363273 Low Stepping-Ratio DCDC Converters 366274 DCDC Converters with DC Polarity Reversal 371275 High Stepping Ratio Isolated DCDC Converter 373276 High Stepping Ratio LCL DCDC Converter 373277 Building DC Grids with DCDC Converters 375278 DC Hubs 377279 Developing DC Grids Using DC Hubs 3802710 North Sea DC Grid Topologies 380

Bibliography Part III DC Transmission Grids 384

Appendix A Variable Notations 386

Appendix B Analytical Background for Rotating DQ Frame 388

Appendix C System Modelling Using Complex Numbers and Phasors 399

Appendix D Simulink Examples 401

Index 419

x Contents

Preface

At the time of writing there are over 170 high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) links installedworldwide The largest installations operate at plusmn800 kV DC voltage and the highest DC current ratingsare over 4500 A Although alternating current was the predominant method for transmitting electricalenergy in the twentieth century HVDC was demonstrated to be the best solution for many specificapplication areas and the number of installations per year has been constantly increasing at thebeginning of twenty-first century Despite significant converter-station costs HVDC is techno-economically preferred in general applications for

bull long-distance large-scale power transferbull subsea and long-distance cable-power transmissionbull interconnecting asynchronous AC systems or systems with different frequenciesbull controllable power transfer between different nodes in an electricity market or marketsbull AC grid-stability support ancillary service provision and resilience to blackoutsbull connecting isolated systems like offshore wind farms or oil platforms

DC transmission technology was used in many instances in very early power systems but modernHVDC transmission begins with the 1954 SwedenndashGotland installation This system and all the otherHVDCs commissioned until the mid-1970s were based on mercury arc valves A significant technicaladvance came with the introduction of solid-state valves (thyristors) although they only support theline-commutated converter (LCC) concept In the first decade of the twenty-first century there hasbeen very rapid development of fundamentally new technologies and an increasing demand forHVDC technology The introduction of voltage-source converters (VSCs) requires new valves whichuse insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and also new protection and control approaches Themodular multilevel converters have eventually emerged as the most cost effective VSC converterconcept which practically eliminates filtering needs with HVDC and removes voltage limits withVSC valves

In the second decade of the twenty-first century it has become apparent that DC transmission gridsare a technically feasible and viable solution to large-scale energy challenges The primary applicationdrivers come from initiatives like the North Sea DC grid Medtech Desertec the European overlaysuper grid and Atlantic Wind It is accepted that the DC transmission grids must have levels of reliabil-ity and technical performance that are similar to or better than an AC transmission system This level ofperformance security and reliability is technically feasible although in many aspects DC grids will be

substantially different from traditional AC systems The development of DC grids brings significanttechnical advances in HVDC technologies in particular related to DC circuit breakers (CBs) DCDC converters and DC protection systems and substantial further research and development areanticipated

Nowadays HVDC and DC grids are associated with green energy as facilitators of large-scalerenewable energy plants This helps with public acceptance and image and facilitates furtherinvestments in large public projects HVDC is perceived as the technology that avoids pylons by usinglong underground cables further strengthening arguments for future funding decisions

The timing of this book is therefore in step with an increased interest in HVDC and a projectedsignificant increase in its use

The book is organized in three parts in order to study all three major HVDC concepts ndash linecommutated HVDC VSC HVDC and DC grids current research developments Each part will reviewtheoretical concepts and analyse aspects of technology interaction with AC grids modelling controlfaults and protection with particular emphasis on practical implementation aspects and on reportedoperational issues

The technical field of HVDC transmission and DC grids straddles three major traditional electricalengineering disciplines

bull Power transmission engineering The impact of HVDC systems on the connecting AC transmissionsystems and the national grid is of primary importance The influence of AC systems onHVDC is alsoof significance in terms of technical performance stability protection and power transfer security ingeneral Harmonic interaction will be studied in some depth

bull Power electronics Each HVDC link involves at least two ACDC converters whereas DC grids willhave many more including semiconductor DC CBs and DCDC converters These converters havefeatures that are similar to those of traditional low-power converters but many other unique require-ments exist to develop valves and converter assemblies capable of sustaining up to 800 kV andperhaps over 4500 A The protection of valves and converters is very important and is a definingpower electronics feature in HVDC

bull Control engineering Modelling and simulation of HVDC is essential for design and operation andseveral different modelling approaches exist depending on the model application In particularbecause of the high costs of HVDC testing and the consequences of any design issues model accur-acy and simulation speed play crucial role in the system design The control systems for HVDC haveevolved into very complex technologies which are always multivariable nonlinear and with multiplecontrol layers

The above three technical disciplines will be employed in this book in order to analyse all essentialtechnical aspects of HVDC and DC grids which is aimed to facilitate learning by researchers and engin-eers who are interested in this field

The material in this book includes contributions from many HVDC researchers and engineers andit is developed from research projects funded by several research councils and private firms Moreimportantly the studies are inspired by and build on previous work by numerous great HVDCengineers

The authors are particularly grateful to ALSTOM Grid UK for providing their comprehensivereport HVDC Connecting to the Future as well as to SIEMENS Germany and ABB Sweden fortheir HVDC photographs We are also indebted to the researchers at the University of Aberdeen PowerSystems Group and in particular to DrWeixing Lin Dr Ali Jamshidifar DrMasood Hajian Dr HuibinZhang and Dr Lu Zhang for their contributions

We would like to give our special thanks to SSE Scotland and in particular to Andrew Robertsonfor their support for the HVDC course at University of Aberdeen which provided important materialfor this book

xii Preface

The authors are also grateful to the following organizations which supported related research studiesat the University of Aberdeen

bull Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) UKbull European Research Council (ERC) FP 7 Ideas Programmebull Reacuteseau de Transport drsquoEacutelectriciteacute (RTE) France

Dragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmed

xiiiPreface

Part IHVDC with CurrentSource Converters

1Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

11 HVDC Applications

Thyristor-based high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission has been used in over 150point-to-point installations worldwide In each case it has proven to be technologically andor econom-ically superior to AC transmission Typical HVDC applications can be grouped as follows

bull Submarine power transmission The AC cables have large capacitance and for cables over 40ndash70 kmthe reactive power circulation is unacceptable This distance can be extended somewhat with reactivepower compensation For larger distances HVDC is more economical A good example is the580 km 700MW plusmn450 kV NorNed HVDC between Norway and the Netherlands

bull Long-distance overhead lines Long AC lines require variable reactive power compensation Typically600ndash800 km is the breakeven distance and for larger distances HVDC is more economical A goodexample is the 1360 km 31 GW plusmn500 kV Pacific DC intertie along the west coast of the United States

bull Interconnecting two AC networks of different frequencies A good example is the 500MW plusmn79 kVback-to-back Melo HVDC between Uruguay and Brazil The Uruguay system operates at 50 Hzwhereas Brazilrsquos national grid runs at 60 Hz

bull Interconnecting two unsynchronized AC grids If phase difference between two AC systems is largethey cannot be directly connected A typical example is the 150MW plusmn42 kV McNeill back-to-backHVDC link between Alberta and Saskatchewan interconnecting asynchronous eastern and westernAmerican systems

bull Controllable power exchange between two AC networks (for trading) The AC power flow is deter-mined by the line impedances and it cannot therefore be controlled directly in each line In complexAC networks it is common to observe loop power flow or even overloading or underutilization ofsome AC lines Many HVDC systems participate directly in trading power and one typical exampleis the 200MW plusmn57 kV Highgate HVDC between Quebec and Vermont

There are other less common applications of LCC (line-commutated converter) HVDC technologyincluding the 300MW Levis De-Icer HVDC project Here one standard HVDC converter station ndash a

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

converter from a Static Var Compensator (SVC) ndash is used to provide a very high DC current of up to7920A (feeding essentially a DC short circuit) to enable heating of remote Canadian overhead linesin order to prevent ice buildup

An important argument for selecting HVDC instead of an AC for a new transmission line is thecontribution to the short-circuit level High-voltage direct current is able to limit the fault currentand therefore it will not require the upgrading of substation equipment

Figure 11 shows a comparison of costs for DC and AC transmission lines In the case of HVDC theinitial capital investment is much higher because of the converter costs As the transmission distanceincreases the benefits of DC offset the capital investment and at certain distance the total cost of anHVDC system is same as an AC line The breakeven distance is in the range of 40ndash70 km for submarinecables and in the range of 600ndash800 km for overhead lines Figure 12 shows an aerial view of the

HVDC station costs

Line length

Breakeven distanceFor cables 40ndash70 km

For overhead lines 600ndash800 kmHVAC station costs

HVAC

HVDC

Cost

Figure 11 HVDC and HVAC transmission cost comparison

Figure 12 Terminal station of Moyle HVDC interconnector (Bipole 2 times 250MW plusmn250 kV with light triggeredthyristors commissioned in 2001) Reproduced with permission of Siemens

4 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

terminal station of the 500 MW Moyle HVDC link This HVDC enables a controllable bidirectionalpower exchange between Scotland and Northern Ireland

12 Line-Commutated HVDC Components

Figure 13 shows a typical LCC HVDC schematic interconnecting AC systems 1 and 2 It consistsof two terminals and a DC line between them Each terminal (converter station) includes converterstransformers filters reactive power equipment control station and a range of other components Thereare two DC lines in this figure while one line is at ground potential

As shown in Figure 13 the major components of an HVDC system include

bull Converters They typically include one or more six-pulse thyristor (Graetz) bridges Each bridgeconsists of six thyristor valves which in turn contain hundreds of individual thyristors With largesystems bridges are connected in series in 12-pulse or 24-pulse configuration The 12-pulse converterscan be connected into poles or bipoles

bull Converter transformers These are a special converter transformer type which is somewhat moreexpensive than typical AC transformers of the same rating The converter transformers are designedto operate with high harmonic currents and they are designed to withstand AC and DC voltage stressIn most cases converter transformers will have tap changers which enable optimization of HVDCoperation

bull Smoothing reactors on DC side Typical inductance for large HVDC systems is 01ndash05 H which isdetermined considering DC fault responses commutation failure and dynamic stability The reactorsare of air-core natural air-cooling type and costs are modest

bull Reactive power compensation The converters typically require reactive power of around 60 ofthe converter power rating A large portion of this reactive power is supplied with filter banksand the remaining part with capacitor banks Reactive power demand varies with DC power levelso the capacitors are arranged in switchable banks

bull Filters A typical 12-pulse thyristor terminal will require 11th 13th 23rd and 25th filters on the ACside A high-pass filter is frequently included In some cases third harmonic filters are required SomeHVDC systems with overhead lines also employ DC-side filters

Reactive power

compensationReactive powercompensation

FiltersFilters

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Terminal 1 Terminal 2Smoothing

reactorSmoothing

reactor

Thyristorbridge

α1 α2

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Electrodes

Station 1

control

Station 2

controlCommunication

system

DC line

DC lineI1dc I2dc

V1dcpV2dcp

CB

CB

CB

CB

V1g V2g

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

AC system 23 phase V2g f2

Y ΔYΔ

YYY Y

Figure 13 Typical HVDC schematic (12-pulse monopole with metallic return)

5Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

bull Electrodes Some old HVDC systems normally operate with seaground return but most grid oper-ators no longer allow permanent ground currents for environmental reasons Electrodes demandongoing maintenance costs Many new bipolar systems are allowed to operate with ground returnat half power for a short time (10ndash20 minutes) in case of loss of an HVDC pole This implies thatelectrodes are designed for full current but carry no current in normal operation

bull Control and communication system Each terminal will have a control system consisting of severalhierarchical layers A dedicated communication link between terminals is needed but speed is notcritical An HVDC link can operate in the event of a loss of a communication link

13 DC Cables and Overhead Lines

131 Introduction

Line-commutated converter HVDC has been implemented using overhead lines and undergroundsubsea DC cables Overhead lines are vulnerable to lightning strikes which are essentially DC faultsNevertheless DC faults only cause transient disturbances and they are readily managed by LCCHVDCOn the other hand with voltage source converter (VSC) HVDC as will be discussed later DC faultscause much more serious disturbances

The most common cable technologies that have been developed so far include

bull mass-impregnated (MI) cablesbull low-pressure oil-filled (LPOF) cablesbull extruded cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables

The above cable types have same conductors and their construction is similar but the insulationmaterial is substantially different The cable voltage rating depends on the capability of the insulation(dielectric) material and there are two main types of dielectrics namely lapped and extruded

132 Mass-impregnated (MI) Cables

Since 1895 MI cables have been used in power transmission In MI cables the dielectric is lappedpaper insulation which is impregnated with high-viscosity fluid For bulk power transmission massimpregnated cables still prove to be the most suitable solution because of their capacity to work upto 500 kV DC These cables also tolerate fast DC voltage polarity reversal making them suitablefor LCC HVDC The MI cables have a long record of field operation at voltages of 500 kV and trans-mission capacity of over 800 MW (16 kA) for monopole HVDC but 600 kV and 1000 MW ratingshave been announced An HVDCwith a bipolar connection is therefore able to transmit up to 2000MWwith MI cables These cables can be installed at depths to 1000 m under the sea level and with nearlyunlimited transmission length The capacity of this system is limited by the conductor temperaturewhich can reduce overload capabilities The 580 km-long 700MW 450 kV cable link between Norwayand the Netherlands represents the greatest power and length for this cable type At present over 90 ofsubmarine cables are of the MI type

133 Low-pressure Oil-filled Cables

Low-pressure oil-filled cables are similar in construction to MI cables but the cables are insulated withpaper impregnated with low viscosity oil under an overpressure of a few bars The technology availabletoday ensures voltages up to 500 kV and powers up to 2800MW for underground installation It can beused for bothACandDC transmission applicationsAs oil flow is required along the cable cable length islimited to around 80 km The risk of oil leakage must be taken into account for environmental reasons

6 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

134 Extruded Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE) Cables

Extruded cross-linked polyethylene cables cannot withstand fast polarity reversal and they are not nor-mally used with LCC HVDC (unless it is a unidirectional system) They will be discussed further withVSC HVDC

The above three types of cables are used for both underground and submarine cables and their basicproperties are shown in Table 11 The difference between the underground and submarine cables is inthe conductor material and the armour layer Armour strengthening is used in submarine cables to with-stand the axial mechanical tension during laying and operation

Cables with copper conductors are used for submarine applications whereas aluminium conductorsare generally preferred for underground Copper has high electrical conductivity and mechanical prop-erties It is also simpler to implement strong joints using copper However it is heavy and more expen-sive and for these reasons it is used when the mechanical properties are mandatory as in submarinecables Aluminium has low conductivity and low mechanical properties Splicing is more difficultIt is lighter and less expensive than copper

14 LCC HVDC Topologies

High-voltage direct-current systems are divided into transmission systems and back-to-back HVDCHigh-voltage direct-current transmission can be bipolar or monopolar

Monopolar HVDC is typically used for smaller systems and the topology is shown in Figure 14Typically positive DC voltage is adopted because of less corona issues The return current can runthrough ground or a dedicated cable can be employed If a return cable is used (metallic return) it will

Table 11 DC cables types for underground and submarine application

Type Mass impregnated Oil filled XLPE

Conductor CuAl CuAl CuAlInsulation Paper and mass Paper and fluid Cross-linked PEVoltage (kV) 600 500 320 (525 kV is available)Capacity per cable (MW) 1000 2800 1000Converter type LCC or VSC LCC or VSC VSC or unidirectional LCCDistance Unlimited Limited because of oil Unlimited

Y Y

Y ΔYΔ

YY

V1gV2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

V1dcp V2dcp

DC cable (p)I1dc I2dc

α1α2

Figure 14 Twelve-pulse monopolar HVDC with ground return

7Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

be at ground potential with low insulation level (typically around 10 kV) and costs are therefore lowerthan positive-pole DC cable A 12-pulse topology is shown with two six-pulse converters in series

Figure 15 shows a bipolar HVDC Bipolar HVDC has two independent poles and it can operate athalf power if one DC cable or pole is out of service Normally the poles are balanced and there is noground current but ground return would be used if one pole is out of service In modern grid codesground current would not be allowed because of environmental concerns In some national standardsground currents are allowed only for short periods of time in emergency situations (eg secondaryreserve startup for 10ndash20 minutes) Instead of ground return a third cable or DC cable from the faultedpole can sometimes be used

Figure 16 shows a back-to-back HVDC which is frequently monopolar In this topology bothconverter terminals are located in a single station and DC cables are very short The main purposeof back-to-back HVDC is to provide controllable power transfer between two asynchronous AC

α1

α1

α2

α2

Y Δ Δ

Y Y

Y Δ

Y Y

Y

Y

Δ Y

Y

Y

Y

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

Negative

pole

Negative

pole

Positive

polePositive

pole

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

Terminal 1

Bridge

Bridge

Bridge Bridge

Bridge

Bridge

Electrodes Electrodes

Bridge

Bridge

Terminal 2

DC cable (p)

DC cable (n)

V1dcp

V1dcn

V2dcp

V2dcn

I1dc I2dc

V1g V2g

Figure 15 Bipolar HVDC (12-pulse) with ground return

Y ΔΔ

Y Y

Y

YY

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2

V1gV2g

α1α2

V1dcp

I1dc

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

Figure 16 Back-to-back HVDC topology

8 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

systems or AC systems with different frequency As DC cables are very short and therefore transmis-sion losses are low back-to-back HVDC are designed at low voltage (as high current as possible) inorder to reduce costs (costs are proportional to insulation level) The smoothing reactors are very smallor not required because there is a low probability of DC line faults Back-to-back HVDC allows foroperation with variable DC voltage and this facilitates some limited reactive power control capability

15 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems

The losses in HVDC systems will include converter station losses and DC cable losses Figure 17shows the main components of typical HVDC station losses The total LCC HVDC station losses willdepend on the size of HVDC station the voltage level configuration and typically may amount to05ndash1 of the power transfer

At partial loading the percentage losses will generally increase Figure 18 shows the load depen-dence of major loss components As an example magnetizing current in converter transformers willbe constant irrespective of loading and at 10 loading the transformer losses are 20

3

25

8

2

5

1

56

Auxiliaries

Converter valves

AC harmonic filters

Valve cooling plant

DC smoothing reactors

HF filter

Converter transformer

Figure 17 Breakdown of typical LCC HVDC station losses at 1 pu power

100

Loss c

om

ponent (

)

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Converted valves

Converted transformer

AC harmonic filters

DC smoothing reactor

DC power ()

Figure 18 Variation of HVDC station losses with the DC power shown relative to 1 pu losses

9Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

16 Conversion of AC Lines to DC

There have been many studies worldwide on converting existing AC lines into DC This mainly resultsfrom the desire to increase AC line capacity or to remove stability constraints These issues usuallyrequire costly line upgradesreconductoring series compensation or installing a device from the flexibleAC transmission systems (FACTS) family In such cases conversion to HVDC can usually offer thehighest capacity increase and a range of other benefits Typically towers and conductors will not bechanged but insulators may need to be upgraded to operate with DC lines

The main advantages of converting existing AC line to HVDC are

bull an increase in capacitybull fewer corona issues and a generally higher operating voltagebull better control of active and reactive power and other system-level benefitsbull better stability limits and active stabilization of the gridbull lower transmission losses

Some of the disadvantages of conversion to HVDC include

bull more pollution is attracted to insulators energized with DC ndash insulator upgrade is recommendedbull converter station costs

Figure 19 shows some common options for converting a single-circuit three-phase AC transmissioninto DC which include

bull The first option employs all three conductors for a single DC pole while the ground is used for returnThis method will significantly increase current carrying capacity but ground return will not beallowed in many modern systems

bull The second option adopts DC bipole with metallic return The neutral conductor can be used formonopolar operation

bull The third option is based on the tripole HVDC concept This method uses the third conductor alter-natively as a positive or negative pole which exploits the long thermal constants of conductors Thecapacity increase of around 37 is achieved (over bipole configuration) using lines and the RMSvalues of current in the conductors (over 10 minutes) are equal to the conductor rating An additionalbidirectional converter is required

17 Ultra-High Voltage HVDC

The standard DC voltage for HVDC is 500 kV and the Itaipu 3150MW plusmn600 kV HVDC has used thehighest DC voltage for a long period However the emerging requirements for bulk power transmission

R S

+

0

+

ndash

+

+

+ndash ndash+

TAC

DC monopole with ground return

DC bipole with metalic return

DC tripole with metalic return

Figure 19 Options for conversion of three-phase AC lines into DC

10 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

over long distances of 5ndash10 GW in Asia Africa and South America in late 1990s have resulted in theprogressive development of UHVDC (ultra-high voltage direct current)

XiangjiabandashShanghai 6400MW plusmn800 kV UHVDC implemented in 2010 was the first commercialUHVDC and four other plusmn800 kV systems have been implemented in 2011ndash2013 while studies areunderway for 1100 kV DC voltages The progress towards UHVDC has demanded a lot of researchand development effort and the main challenges are summarized below

bull improving insulation in particular in polluted areasbull transformer development including bushingsbull developing ultra-high voltage (UHV) test centres

It is important to appreciate that all the equipment including auxiliaries that connect to DC linesmust be changed to UHV In practice this translates to longer units ndash bushings arresters VT (voltagetransducers) CT (current transducers) and so forth ndash with more series-connected basic elementsFrequently the main challenge is the need for mechanical strength in the face of increased forces fromseismic requirements wind and other factors

The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes a standard method of increasinginsulation levels although developing UHV insulators and bushings remains challenging

The UHV valve design is not considered to be a significant obstacle

11Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

155 Selective Harmonic Elimination Modulation (SHE) 172156 Converter Losses for Two-Level SPWM VSC 173157 Harmonics with Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) 175158 Comparison of PWM Modulation Techniques 178

16 Multilevel VSC Converters 179161 Introduction 179162 Modulation Techniques for Multilevel Converters 181163 Neutral Point Clamped Multilevel Converter 182164 Flying Capacitor Multilevel Converter 184165 H-Bridge Cascaded Converter 185166 Half Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC) 186167 MMC Based on Full Bridge Topology 199168 Comparison of Multilevel Topologies 208

17 Two-Level PWM VSC HVDC Modelling Control and Dynamics 209171 PWM Two-Level Converter Average Model 209172 Two-Level PWM Converter Model in DQ Frame 210173 VSC Converter Transformer Model 212174 Two-Level VSC Converter and AC Grid Model in ABC Frame 213175 Two-Level VSC Converter and AC Grid Model in DQ Rotating

Coordinate Frame 213176 VSC Converter Control Principles 214177 The Inner Current Controller Design 215178 Outer Controller Design 218179 Complete VSC Converter Controller 2211710 Small-Signal Linearized VSC HVDC Model 2241711 Small-Signal Dynamic Studies 224

18 Two-Level VSC HVDC Phasor-Domain Interaction with AC Systems andPQ Operating Diagrams 226181 Power Exchange between Two AC Voltage Sources 226182 Converter Phasor Model and Power Exchange with an AC System 230183 Phasor Study of VSC Converter Interaction with AC System 232184 Operating Limits 234185 Design Point Selection 235186 Influence of AC System Strength 236187 Influence of Transformer Reactance 236188 Operation with Very Weak AC Systems 239

19 Half Bridge MMC Converter Modelling Control and Operating PQ Diagrams 246191 Half Bridge MMC Converter Average Model in ABC Frame 246192 Half-Bridge MMC Converter-Static DQ Frame and Phasor Model 249193 Differential Current at Second Harmonic 254194 Complete MMC Converter DQ Model in Matrix Form 255195 Second Harmonic Circulating Current Suppression Controller 256196 DQ Frame Model of MMC with Circulating Current Controller 259197 Phasor Model of MMC with Circulating Current Suppression Controller 261198 Dynamic MMC Model Using Equivalent Series Capacitor CMMC 262199 Full Dynamic Analytical MMC Model 2651910 MMC Converter Controller 267

viii Contents

1911 MMC Total Series Reactance in the Phasor Model 2671912 MMC VSC Interaction with AC System

and PQ Operating Diagrams 269

20 VSC HVDC under AC and DC Fault Conditions 271201 Introduction 271202 Faults on the AC System 271203 DC Faults with Two-Level VSC 272204 Influence of DC Capacitors 276205 VSC Converter Modelling under DC Faults and VSC Diode Bridge 277206 Converter-Mode Transitions as DC Voltage Reduces 284207 DC Faults with Half-Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter 286208 DC Faults with Full-Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter 287

21 VSC HVDC Application for AC Grid Support and Operation withPassive AC Systems 291211 VSC HVDC High-Level Controls and AC Grid Support 291212 HVDC Embedded inside an AC Grid 292213 HVDC Connecting Two Separate AC Grids 293214 HVDC in Parallel with AC 293215 Operation with a Passive AC System and Black Start Capability 294216 VSC HVDC Operation with Offshore Wind Farms 294217 VSC HVDC Supplying Power Offshore and Driving a MW-Size

Variable-Speed Motor 296

Bibliography Part II Voltage Source Converter HVDC 298

Part III DC Transmission Grids 301

22 Introduction to DC Grids 303221 DC versus AC Transmission 303222 Terminology 304223 DC Grid Planning Topology and Power-Transfer Security 304224 Technical Challenges 305225 DC Grid Building by Multiple Manufacturers 306226 Economic Aspects 306

23 DC Grids with Line-Commutated Converters 307231 Multiterminal HVDC 307232 ItalyndashCorsicandashSardinia Multiterminal HVDC Link 308233 Connecting LCC Converter to a DC Grid 309234 Control of LCC Converters in DC Grids 311235 Control of LCC DC Grids through DC Voltage Droop Feedback 311236 Managing LCC DC Grid Faults 313237 Reactive Power Issues 315238 Large LCC Rectifier Stations in DC Grids 315

24 DC Grids with Voltage Source Converters and Power-Flow Model 316241 Connecting a VSC Converter to a DC Grid 316242 DC Grid Power Flow Model 317243 DC Grid Power Flow under DC Faults 321

ixContents

25 DC Grid Control 324251 Introduction 324252 Fast Local VSC Converter Control in DC Grids 324253 DC Grid Dispatcher with Remote Communication 326254 Primary Secondary and Tertiary DC Grid Control 327255 DC Voltage Droop Control for VSC Converters in DC Grids 328256 Three-Level Control for VSC Converters with Dispatcher Droop 329257 Power Flow Algorithm When DC Powers are Regulated 330258 Power Flow and Control Study of CIGRE DC Grid-Test System 334

26 DC Grid Fault Management and DC Circuit Breakers 339261 Introduction 339262 Fault Current Components in DC Grids 340263 DC System Protection Coordination with AC System Protection 342264 Mechanical DC Circuit Breaker 342265 Semiconductor Based DC Circuit Breaker 345266 Hybrid DC Circuit Breaker 349267 DC Grid-Protection System Development 351268 DC Grid Selective Protection System Based on Current Derivative or

Travelling Wave Identification 352269 Differential DC Grid Protection Strategy 3532610 DC Grid Selective Protection System Based on Local Signals 3542611 DC Grids with DC Fault-Tolerant VSC Converters 355

27 High Power DCDC Converters and DC Power-Flow Controlling Devices 362271 Introduction 362272 Power Flow Control Using Series Resistors 363273 Low Stepping-Ratio DCDC Converters 366274 DCDC Converters with DC Polarity Reversal 371275 High Stepping Ratio Isolated DCDC Converter 373276 High Stepping Ratio LCL DCDC Converter 373277 Building DC Grids with DCDC Converters 375278 DC Hubs 377279 Developing DC Grids Using DC Hubs 3802710 North Sea DC Grid Topologies 380

Bibliography Part III DC Transmission Grids 384

Appendix A Variable Notations 386

Appendix B Analytical Background for Rotating DQ Frame 388

Appendix C System Modelling Using Complex Numbers and Phasors 399

Appendix D Simulink Examples 401

Index 419

x Contents

Preface

At the time of writing there are over 170 high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) links installedworldwide The largest installations operate at plusmn800 kV DC voltage and the highest DC current ratingsare over 4500 A Although alternating current was the predominant method for transmitting electricalenergy in the twentieth century HVDC was demonstrated to be the best solution for many specificapplication areas and the number of installations per year has been constantly increasing at thebeginning of twenty-first century Despite significant converter-station costs HVDC is techno-economically preferred in general applications for

bull long-distance large-scale power transferbull subsea and long-distance cable-power transmissionbull interconnecting asynchronous AC systems or systems with different frequenciesbull controllable power transfer between different nodes in an electricity market or marketsbull AC grid-stability support ancillary service provision and resilience to blackoutsbull connecting isolated systems like offshore wind farms or oil platforms

DC transmission technology was used in many instances in very early power systems but modernHVDC transmission begins with the 1954 SwedenndashGotland installation This system and all the otherHVDCs commissioned until the mid-1970s were based on mercury arc valves A significant technicaladvance came with the introduction of solid-state valves (thyristors) although they only support theline-commutated converter (LCC) concept In the first decade of the twenty-first century there hasbeen very rapid development of fundamentally new technologies and an increasing demand forHVDC technology The introduction of voltage-source converters (VSCs) requires new valves whichuse insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and also new protection and control approaches Themodular multilevel converters have eventually emerged as the most cost effective VSC converterconcept which practically eliminates filtering needs with HVDC and removes voltage limits withVSC valves

In the second decade of the twenty-first century it has become apparent that DC transmission gridsare a technically feasible and viable solution to large-scale energy challenges The primary applicationdrivers come from initiatives like the North Sea DC grid Medtech Desertec the European overlaysuper grid and Atlantic Wind It is accepted that the DC transmission grids must have levels of reliabil-ity and technical performance that are similar to or better than an AC transmission system This level ofperformance security and reliability is technically feasible although in many aspects DC grids will be

substantially different from traditional AC systems The development of DC grids brings significanttechnical advances in HVDC technologies in particular related to DC circuit breakers (CBs) DCDC converters and DC protection systems and substantial further research and development areanticipated

Nowadays HVDC and DC grids are associated with green energy as facilitators of large-scalerenewable energy plants This helps with public acceptance and image and facilitates furtherinvestments in large public projects HVDC is perceived as the technology that avoids pylons by usinglong underground cables further strengthening arguments for future funding decisions

The timing of this book is therefore in step with an increased interest in HVDC and a projectedsignificant increase in its use

The book is organized in three parts in order to study all three major HVDC concepts ndash linecommutated HVDC VSC HVDC and DC grids current research developments Each part will reviewtheoretical concepts and analyse aspects of technology interaction with AC grids modelling controlfaults and protection with particular emphasis on practical implementation aspects and on reportedoperational issues

The technical field of HVDC transmission and DC grids straddles three major traditional electricalengineering disciplines

bull Power transmission engineering The impact of HVDC systems on the connecting AC transmissionsystems and the national grid is of primary importance The influence of AC systems onHVDC is alsoof significance in terms of technical performance stability protection and power transfer security ingeneral Harmonic interaction will be studied in some depth

bull Power electronics Each HVDC link involves at least two ACDC converters whereas DC grids willhave many more including semiconductor DC CBs and DCDC converters These converters havefeatures that are similar to those of traditional low-power converters but many other unique require-ments exist to develop valves and converter assemblies capable of sustaining up to 800 kV andperhaps over 4500 A The protection of valves and converters is very important and is a definingpower electronics feature in HVDC

bull Control engineering Modelling and simulation of HVDC is essential for design and operation andseveral different modelling approaches exist depending on the model application In particularbecause of the high costs of HVDC testing and the consequences of any design issues model accur-acy and simulation speed play crucial role in the system design The control systems for HVDC haveevolved into very complex technologies which are always multivariable nonlinear and with multiplecontrol layers

The above three technical disciplines will be employed in this book in order to analyse all essentialtechnical aspects of HVDC and DC grids which is aimed to facilitate learning by researchers and engin-eers who are interested in this field

The material in this book includes contributions from many HVDC researchers and engineers andit is developed from research projects funded by several research councils and private firms Moreimportantly the studies are inspired by and build on previous work by numerous great HVDCengineers

The authors are particularly grateful to ALSTOM Grid UK for providing their comprehensivereport HVDC Connecting to the Future as well as to SIEMENS Germany and ABB Sweden fortheir HVDC photographs We are also indebted to the researchers at the University of Aberdeen PowerSystems Group and in particular to DrWeixing Lin Dr Ali Jamshidifar DrMasood Hajian Dr HuibinZhang and Dr Lu Zhang for their contributions

We would like to give our special thanks to SSE Scotland and in particular to Andrew Robertsonfor their support for the HVDC course at University of Aberdeen which provided important materialfor this book

xii Preface

The authors are also grateful to the following organizations which supported related research studiesat the University of Aberdeen

bull Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) UKbull European Research Council (ERC) FP 7 Ideas Programmebull Reacuteseau de Transport drsquoEacutelectriciteacute (RTE) France

Dragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmed

xiiiPreface

Part IHVDC with CurrentSource Converters

1Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

11 HVDC Applications

Thyristor-based high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission has been used in over 150point-to-point installations worldwide In each case it has proven to be technologically andor econom-ically superior to AC transmission Typical HVDC applications can be grouped as follows

bull Submarine power transmission The AC cables have large capacitance and for cables over 40ndash70 kmthe reactive power circulation is unacceptable This distance can be extended somewhat with reactivepower compensation For larger distances HVDC is more economical A good example is the580 km 700MW plusmn450 kV NorNed HVDC between Norway and the Netherlands

bull Long-distance overhead lines Long AC lines require variable reactive power compensation Typically600ndash800 km is the breakeven distance and for larger distances HVDC is more economical A goodexample is the 1360 km 31 GW plusmn500 kV Pacific DC intertie along the west coast of the United States

bull Interconnecting two AC networks of different frequencies A good example is the 500MW plusmn79 kVback-to-back Melo HVDC between Uruguay and Brazil The Uruguay system operates at 50 Hzwhereas Brazilrsquos national grid runs at 60 Hz

bull Interconnecting two unsynchronized AC grids If phase difference between two AC systems is largethey cannot be directly connected A typical example is the 150MW plusmn42 kV McNeill back-to-backHVDC link between Alberta and Saskatchewan interconnecting asynchronous eastern and westernAmerican systems

bull Controllable power exchange between two AC networks (for trading) The AC power flow is deter-mined by the line impedances and it cannot therefore be controlled directly in each line In complexAC networks it is common to observe loop power flow or even overloading or underutilization ofsome AC lines Many HVDC systems participate directly in trading power and one typical exampleis the 200MW plusmn57 kV Highgate HVDC between Quebec and Vermont

There are other less common applications of LCC (line-commutated converter) HVDC technologyincluding the 300MW Levis De-Icer HVDC project Here one standard HVDC converter station ndash a

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

converter from a Static Var Compensator (SVC) ndash is used to provide a very high DC current of up to7920A (feeding essentially a DC short circuit) to enable heating of remote Canadian overhead linesin order to prevent ice buildup

An important argument for selecting HVDC instead of an AC for a new transmission line is thecontribution to the short-circuit level High-voltage direct current is able to limit the fault currentand therefore it will not require the upgrading of substation equipment

Figure 11 shows a comparison of costs for DC and AC transmission lines In the case of HVDC theinitial capital investment is much higher because of the converter costs As the transmission distanceincreases the benefits of DC offset the capital investment and at certain distance the total cost of anHVDC system is same as an AC line The breakeven distance is in the range of 40ndash70 km for submarinecables and in the range of 600ndash800 km for overhead lines Figure 12 shows an aerial view of the

HVDC station costs

Line length

Breakeven distanceFor cables 40ndash70 km

For overhead lines 600ndash800 kmHVAC station costs

HVAC

HVDC

Cost

Figure 11 HVDC and HVAC transmission cost comparison

Figure 12 Terminal station of Moyle HVDC interconnector (Bipole 2 times 250MW plusmn250 kV with light triggeredthyristors commissioned in 2001) Reproduced with permission of Siemens

4 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

terminal station of the 500 MW Moyle HVDC link This HVDC enables a controllable bidirectionalpower exchange between Scotland and Northern Ireland

12 Line-Commutated HVDC Components

Figure 13 shows a typical LCC HVDC schematic interconnecting AC systems 1 and 2 It consistsof two terminals and a DC line between them Each terminal (converter station) includes converterstransformers filters reactive power equipment control station and a range of other components Thereare two DC lines in this figure while one line is at ground potential

As shown in Figure 13 the major components of an HVDC system include

bull Converters They typically include one or more six-pulse thyristor (Graetz) bridges Each bridgeconsists of six thyristor valves which in turn contain hundreds of individual thyristors With largesystems bridges are connected in series in 12-pulse or 24-pulse configuration The 12-pulse converterscan be connected into poles or bipoles

bull Converter transformers These are a special converter transformer type which is somewhat moreexpensive than typical AC transformers of the same rating The converter transformers are designedto operate with high harmonic currents and they are designed to withstand AC and DC voltage stressIn most cases converter transformers will have tap changers which enable optimization of HVDCoperation

bull Smoothing reactors on DC side Typical inductance for large HVDC systems is 01ndash05 H which isdetermined considering DC fault responses commutation failure and dynamic stability The reactorsare of air-core natural air-cooling type and costs are modest

bull Reactive power compensation The converters typically require reactive power of around 60 ofthe converter power rating A large portion of this reactive power is supplied with filter banksand the remaining part with capacitor banks Reactive power demand varies with DC power levelso the capacitors are arranged in switchable banks

bull Filters A typical 12-pulse thyristor terminal will require 11th 13th 23rd and 25th filters on the ACside A high-pass filter is frequently included In some cases third harmonic filters are required SomeHVDC systems with overhead lines also employ DC-side filters

Reactive power

compensationReactive powercompensation

FiltersFilters

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Terminal 1 Terminal 2Smoothing

reactorSmoothing

reactor

Thyristorbridge

α1 α2

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Electrodes

Station 1

control

Station 2

controlCommunication

system

DC line

DC lineI1dc I2dc

V1dcpV2dcp

CB

CB

CB

CB

V1g V2g

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

AC system 23 phase V2g f2

Y ΔYΔ

YYY Y

Figure 13 Typical HVDC schematic (12-pulse monopole with metallic return)

5Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

bull Electrodes Some old HVDC systems normally operate with seaground return but most grid oper-ators no longer allow permanent ground currents for environmental reasons Electrodes demandongoing maintenance costs Many new bipolar systems are allowed to operate with ground returnat half power for a short time (10ndash20 minutes) in case of loss of an HVDC pole This implies thatelectrodes are designed for full current but carry no current in normal operation

bull Control and communication system Each terminal will have a control system consisting of severalhierarchical layers A dedicated communication link between terminals is needed but speed is notcritical An HVDC link can operate in the event of a loss of a communication link

13 DC Cables and Overhead Lines

131 Introduction

Line-commutated converter HVDC has been implemented using overhead lines and undergroundsubsea DC cables Overhead lines are vulnerable to lightning strikes which are essentially DC faultsNevertheless DC faults only cause transient disturbances and they are readily managed by LCCHVDCOn the other hand with voltage source converter (VSC) HVDC as will be discussed later DC faultscause much more serious disturbances

The most common cable technologies that have been developed so far include

bull mass-impregnated (MI) cablesbull low-pressure oil-filled (LPOF) cablesbull extruded cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables

The above cable types have same conductors and their construction is similar but the insulationmaterial is substantially different The cable voltage rating depends on the capability of the insulation(dielectric) material and there are two main types of dielectrics namely lapped and extruded

132 Mass-impregnated (MI) Cables

Since 1895 MI cables have been used in power transmission In MI cables the dielectric is lappedpaper insulation which is impregnated with high-viscosity fluid For bulk power transmission massimpregnated cables still prove to be the most suitable solution because of their capacity to work upto 500 kV DC These cables also tolerate fast DC voltage polarity reversal making them suitablefor LCC HVDC The MI cables have a long record of field operation at voltages of 500 kV and trans-mission capacity of over 800 MW (16 kA) for monopole HVDC but 600 kV and 1000 MW ratingshave been announced An HVDCwith a bipolar connection is therefore able to transmit up to 2000MWwith MI cables These cables can be installed at depths to 1000 m under the sea level and with nearlyunlimited transmission length The capacity of this system is limited by the conductor temperaturewhich can reduce overload capabilities The 580 km-long 700MW 450 kV cable link between Norwayand the Netherlands represents the greatest power and length for this cable type At present over 90 ofsubmarine cables are of the MI type

133 Low-pressure Oil-filled Cables

Low-pressure oil-filled cables are similar in construction to MI cables but the cables are insulated withpaper impregnated with low viscosity oil under an overpressure of a few bars The technology availabletoday ensures voltages up to 500 kV and powers up to 2800MW for underground installation It can beused for bothACandDC transmission applicationsAs oil flow is required along the cable cable length islimited to around 80 km The risk of oil leakage must be taken into account for environmental reasons

6 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

134 Extruded Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE) Cables

Extruded cross-linked polyethylene cables cannot withstand fast polarity reversal and they are not nor-mally used with LCC HVDC (unless it is a unidirectional system) They will be discussed further withVSC HVDC

The above three types of cables are used for both underground and submarine cables and their basicproperties are shown in Table 11 The difference between the underground and submarine cables is inthe conductor material and the armour layer Armour strengthening is used in submarine cables to with-stand the axial mechanical tension during laying and operation

Cables with copper conductors are used for submarine applications whereas aluminium conductorsare generally preferred for underground Copper has high electrical conductivity and mechanical prop-erties It is also simpler to implement strong joints using copper However it is heavy and more expen-sive and for these reasons it is used when the mechanical properties are mandatory as in submarinecables Aluminium has low conductivity and low mechanical properties Splicing is more difficultIt is lighter and less expensive than copper

14 LCC HVDC Topologies

High-voltage direct-current systems are divided into transmission systems and back-to-back HVDCHigh-voltage direct-current transmission can be bipolar or monopolar

Monopolar HVDC is typically used for smaller systems and the topology is shown in Figure 14Typically positive DC voltage is adopted because of less corona issues The return current can runthrough ground or a dedicated cable can be employed If a return cable is used (metallic return) it will

Table 11 DC cables types for underground and submarine application

Type Mass impregnated Oil filled XLPE

Conductor CuAl CuAl CuAlInsulation Paper and mass Paper and fluid Cross-linked PEVoltage (kV) 600 500 320 (525 kV is available)Capacity per cable (MW) 1000 2800 1000Converter type LCC or VSC LCC or VSC VSC or unidirectional LCCDistance Unlimited Limited because of oil Unlimited

Y Y

Y ΔYΔ

YY

V1gV2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

V1dcp V2dcp

DC cable (p)I1dc I2dc

α1α2

Figure 14 Twelve-pulse monopolar HVDC with ground return

7Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

be at ground potential with low insulation level (typically around 10 kV) and costs are therefore lowerthan positive-pole DC cable A 12-pulse topology is shown with two six-pulse converters in series

Figure 15 shows a bipolar HVDC Bipolar HVDC has two independent poles and it can operate athalf power if one DC cable or pole is out of service Normally the poles are balanced and there is noground current but ground return would be used if one pole is out of service In modern grid codesground current would not be allowed because of environmental concerns In some national standardsground currents are allowed only for short periods of time in emergency situations (eg secondaryreserve startup for 10ndash20 minutes) Instead of ground return a third cable or DC cable from the faultedpole can sometimes be used

Figure 16 shows a back-to-back HVDC which is frequently monopolar In this topology bothconverter terminals are located in a single station and DC cables are very short The main purposeof back-to-back HVDC is to provide controllable power transfer between two asynchronous AC

α1

α1

α2

α2

Y Δ Δ

Y Y

Y Δ

Y Y

Y

Y

Δ Y

Y

Y

Y

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

Negative

pole

Negative

pole

Positive

polePositive

pole

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

Terminal 1

Bridge

Bridge

Bridge Bridge

Bridge

Bridge

Electrodes Electrodes

Bridge

Bridge

Terminal 2

DC cable (p)

DC cable (n)

V1dcp

V1dcn

V2dcp

V2dcn

I1dc I2dc

V1g V2g

Figure 15 Bipolar HVDC (12-pulse) with ground return

Y ΔΔ

Y Y

Y

YY

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2

V1gV2g

α1α2

V1dcp

I1dc

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

Figure 16 Back-to-back HVDC topology

8 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

systems or AC systems with different frequency As DC cables are very short and therefore transmis-sion losses are low back-to-back HVDC are designed at low voltage (as high current as possible) inorder to reduce costs (costs are proportional to insulation level) The smoothing reactors are very smallor not required because there is a low probability of DC line faults Back-to-back HVDC allows foroperation with variable DC voltage and this facilitates some limited reactive power control capability

15 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems

The losses in HVDC systems will include converter station losses and DC cable losses Figure 17shows the main components of typical HVDC station losses The total LCC HVDC station losses willdepend on the size of HVDC station the voltage level configuration and typically may amount to05ndash1 of the power transfer

At partial loading the percentage losses will generally increase Figure 18 shows the load depen-dence of major loss components As an example magnetizing current in converter transformers willbe constant irrespective of loading and at 10 loading the transformer losses are 20

3

25

8

2

5

1

56

Auxiliaries

Converter valves

AC harmonic filters

Valve cooling plant

DC smoothing reactors

HF filter

Converter transformer

Figure 17 Breakdown of typical LCC HVDC station losses at 1 pu power

100

Loss c

om

ponent (

)

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Converted valves

Converted transformer

AC harmonic filters

DC smoothing reactor

DC power ()

Figure 18 Variation of HVDC station losses with the DC power shown relative to 1 pu losses

9Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

16 Conversion of AC Lines to DC

There have been many studies worldwide on converting existing AC lines into DC This mainly resultsfrom the desire to increase AC line capacity or to remove stability constraints These issues usuallyrequire costly line upgradesreconductoring series compensation or installing a device from the flexibleAC transmission systems (FACTS) family In such cases conversion to HVDC can usually offer thehighest capacity increase and a range of other benefits Typically towers and conductors will not bechanged but insulators may need to be upgraded to operate with DC lines

The main advantages of converting existing AC line to HVDC are

bull an increase in capacitybull fewer corona issues and a generally higher operating voltagebull better control of active and reactive power and other system-level benefitsbull better stability limits and active stabilization of the gridbull lower transmission losses

Some of the disadvantages of conversion to HVDC include

bull more pollution is attracted to insulators energized with DC ndash insulator upgrade is recommendedbull converter station costs

Figure 19 shows some common options for converting a single-circuit three-phase AC transmissioninto DC which include

bull The first option employs all three conductors for a single DC pole while the ground is used for returnThis method will significantly increase current carrying capacity but ground return will not beallowed in many modern systems

bull The second option adopts DC bipole with metallic return The neutral conductor can be used formonopolar operation

bull The third option is based on the tripole HVDC concept This method uses the third conductor alter-natively as a positive or negative pole which exploits the long thermal constants of conductors Thecapacity increase of around 37 is achieved (over bipole configuration) using lines and the RMSvalues of current in the conductors (over 10 minutes) are equal to the conductor rating An additionalbidirectional converter is required

17 Ultra-High Voltage HVDC

The standard DC voltage for HVDC is 500 kV and the Itaipu 3150MW plusmn600 kV HVDC has used thehighest DC voltage for a long period However the emerging requirements for bulk power transmission

R S

+

0

+

ndash

+

+

+ndash ndash+

TAC

DC monopole with ground return

DC bipole with metalic return

DC tripole with metalic return

Figure 19 Options for conversion of three-phase AC lines into DC

10 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

over long distances of 5ndash10 GW in Asia Africa and South America in late 1990s have resulted in theprogressive development of UHVDC (ultra-high voltage direct current)

XiangjiabandashShanghai 6400MW plusmn800 kV UHVDC implemented in 2010 was the first commercialUHVDC and four other plusmn800 kV systems have been implemented in 2011ndash2013 while studies areunderway for 1100 kV DC voltages The progress towards UHVDC has demanded a lot of researchand development effort and the main challenges are summarized below

bull improving insulation in particular in polluted areasbull transformer development including bushingsbull developing ultra-high voltage (UHV) test centres

It is important to appreciate that all the equipment including auxiliaries that connect to DC linesmust be changed to UHV In practice this translates to longer units ndash bushings arresters VT (voltagetransducers) CT (current transducers) and so forth ndash with more series-connected basic elementsFrequently the main challenge is the need for mechanical strength in the face of increased forces fromseismic requirements wind and other factors

The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes a standard method of increasinginsulation levels although developing UHV insulators and bushings remains challenging

The UHV valve design is not considered to be a significant obstacle

11Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

1911 MMC Total Series Reactance in the Phasor Model 2671912 MMC VSC Interaction with AC System

and PQ Operating Diagrams 269

20 VSC HVDC under AC and DC Fault Conditions 271201 Introduction 271202 Faults on the AC System 271203 DC Faults with Two-Level VSC 272204 Influence of DC Capacitors 276205 VSC Converter Modelling under DC Faults and VSC Diode Bridge 277206 Converter-Mode Transitions as DC Voltage Reduces 284207 DC Faults with Half-Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter 286208 DC Faults with Full-Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter 287

21 VSC HVDC Application for AC Grid Support and Operation withPassive AC Systems 291211 VSC HVDC High-Level Controls and AC Grid Support 291212 HVDC Embedded inside an AC Grid 292213 HVDC Connecting Two Separate AC Grids 293214 HVDC in Parallel with AC 293215 Operation with a Passive AC System and Black Start Capability 294216 VSC HVDC Operation with Offshore Wind Farms 294217 VSC HVDC Supplying Power Offshore and Driving a MW-Size

Variable-Speed Motor 296

Bibliography Part II Voltage Source Converter HVDC 298

Part III DC Transmission Grids 301

22 Introduction to DC Grids 303221 DC versus AC Transmission 303222 Terminology 304223 DC Grid Planning Topology and Power-Transfer Security 304224 Technical Challenges 305225 DC Grid Building by Multiple Manufacturers 306226 Economic Aspects 306

23 DC Grids with Line-Commutated Converters 307231 Multiterminal HVDC 307232 ItalyndashCorsicandashSardinia Multiterminal HVDC Link 308233 Connecting LCC Converter to a DC Grid 309234 Control of LCC Converters in DC Grids 311235 Control of LCC DC Grids through DC Voltage Droop Feedback 311236 Managing LCC DC Grid Faults 313237 Reactive Power Issues 315238 Large LCC Rectifier Stations in DC Grids 315

24 DC Grids with Voltage Source Converters and Power-Flow Model 316241 Connecting a VSC Converter to a DC Grid 316242 DC Grid Power Flow Model 317243 DC Grid Power Flow under DC Faults 321

ixContents

25 DC Grid Control 324251 Introduction 324252 Fast Local VSC Converter Control in DC Grids 324253 DC Grid Dispatcher with Remote Communication 326254 Primary Secondary and Tertiary DC Grid Control 327255 DC Voltage Droop Control for VSC Converters in DC Grids 328256 Three-Level Control for VSC Converters with Dispatcher Droop 329257 Power Flow Algorithm When DC Powers are Regulated 330258 Power Flow and Control Study of CIGRE DC Grid-Test System 334

26 DC Grid Fault Management and DC Circuit Breakers 339261 Introduction 339262 Fault Current Components in DC Grids 340263 DC System Protection Coordination with AC System Protection 342264 Mechanical DC Circuit Breaker 342265 Semiconductor Based DC Circuit Breaker 345266 Hybrid DC Circuit Breaker 349267 DC Grid-Protection System Development 351268 DC Grid Selective Protection System Based on Current Derivative or

Travelling Wave Identification 352269 Differential DC Grid Protection Strategy 3532610 DC Grid Selective Protection System Based on Local Signals 3542611 DC Grids with DC Fault-Tolerant VSC Converters 355

27 High Power DCDC Converters and DC Power-Flow Controlling Devices 362271 Introduction 362272 Power Flow Control Using Series Resistors 363273 Low Stepping-Ratio DCDC Converters 366274 DCDC Converters with DC Polarity Reversal 371275 High Stepping Ratio Isolated DCDC Converter 373276 High Stepping Ratio LCL DCDC Converter 373277 Building DC Grids with DCDC Converters 375278 DC Hubs 377279 Developing DC Grids Using DC Hubs 3802710 North Sea DC Grid Topologies 380

Bibliography Part III DC Transmission Grids 384

Appendix A Variable Notations 386

Appendix B Analytical Background for Rotating DQ Frame 388

Appendix C System Modelling Using Complex Numbers and Phasors 399

Appendix D Simulink Examples 401

Index 419

x Contents

Preface

At the time of writing there are over 170 high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) links installedworldwide The largest installations operate at plusmn800 kV DC voltage and the highest DC current ratingsare over 4500 A Although alternating current was the predominant method for transmitting electricalenergy in the twentieth century HVDC was demonstrated to be the best solution for many specificapplication areas and the number of installations per year has been constantly increasing at thebeginning of twenty-first century Despite significant converter-station costs HVDC is techno-economically preferred in general applications for

bull long-distance large-scale power transferbull subsea and long-distance cable-power transmissionbull interconnecting asynchronous AC systems or systems with different frequenciesbull controllable power transfer between different nodes in an electricity market or marketsbull AC grid-stability support ancillary service provision and resilience to blackoutsbull connecting isolated systems like offshore wind farms or oil platforms

DC transmission technology was used in many instances in very early power systems but modernHVDC transmission begins with the 1954 SwedenndashGotland installation This system and all the otherHVDCs commissioned until the mid-1970s were based on mercury arc valves A significant technicaladvance came with the introduction of solid-state valves (thyristors) although they only support theline-commutated converter (LCC) concept In the first decade of the twenty-first century there hasbeen very rapid development of fundamentally new technologies and an increasing demand forHVDC technology The introduction of voltage-source converters (VSCs) requires new valves whichuse insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and also new protection and control approaches Themodular multilevel converters have eventually emerged as the most cost effective VSC converterconcept which practically eliminates filtering needs with HVDC and removes voltage limits withVSC valves

In the second decade of the twenty-first century it has become apparent that DC transmission gridsare a technically feasible and viable solution to large-scale energy challenges The primary applicationdrivers come from initiatives like the North Sea DC grid Medtech Desertec the European overlaysuper grid and Atlantic Wind It is accepted that the DC transmission grids must have levels of reliabil-ity and technical performance that are similar to or better than an AC transmission system This level ofperformance security and reliability is technically feasible although in many aspects DC grids will be

substantially different from traditional AC systems The development of DC grids brings significanttechnical advances in HVDC technologies in particular related to DC circuit breakers (CBs) DCDC converters and DC protection systems and substantial further research and development areanticipated

Nowadays HVDC and DC grids are associated with green energy as facilitators of large-scalerenewable energy plants This helps with public acceptance and image and facilitates furtherinvestments in large public projects HVDC is perceived as the technology that avoids pylons by usinglong underground cables further strengthening arguments for future funding decisions

The timing of this book is therefore in step with an increased interest in HVDC and a projectedsignificant increase in its use

The book is organized in three parts in order to study all three major HVDC concepts ndash linecommutated HVDC VSC HVDC and DC grids current research developments Each part will reviewtheoretical concepts and analyse aspects of technology interaction with AC grids modelling controlfaults and protection with particular emphasis on practical implementation aspects and on reportedoperational issues

The technical field of HVDC transmission and DC grids straddles three major traditional electricalengineering disciplines

bull Power transmission engineering The impact of HVDC systems on the connecting AC transmissionsystems and the national grid is of primary importance The influence of AC systems onHVDC is alsoof significance in terms of technical performance stability protection and power transfer security ingeneral Harmonic interaction will be studied in some depth

bull Power electronics Each HVDC link involves at least two ACDC converters whereas DC grids willhave many more including semiconductor DC CBs and DCDC converters These converters havefeatures that are similar to those of traditional low-power converters but many other unique require-ments exist to develop valves and converter assemblies capable of sustaining up to 800 kV andperhaps over 4500 A The protection of valves and converters is very important and is a definingpower electronics feature in HVDC

bull Control engineering Modelling and simulation of HVDC is essential for design and operation andseveral different modelling approaches exist depending on the model application In particularbecause of the high costs of HVDC testing and the consequences of any design issues model accur-acy and simulation speed play crucial role in the system design The control systems for HVDC haveevolved into very complex technologies which are always multivariable nonlinear and with multiplecontrol layers

The above three technical disciplines will be employed in this book in order to analyse all essentialtechnical aspects of HVDC and DC grids which is aimed to facilitate learning by researchers and engin-eers who are interested in this field

The material in this book includes contributions from many HVDC researchers and engineers andit is developed from research projects funded by several research councils and private firms Moreimportantly the studies are inspired by and build on previous work by numerous great HVDCengineers

The authors are particularly grateful to ALSTOM Grid UK for providing their comprehensivereport HVDC Connecting to the Future as well as to SIEMENS Germany and ABB Sweden fortheir HVDC photographs We are also indebted to the researchers at the University of Aberdeen PowerSystems Group and in particular to DrWeixing Lin Dr Ali Jamshidifar DrMasood Hajian Dr HuibinZhang and Dr Lu Zhang for their contributions

We would like to give our special thanks to SSE Scotland and in particular to Andrew Robertsonfor their support for the HVDC course at University of Aberdeen which provided important materialfor this book

xii Preface

The authors are also grateful to the following organizations which supported related research studiesat the University of Aberdeen

bull Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) UKbull European Research Council (ERC) FP 7 Ideas Programmebull Reacuteseau de Transport drsquoEacutelectriciteacute (RTE) France

Dragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmed

xiiiPreface

Part IHVDC with CurrentSource Converters

1Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

11 HVDC Applications

Thyristor-based high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission has been used in over 150point-to-point installations worldwide In each case it has proven to be technologically andor econom-ically superior to AC transmission Typical HVDC applications can be grouped as follows

bull Submarine power transmission The AC cables have large capacitance and for cables over 40ndash70 kmthe reactive power circulation is unacceptable This distance can be extended somewhat with reactivepower compensation For larger distances HVDC is more economical A good example is the580 km 700MW plusmn450 kV NorNed HVDC between Norway and the Netherlands

bull Long-distance overhead lines Long AC lines require variable reactive power compensation Typically600ndash800 km is the breakeven distance and for larger distances HVDC is more economical A goodexample is the 1360 km 31 GW plusmn500 kV Pacific DC intertie along the west coast of the United States

bull Interconnecting two AC networks of different frequencies A good example is the 500MW plusmn79 kVback-to-back Melo HVDC between Uruguay and Brazil The Uruguay system operates at 50 Hzwhereas Brazilrsquos national grid runs at 60 Hz

bull Interconnecting two unsynchronized AC grids If phase difference between two AC systems is largethey cannot be directly connected A typical example is the 150MW plusmn42 kV McNeill back-to-backHVDC link between Alberta and Saskatchewan interconnecting asynchronous eastern and westernAmerican systems

bull Controllable power exchange between two AC networks (for trading) The AC power flow is deter-mined by the line impedances and it cannot therefore be controlled directly in each line In complexAC networks it is common to observe loop power flow or even overloading or underutilization ofsome AC lines Many HVDC systems participate directly in trading power and one typical exampleis the 200MW plusmn57 kV Highgate HVDC between Quebec and Vermont

There are other less common applications of LCC (line-commutated converter) HVDC technologyincluding the 300MW Levis De-Icer HVDC project Here one standard HVDC converter station ndash a

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

converter from a Static Var Compensator (SVC) ndash is used to provide a very high DC current of up to7920A (feeding essentially a DC short circuit) to enable heating of remote Canadian overhead linesin order to prevent ice buildup

An important argument for selecting HVDC instead of an AC for a new transmission line is thecontribution to the short-circuit level High-voltage direct current is able to limit the fault currentand therefore it will not require the upgrading of substation equipment

Figure 11 shows a comparison of costs for DC and AC transmission lines In the case of HVDC theinitial capital investment is much higher because of the converter costs As the transmission distanceincreases the benefits of DC offset the capital investment and at certain distance the total cost of anHVDC system is same as an AC line The breakeven distance is in the range of 40ndash70 km for submarinecables and in the range of 600ndash800 km for overhead lines Figure 12 shows an aerial view of the

HVDC station costs

Line length

Breakeven distanceFor cables 40ndash70 km

For overhead lines 600ndash800 kmHVAC station costs

HVAC

HVDC

Cost

Figure 11 HVDC and HVAC transmission cost comparison

Figure 12 Terminal station of Moyle HVDC interconnector (Bipole 2 times 250MW plusmn250 kV with light triggeredthyristors commissioned in 2001) Reproduced with permission of Siemens

4 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

terminal station of the 500 MW Moyle HVDC link This HVDC enables a controllable bidirectionalpower exchange between Scotland and Northern Ireland

12 Line-Commutated HVDC Components

Figure 13 shows a typical LCC HVDC schematic interconnecting AC systems 1 and 2 It consistsof two terminals and a DC line between them Each terminal (converter station) includes converterstransformers filters reactive power equipment control station and a range of other components Thereare two DC lines in this figure while one line is at ground potential

As shown in Figure 13 the major components of an HVDC system include

bull Converters They typically include one or more six-pulse thyristor (Graetz) bridges Each bridgeconsists of six thyristor valves which in turn contain hundreds of individual thyristors With largesystems bridges are connected in series in 12-pulse or 24-pulse configuration The 12-pulse converterscan be connected into poles or bipoles

bull Converter transformers These are a special converter transformer type which is somewhat moreexpensive than typical AC transformers of the same rating The converter transformers are designedto operate with high harmonic currents and they are designed to withstand AC and DC voltage stressIn most cases converter transformers will have tap changers which enable optimization of HVDCoperation

bull Smoothing reactors on DC side Typical inductance for large HVDC systems is 01ndash05 H which isdetermined considering DC fault responses commutation failure and dynamic stability The reactorsare of air-core natural air-cooling type and costs are modest

bull Reactive power compensation The converters typically require reactive power of around 60 ofthe converter power rating A large portion of this reactive power is supplied with filter banksand the remaining part with capacitor banks Reactive power demand varies with DC power levelso the capacitors are arranged in switchable banks

bull Filters A typical 12-pulse thyristor terminal will require 11th 13th 23rd and 25th filters on the ACside A high-pass filter is frequently included In some cases third harmonic filters are required SomeHVDC systems with overhead lines also employ DC-side filters

Reactive power

compensationReactive powercompensation

FiltersFilters

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Terminal 1 Terminal 2Smoothing

reactorSmoothing

reactor

Thyristorbridge

α1 α2

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Electrodes

Station 1

control

Station 2

controlCommunication

system

DC line

DC lineI1dc I2dc

V1dcpV2dcp

CB

CB

CB

CB

V1g V2g

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

AC system 23 phase V2g f2

Y ΔYΔ

YYY Y

Figure 13 Typical HVDC schematic (12-pulse monopole with metallic return)

5Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

bull Electrodes Some old HVDC systems normally operate with seaground return but most grid oper-ators no longer allow permanent ground currents for environmental reasons Electrodes demandongoing maintenance costs Many new bipolar systems are allowed to operate with ground returnat half power for a short time (10ndash20 minutes) in case of loss of an HVDC pole This implies thatelectrodes are designed for full current but carry no current in normal operation

bull Control and communication system Each terminal will have a control system consisting of severalhierarchical layers A dedicated communication link between terminals is needed but speed is notcritical An HVDC link can operate in the event of a loss of a communication link

13 DC Cables and Overhead Lines

131 Introduction

Line-commutated converter HVDC has been implemented using overhead lines and undergroundsubsea DC cables Overhead lines are vulnerable to lightning strikes which are essentially DC faultsNevertheless DC faults only cause transient disturbances and they are readily managed by LCCHVDCOn the other hand with voltage source converter (VSC) HVDC as will be discussed later DC faultscause much more serious disturbances

The most common cable technologies that have been developed so far include

bull mass-impregnated (MI) cablesbull low-pressure oil-filled (LPOF) cablesbull extruded cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables

The above cable types have same conductors and their construction is similar but the insulationmaterial is substantially different The cable voltage rating depends on the capability of the insulation(dielectric) material and there are two main types of dielectrics namely lapped and extruded

132 Mass-impregnated (MI) Cables

Since 1895 MI cables have been used in power transmission In MI cables the dielectric is lappedpaper insulation which is impregnated with high-viscosity fluid For bulk power transmission massimpregnated cables still prove to be the most suitable solution because of their capacity to work upto 500 kV DC These cables also tolerate fast DC voltage polarity reversal making them suitablefor LCC HVDC The MI cables have a long record of field operation at voltages of 500 kV and trans-mission capacity of over 800 MW (16 kA) for monopole HVDC but 600 kV and 1000 MW ratingshave been announced An HVDCwith a bipolar connection is therefore able to transmit up to 2000MWwith MI cables These cables can be installed at depths to 1000 m under the sea level and with nearlyunlimited transmission length The capacity of this system is limited by the conductor temperaturewhich can reduce overload capabilities The 580 km-long 700MW 450 kV cable link between Norwayand the Netherlands represents the greatest power and length for this cable type At present over 90 ofsubmarine cables are of the MI type

133 Low-pressure Oil-filled Cables

Low-pressure oil-filled cables are similar in construction to MI cables but the cables are insulated withpaper impregnated with low viscosity oil under an overpressure of a few bars The technology availabletoday ensures voltages up to 500 kV and powers up to 2800MW for underground installation It can beused for bothACandDC transmission applicationsAs oil flow is required along the cable cable length islimited to around 80 km The risk of oil leakage must be taken into account for environmental reasons

6 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

134 Extruded Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE) Cables

Extruded cross-linked polyethylene cables cannot withstand fast polarity reversal and they are not nor-mally used with LCC HVDC (unless it is a unidirectional system) They will be discussed further withVSC HVDC

The above three types of cables are used for both underground and submarine cables and their basicproperties are shown in Table 11 The difference between the underground and submarine cables is inthe conductor material and the armour layer Armour strengthening is used in submarine cables to with-stand the axial mechanical tension during laying and operation

Cables with copper conductors are used for submarine applications whereas aluminium conductorsare generally preferred for underground Copper has high electrical conductivity and mechanical prop-erties It is also simpler to implement strong joints using copper However it is heavy and more expen-sive and for these reasons it is used when the mechanical properties are mandatory as in submarinecables Aluminium has low conductivity and low mechanical properties Splicing is more difficultIt is lighter and less expensive than copper

14 LCC HVDC Topologies

High-voltage direct-current systems are divided into transmission systems and back-to-back HVDCHigh-voltage direct-current transmission can be bipolar or monopolar

Monopolar HVDC is typically used for smaller systems and the topology is shown in Figure 14Typically positive DC voltage is adopted because of less corona issues The return current can runthrough ground or a dedicated cable can be employed If a return cable is used (metallic return) it will

Table 11 DC cables types for underground and submarine application

Type Mass impregnated Oil filled XLPE

Conductor CuAl CuAl CuAlInsulation Paper and mass Paper and fluid Cross-linked PEVoltage (kV) 600 500 320 (525 kV is available)Capacity per cable (MW) 1000 2800 1000Converter type LCC or VSC LCC or VSC VSC or unidirectional LCCDistance Unlimited Limited because of oil Unlimited

Y Y

Y ΔYΔ

YY

V1gV2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

V1dcp V2dcp

DC cable (p)I1dc I2dc

α1α2

Figure 14 Twelve-pulse monopolar HVDC with ground return

7Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

be at ground potential with low insulation level (typically around 10 kV) and costs are therefore lowerthan positive-pole DC cable A 12-pulse topology is shown with two six-pulse converters in series

Figure 15 shows a bipolar HVDC Bipolar HVDC has two independent poles and it can operate athalf power if one DC cable or pole is out of service Normally the poles are balanced and there is noground current but ground return would be used if one pole is out of service In modern grid codesground current would not be allowed because of environmental concerns In some national standardsground currents are allowed only for short periods of time in emergency situations (eg secondaryreserve startup for 10ndash20 minutes) Instead of ground return a third cable or DC cable from the faultedpole can sometimes be used

Figure 16 shows a back-to-back HVDC which is frequently monopolar In this topology bothconverter terminals are located in a single station and DC cables are very short The main purposeof back-to-back HVDC is to provide controllable power transfer between two asynchronous AC

α1

α1

α2

α2

Y Δ Δ

Y Y

Y Δ

Y Y

Y

Y

Δ Y

Y

Y

Y

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

Negative

pole

Negative

pole

Positive

polePositive

pole

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

Terminal 1

Bridge

Bridge

Bridge Bridge

Bridge

Bridge

Electrodes Electrodes

Bridge

Bridge

Terminal 2

DC cable (p)

DC cable (n)

V1dcp

V1dcn

V2dcp

V2dcn

I1dc I2dc

V1g V2g

Figure 15 Bipolar HVDC (12-pulse) with ground return

Y ΔΔ

Y Y

Y

YY

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2

V1gV2g

α1α2

V1dcp

I1dc

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

Figure 16 Back-to-back HVDC topology

8 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

systems or AC systems with different frequency As DC cables are very short and therefore transmis-sion losses are low back-to-back HVDC are designed at low voltage (as high current as possible) inorder to reduce costs (costs are proportional to insulation level) The smoothing reactors are very smallor not required because there is a low probability of DC line faults Back-to-back HVDC allows foroperation with variable DC voltage and this facilitates some limited reactive power control capability

15 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems

The losses in HVDC systems will include converter station losses and DC cable losses Figure 17shows the main components of typical HVDC station losses The total LCC HVDC station losses willdepend on the size of HVDC station the voltage level configuration and typically may amount to05ndash1 of the power transfer

At partial loading the percentage losses will generally increase Figure 18 shows the load depen-dence of major loss components As an example magnetizing current in converter transformers willbe constant irrespective of loading and at 10 loading the transformer losses are 20

3

25

8

2

5

1

56

Auxiliaries

Converter valves

AC harmonic filters

Valve cooling plant

DC smoothing reactors

HF filter

Converter transformer

Figure 17 Breakdown of typical LCC HVDC station losses at 1 pu power

100

Loss c

om

ponent (

)

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Converted valves

Converted transformer

AC harmonic filters

DC smoothing reactor

DC power ()

Figure 18 Variation of HVDC station losses with the DC power shown relative to 1 pu losses

9Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

16 Conversion of AC Lines to DC

There have been many studies worldwide on converting existing AC lines into DC This mainly resultsfrom the desire to increase AC line capacity or to remove stability constraints These issues usuallyrequire costly line upgradesreconductoring series compensation or installing a device from the flexibleAC transmission systems (FACTS) family In such cases conversion to HVDC can usually offer thehighest capacity increase and a range of other benefits Typically towers and conductors will not bechanged but insulators may need to be upgraded to operate with DC lines

The main advantages of converting existing AC line to HVDC are

bull an increase in capacitybull fewer corona issues and a generally higher operating voltagebull better control of active and reactive power and other system-level benefitsbull better stability limits and active stabilization of the gridbull lower transmission losses

Some of the disadvantages of conversion to HVDC include

bull more pollution is attracted to insulators energized with DC ndash insulator upgrade is recommendedbull converter station costs

Figure 19 shows some common options for converting a single-circuit three-phase AC transmissioninto DC which include

bull The first option employs all three conductors for a single DC pole while the ground is used for returnThis method will significantly increase current carrying capacity but ground return will not beallowed in many modern systems

bull The second option adopts DC bipole with metallic return The neutral conductor can be used formonopolar operation

bull The third option is based on the tripole HVDC concept This method uses the third conductor alter-natively as a positive or negative pole which exploits the long thermal constants of conductors Thecapacity increase of around 37 is achieved (over bipole configuration) using lines and the RMSvalues of current in the conductors (over 10 minutes) are equal to the conductor rating An additionalbidirectional converter is required

17 Ultra-High Voltage HVDC

The standard DC voltage for HVDC is 500 kV and the Itaipu 3150MW plusmn600 kV HVDC has used thehighest DC voltage for a long period However the emerging requirements for bulk power transmission

R S

+

0

+

ndash

+

+

+ndash ndash+

TAC

DC monopole with ground return

DC bipole with metalic return

DC tripole with metalic return

Figure 19 Options for conversion of three-phase AC lines into DC

10 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

over long distances of 5ndash10 GW in Asia Africa and South America in late 1990s have resulted in theprogressive development of UHVDC (ultra-high voltage direct current)

XiangjiabandashShanghai 6400MW plusmn800 kV UHVDC implemented in 2010 was the first commercialUHVDC and four other plusmn800 kV systems have been implemented in 2011ndash2013 while studies areunderway for 1100 kV DC voltages The progress towards UHVDC has demanded a lot of researchand development effort and the main challenges are summarized below

bull improving insulation in particular in polluted areasbull transformer development including bushingsbull developing ultra-high voltage (UHV) test centres

It is important to appreciate that all the equipment including auxiliaries that connect to DC linesmust be changed to UHV In practice this translates to longer units ndash bushings arresters VT (voltagetransducers) CT (current transducers) and so forth ndash with more series-connected basic elementsFrequently the main challenge is the need for mechanical strength in the face of increased forces fromseismic requirements wind and other factors

The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes a standard method of increasinginsulation levels although developing UHV insulators and bushings remains challenging

The UHV valve design is not considered to be a significant obstacle

11Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

25 DC Grid Control 324251 Introduction 324252 Fast Local VSC Converter Control in DC Grids 324253 DC Grid Dispatcher with Remote Communication 326254 Primary Secondary and Tertiary DC Grid Control 327255 DC Voltage Droop Control for VSC Converters in DC Grids 328256 Three-Level Control for VSC Converters with Dispatcher Droop 329257 Power Flow Algorithm When DC Powers are Regulated 330258 Power Flow and Control Study of CIGRE DC Grid-Test System 334

26 DC Grid Fault Management and DC Circuit Breakers 339261 Introduction 339262 Fault Current Components in DC Grids 340263 DC System Protection Coordination with AC System Protection 342264 Mechanical DC Circuit Breaker 342265 Semiconductor Based DC Circuit Breaker 345266 Hybrid DC Circuit Breaker 349267 DC Grid-Protection System Development 351268 DC Grid Selective Protection System Based on Current Derivative or

Travelling Wave Identification 352269 Differential DC Grid Protection Strategy 3532610 DC Grid Selective Protection System Based on Local Signals 3542611 DC Grids with DC Fault-Tolerant VSC Converters 355

27 High Power DCDC Converters and DC Power-Flow Controlling Devices 362271 Introduction 362272 Power Flow Control Using Series Resistors 363273 Low Stepping-Ratio DCDC Converters 366274 DCDC Converters with DC Polarity Reversal 371275 High Stepping Ratio Isolated DCDC Converter 373276 High Stepping Ratio LCL DCDC Converter 373277 Building DC Grids with DCDC Converters 375278 DC Hubs 377279 Developing DC Grids Using DC Hubs 3802710 North Sea DC Grid Topologies 380

Bibliography Part III DC Transmission Grids 384

Appendix A Variable Notations 386

Appendix B Analytical Background for Rotating DQ Frame 388

Appendix C System Modelling Using Complex Numbers and Phasors 399

Appendix D Simulink Examples 401

Index 419

x Contents

Preface

At the time of writing there are over 170 high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) links installedworldwide The largest installations operate at plusmn800 kV DC voltage and the highest DC current ratingsare over 4500 A Although alternating current was the predominant method for transmitting electricalenergy in the twentieth century HVDC was demonstrated to be the best solution for many specificapplication areas and the number of installations per year has been constantly increasing at thebeginning of twenty-first century Despite significant converter-station costs HVDC is techno-economically preferred in general applications for

bull long-distance large-scale power transferbull subsea and long-distance cable-power transmissionbull interconnecting asynchronous AC systems or systems with different frequenciesbull controllable power transfer between different nodes in an electricity market or marketsbull AC grid-stability support ancillary service provision and resilience to blackoutsbull connecting isolated systems like offshore wind farms or oil platforms

DC transmission technology was used in many instances in very early power systems but modernHVDC transmission begins with the 1954 SwedenndashGotland installation This system and all the otherHVDCs commissioned until the mid-1970s were based on mercury arc valves A significant technicaladvance came with the introduction of solid-state valves (thyristors) although they only support theline-commutated converter (LCC) concept In the first decade of the twenty-first century there hasbeen very rapid development of fundamentally new technologies and an increasing demand forHVDC technology The introduction of voltage-source converters (VSCs) requires new valves whichuse insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and also new protection and control approaches Themodular multilevel converters have eventually emerged as the most cost effective VSC converterconcept which practically eliminates filtering needs with HVDC and removes voltage limits withVSC valves

In the second decade of the twenty-first century it has become apparent that DC transmission gridsare a technically feasible and viable solution to large-scale energy challenges The primary applicationdrivers come from initiatives like the North Sea DC grid Medtech Desertec the European overlaysuper grid and Atlantic Wind It is accepted that the DC transmission grids must have levels of reliabil-ity and technical performance that are similar to or better than an AC transmission system This level ofperformance security and reliability is technically feasible although in many aspects DC grids will be

substantially different from traditional AC systems The development of DC grids brings significanttechnical advances in HVDC technologies in particular related to DC circuit breakers (CBs) DCDC converters and DC protection systems and substantial further research and development areanticipated

Nowadays HVDC and DC grids are associated with green energy as facilitators of large-scalerenewable energy plants This helps with public acceptance and image and facilitates furtherinvestments in large public projects HVDC is perceived as the technology that avoids pylons by usinglong underground cables further strengthening arguments for future funding decisions

The timing of this book is therefore in step with an increased interest in HVDC and a projectedsignificant increase in its use

The book is organized in three parts in order to study all three major HVDC concepts ndash linecommutated HVDC VSC HVDC and DC grids current research developments Each part will reviewtheoretical concepts and analyse aspects of technology interaction with AC grids modelling controlfaults and protection with particular emphasis on practical implementation aspects and on reportedoperational issues

The technical field of HVDC transmission and DC grids straddles three major traditional electricalengineering disciplines

bull Power transmission engineering The impact of HVDC systems on the connecting AC transmissionsystems and the national grid is of primary importance The influence of AC systems onHVDC is alsoof significance in terms of technical performance stability protection and power transfer security ingeneral Harmonic interaction will be studied in some depth

bull Power electronics Each HVDC link involves at least two ACDC converters whereas DC grids willhave many more including semiconductor DC CBs and DCDC converters These converters havefeatures that are similar to those of traditional low-power converters but many other unique require-ments exist to develop valves and converter assemblies capable of sustaining up to 800 kV andperhaps over 4500 A The protection of valves and converters is very important and is a definingpower electronics feature in HVDC

bull Control engineering Modelling and simulation of HVDC is essential for design and operation andseveral different modelling approaches exist depending on the model application In particularbecause of the high costs of HVDC testing and the consequences of any design issues model accur-acy and simulation speed play crucial role in the system design The control systems for HVDC haveevolved into very complex technologies which are always multivariable nonlinear and with multiplecontrol layers

The above three technical disciplines will be employed in this book in order to analyse all essentialtechnical aspects of HVDC and DC grids which is aimed to facilitate learning by researchers and engin-eers who are interested in this field

The material in this book includes contributions from many HVDC researchers and engineers andit is developed from research projects funded by several research councils and private firms Moreimportantly the studies are inspired by and build on previous work by numerous great HVDCengineers

The authors are particularly grateful to ALSTOM Grid UK for providing their comprehensivereport HVDC Connecting to the Future as well as to SIEMENS Germany and ABB Sweden fortheir HVDC photographs We are also indebted to the researchers at the University of Aberdeen PowerSystems Group and in particular to DrWeixing Lin Dr Ali Jamshidifar DrMasood Hajian Dr HuibinZhang and Dr Lu Zhang for their contributions

We would like to give our special thanks to SSE Scotland and in particular to Andrew Robertsonfor their support for the HVDC course at University of Aberdeen which provided important materialfor this book

xii Preface

The authors are also grateful to the following organizations which supported related research studiesat the University of Aberdeen

bull Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) UKbull European Research Council (ERC) FP 7 Ideas Programmebull Reacuteseau de Transport drsquoEacutelectriciteacute (RTE) France

Dragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmed

xiiiPreface

Part IHVDC with CurrentSource Converters

1Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

11 HVDC Applications

Thyristor-based high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission has been used in over 150point-to-point installations worldwide In each case it has proven to be technologically andor econom-ically superior to AC transmission Typical HVDC applications can be grouped as follows

bull Submarine power transmission The AC cables have large capacitance and for cables over 40ndash70 kmthe reactive power circulation is unacceptable This distance can be extended somewhat with reactivepower compensation For larger distances HVDC is more economical A good example is the580 km 700MW plusmn450 kV NorNed HVDC between Norway and the Netherlands

bull Long-distance overhead lines Long AC lines require variable reactive power compensation Typically600ndash800 km is the breakeven distance and for larger distances HVDC is more economical A goodexample is the 1360 km 31 GW plusmn500 kV Pacific DC intertie along the west coast of the United States

bull Interconnecting two AC networks of different frequencies A good example is the 500MW plusmn79 kVback-to-back Melo HVDC between Uruguay and Brazil The Uruguay system operates at 50 Hzwhereas Brazilrsquos national grid runs at 60 Hz

bull Interconnecting two unsynchronized AC grids If phase difference between two AC systems is largethey cannot be directly connected A typical example is the 150MW plusmn42 kV McNeill back-to-backHVDC link between Alberta and Saskatchewan interconnecting asynchronous eastern and westernAmerican systems

bull Controllable power exchange between two AC networks (for trading) The AC power flow is deter-mined by the line impedances and it cannot therefore be controlled directly in each line In complexAC networks it is common to observe loop power flow or even overloading or underutilization ofsome AC lines Many HVDC systems participate directly in trading power and one typical exampleis the 200MW plusmn57 kV Highgate HVDC between Quebec and Vermont

There are other less common applications of LCC (line-commutated converter) HVDC technologyincluding the 300MW Levis De-Icer HVDC project Here one standard HVDC converter station ndash a

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

converter from a Static Var Compensator (SVC) ndash is used to provide a very high DC current of up to7920A (feeding essentially a DC short circuit) to enable heating of remote Canadian overhead linesin order to prevent ice buildup

An important argument for selecting HVDC instead of an AC for a new transmission line is thecontribution to the short-circuit level High-voltage direct current is able to limit the fault currentand therefore it will not require the upgrading of substation equipment

Figure 11 shows a comparison of costs for DC and AC transmission lines In the case of HVDC theinitial capital investment is much higher because of the converter costs As the transmission distanceincreases the benefits of DC offset the capital investment and at certain distance the total cost of anHVDC system is same as an AC line The breakeven distance is in the range of 40ndash70 km for submarinecables and in the range of 600ndash800 km for overhead lines Figure 12 shows an aerial view of the

HVDC station costs

Line length

Breakeven distanceFor cables 40ndash70 km

For overhead lines 600ndash800 kmHVAC station costs

HVAC

HVDC

Cost

Figure 11 HVDC and HVAC transmission cost comparison

Figure 12 Terminal station of Moyle HVDC interconnector (Bipole 2 times 250MW plusmn250 kV with light triggeredthyristors commissioned in 2001) Reproduced with permission of Siemens

4 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

terminal station of the 500 MW Moyle HVDC link This HVDC enables a controllable bidirectionalpower exchange between Scotland and Northern Ireland

12 Line-Commutated HVDC Components

Figure 13 shows a typical LCC HVDC schematic interconnecting AC systems 1 and 2 It consistsof two terminals and a DC line between them Each terminal (converter station) includes converterstransformers filters reactive power equipment control station and a range of other components Thereare two DC lines in this figure while one line is at ground potential

As shown in Figure 13 the major components of an HVDC system include

bull Converters They typically include one or more six-pulse thyristor (Graetz) bridges Each bridgeconsists of six thyristor valves which in turn contain hundreds of individual thyristors With largesystems bridges are connected in series in 12-pulse or 24-pulse configuration The 12-pulse converterscan be connected into poles or bipoles

bull Converter transformers These are a special converter transformer type which is somewhat moreexpensive than typical AC transformers of the same rating The converter transformers are designedto operate with high harmonic currents and they are designed to withstand AC and DC voltage stressIn most cases converter transformers will have tap changers which enable optimization of HVDCoperation

bull Smoothing reactors on DC side Typical inductance for large HVDC systems is 01ndash05 H which isdetermined considering DC fault responses commutation failure and dynamic stability The reactorsare of air-core natural air-cooling type and costs are modest

bull Reactive power compensation The converters typically require reactive power of around 60 ofthe converter power rating A large portion of this reactive power is supplied with filter banksand the remaining part with capacitor banks Reactive power demand varies with DC power levelso the capacitors are arranged in switchable banks

bull Filters A typical 12-pulse thyristor terminal will require 11th 13th 23rd and 25th filters on the ACside A high-pass filter is frequently included In some cases third harmonic filters are required SomeHVDC systems with overhead lines also employ DC-side filters

Reactive power

compensationReactive powercompensation

FiltersFilters

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Terminal 1 Terminal 2Smoothing

reactorSmoothing

reactor

Thyristorbridge

α1 α2

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Electrodes

Station 1

control

Station 2

controlCommunication

system

DC line

DC lineI1dc I2dc

V1dcpV2dcp

CB

CB

CB

CB

V1g V2g

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

AC system 23 phase V2g f2

Y ΔYΔ

YYY Y

Figure 13 Typical HVDC schematic (12-pulse monopole with metallic return)

5Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

bull Electrodes Some old HVDC systems normally operate with seaground return but most grid oper-ators no longer allow permanent ground currents for environmental reasons Electrodes demandongoing maintenance costs Many new bipolar systems are allowed to operate with ground returnat half power for a short time (10ndash20 minutes) in case of loss of an HVDC pole This implies thatelectrodes are designed for full current but carry no current in normal operation

bull Control and communication system Each terminal will have a control system consisting of severalhierarchical layers A dedicated communication link between terminals is needed but speed is notcritical An HVDC link can operate in the event of a loss of a communication link

13 DC Cables and Overhead Lines

131 Introduction

Line-commutated converter HVDC has been implemented using overhead lines and undergroundsubsea DC cables Overhead lines are vulnerable to lightning strikes which are essentially DC faultsNevertheless DC faults only cause transient disturbances and they are readily managed by LCCHVDCOn the other hand with voltage source converter (VSC) HVDC as will be discussed later DC faultscause much more serious disturbances

The most common cable technologies that have been developed so far include

bull mass-impregnated (MI) cablesbull low-pressure oil-filled (LPOF) cablesbull extruded cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables

The above cable types have same conductors and their construction is similar but the insulationmaterial is substantially different The cable voltage rating depends on the capability of the insulation(dielectric) material and there are two main types of dielectrics namely lapped and extruded

132 Mass-impregnated (MI) Cables

Since 1895 MI cables have been used in power transmission In MI cables the dielectric is lappedpaper insulation which is impregnated with high-viscosity fluid For bulk power transmission massimpregnated cables still prove to be the most suitable solution because of their capacity to work upto 500 kV DC These cables also tolerate fast DC voltage polarity reversal making them suitablefor LCC HVDC The MI cables have a long record of field operation at voltages of 500 kV and trans-mission capacity of over 800 MW (16 kA) for monopole HVDC but 600 kV and 1000 MW ratingshave been announced An HVDCwith a bipolar connection is therefore able to transmit up to 2000MWwith MI cables These cables can be installed at depths to 1000 m under the sea level and with nearlyunlimited transmission length The capacity of this system is limited by the conductor temperaturewhich can reduce overload capabilities The 580 km-long 700MW 450 kV cable link between Norwayand the Netherlands represents the greatest power and length for this cable type At present over 90 ofsubmarine cables are of the MI type

133 Low-pressure Oil-filled Cables

Low-pressure oil-filled cables are similar in construction to MI cables but the cables are insulated withpaper impregnated with low viscosity oil under an overpressure of a few bars The technology availabletoday ensures voltages up to 500 kV and powers up to 2800MW for underground installation It can beused for bothACandDC transmission applicationsAs oil flow is required along the cable cable length islimited to around 80 km The risk of oil leakage must be taken into account for environmental reasons

6 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

134 Extruded Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE) Cables

Extruded cross-linked polyethylene cables cannot withstand fast polarity reversal and they are not nor-mally used with LCC HVDC (unless it is a unidirectional system) They will be discussed further withVSC HVDC

The above three types of cables are used for both underground and submarine cables and their basicproperties are shown in Table 11 The difference between the underground and submarine cables is inthe conductor material and the armour layer Armour strengthening is used in submarine cables to with-stand the axial mechanical tension during laying and operation

Cables with copper conductors are used for submarine applications whereas aluminium conductorsare generally preferred for underground Copper has high electrical conductivity and mechanical prop-erties It is also simpler to implement strong joints using copper However it is heavy and more expen-sive and for these reasons it is used when the mechanical properties are mandatory as in submarinecables Aluminium has low conductivity and low mechanical properties Splicing is more difficultIt is lighter and less expensive than copper

14 LCC HVDC Topologies

High-voltage direct-current systems are divided into transmission systems and back-to-back HVDCHigh-voltage direct-current transmission can be bipolar or monopolar

Monopolar HVDC is typically used for smaller systems and the topology is shown in Figure 14Typically positive DC voltage is adopted because of less corona issues The return current can runthrough ground or a dedicated cable can be employed If a return cable is used (metallic return) it will

Table 11 DC cables types for underground and submarine application

Type Mass impregnated Oil filled XLPE

Conductor CuAl CuAl CuAlInsulation Paper and mass Paper and fluid Cross-linked PEVoltage (kV) 600 500 320 (525 kV is available)Capacity per cable (MW) 1000 2800 1000Converter type LCC or VSC LCC or VSC VSC or unidirectional LCCDistance Unlimited Limited because of oil Unlimited

Y Y

Y ΔYΔ

YY

V1gV2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

V1dcp V2dcp

DC cable (p)I1dc I2dc

α1α2

Figure 14 Twelve-pulse monopolar HVDC with ground return

7Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

be at ground potential with low insulation level (typically around 10 kV) and costs are therefore lowerthan positive-pole DC cable A 12-pulse topology is shown with two six-pulse converters in series

Figure 15 shows a bipolar HVDC Bipolar HVDC has two independent poles and it can operate athalf power if one DC cable or pole is out of service Normally the poles are balanced and there is noground current but ground return would be used if one pole is out of service In modern grid codesground current would not be allowed because of environmental concerns In some national standardsground currents are allowed only for short periods of time in emergency situations (eg secondaryreserve startup for 10ndash20 minutes) Instead of ground return a third cable or DC cable from the faultedpole can sometimes be used

Figure 16 shows a back-to-back HVDC which is frequently monopolar In this topology bothconverter terminals are located in a single station and DC cables are very short The main purposeof back-to-back HVDC is to provide controllable power transfer between two asynchronous AC

α1

α1

α2

α2

Y Δ Δ

Y Y

Y Δ

Y Y

Y

Y

Δ Y

Y

Y

Y

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

Negative

pole

Negative

pole

Positive

polePositive

pole

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

Terminal 1

Bridge

Bridge

Bridge Bridge

Bridge

Bridge

Electrodes Electrodes

Bridge

Bridge

Terminal 2

DC cable (p)

DC cable (n)

V1dcp

V1dcn

V2dcp

V2dcn

I1dc I2dc

V1g V2g

Figure 15 Bipolar HVDC (12-pulse) with ground return

Y ΔΔ

Y Y

Y

YY

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2

V1gV2g

α1α2

V1dcp

I1dc

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

Figure 16 Back-to-back HVDC topology

8 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

systems or AC systems with different frequency As DC cables are very short and therefore transmis-sion losses are low back-to-back HVDC are designed at low voltage (as high current as possible) inorder to reduce costs (costs are proportional to insulation level) The smoothing reactors are very smallor not required because there is a low probability of DC line faults Back-to-back HVDC allows foroperation with variable DC voltage and this facilitates some limited reactive power control capability

15 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems

The losses in HVDC systems will include converter station losses and DC cable losses Figure 17shows the main components of typical HVDC station losses The total LCC HVDC station losses willdepend on the size of HVDC station the voltage level configuration and typically may amount to05ndash1 of the power transfer

At partial loading the percentage losses will generally increase Figure 18 shows the load depen-dence of major loss components As an example magnetizing current in converter transformers willbe constant irrespective of loading and at 10 loading the transformer losses are 20

3

25

8

2

5

1

56

Auxiliaries

Converter valves

AC harmonic filters

Valve cooling plant

DC smoothing reactors

HF filter

Converter transformer

Figure 17 Breakdown of typical LCC HVDC station losses at 1 pu power

100

Loss c

om

ponent (

)

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Converted valves

Converted transformer

AC harmonic filters

DC smoothing reactor

DC power ()

Figure 18 Variation of HVDC station losses with the DC power shown relative to 1 pu losses

9Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

16 Conversion of AC Lines to DC

There have been many studies worldwide on converting existing AC lines into DC This mainly resultsfrom the desire to increase AC line capacity or to remove stability constraints These issues usuallyrequire costly line upgradesreconductoring series compensation or installing a device from the flexibleAC transmission systems (FACTS) family In such cases conversion to HVDC can usually offer thehighest capacity increase and a range of other benefits Typically towers and conductors will not bechanged but insulators may need to be upgraded to operate with DC lines

The main advantages of converting existing AC line to HVDC are

bull an increase in capacitybull fewer corona issues and a generally higher operating voltagebull better control of active and reactive power and other system-level benefitsbull better stability limits and active stabilization of the gridbull lower transmission losses

Some of the disadvantages of conversion to HVDC include

bull more pollution is attracted to insulators energized with DC ndash insulator upgrade is recommendedbull converter station costs

Figure 19 shows some common options for converting a single-circuit three-phase AC transmissioninto DC which include

bull The first option employs all three conductors for a single DC pole while the ground is used for returnThis method will significantly increase current carrying capacity but ground return will not beallowed in many modern systems

bull The second option adopts DC bipole with metallic return The neutral conductor can be used formonopolar operation

bull The third option is based on the tripole HVDC concept This method uses the third conductor alter-natively as a positive or negative pole which exploits the long thermal constants of conductors Thecapacity increase of around 37 is achieved (over bipole configuration) using lines and the RMSvalues of current in the conductors (over 10 minutes) are equal to the conductor rating An additionalbidirectional converter is required

17 Ultra-High Voltage HVDC

The standard DC voltage for HVDC is 500 kV and the Itaipu 3150MW plusmn600 kV HVDC has used thehighest DC voltage for a long period However the emerging requirements for bulk power transmission

R S

+

0

+

ndash

+

+

+ndash ndash+

TAC

DC monopole with ground return

DC bipole with metalic return

DC tripole with metalic return

Figure 19 Options for conversion of three-phase AC lines into DC

10 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

over long distances of 5ndash10 GW in Asia Africa and South America in late 1990s have resulted in theprogressive development of UHVDC (ultra-high voltage direct current)

XiangjiabandashShanghai 6400MW plusmn800 kV UHVDC implemented in 2010 was the first commercialUHVDC and four other plusmn800 kV systems have been implemented in 2011ndash2013 while studies areunderway for 1100 kV DC voltages The progress towards UHVDC has demanded a lot of researchand development effort and the main challenges are summarized below

bull improving insulation in particular in polluted areasbull transformer development including bushingsbull developing ultra-high voltage (UHV) test centres

It is important to appreciate that all the equipment including auxiliaries that connect to DC linesmust be changed to UHV In practice this translates to longer units ndash bushings arresters VT (voltagetransducers) CT (current transducers) and so forth ndash with more series-connected basic elementsFrequently the main challenge is the need for mechanical strength in the face of increased forces fromseismic requirements wind and other factors

The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes a standard method of increasinginsulation levels although developing UHV insulators and bushings remains challenging

The UHV valve design is not considered to be a significant obstacle

11Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

Preface

At the time of writing there are over 170 high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) links installedworldwide The largest installations operate at plusmn800 kV DC voltage and the highest DC current ratingsare over 4500 A Although alternating current was the predominant method for transmitting electricalenergy in the twentieth century HVDC was demonstrated to be the best solution for many specificapplication areas and the number of installations per year has been constantly increasing at thebeginning of twenty-first century Despite significant converter-station costs HVDC is techno-economically preferred in general applications for

bull long-distance large-scale power transferbull subsea and long-distance cable-power transmissionbull interconnecting asynchronous AC systems or systems with different frequenciesbull controllable power transfer between different nodes in an electricity market or marketsbull AC grid-stability support ancillary service provision and resilience to blackoutsbull connecting isolated systems like offshore wind farms or oil platforms

DC transmission technology was used in many instances in very early power systems but modernHVDC transmission begins with the 1954 SwedenndashGotland installation This system and all the otherHVDCs commissioned until the mid-1970s were based on mercury arc valves A significant technicaladvance came with the introduction of solid-state valves (thyristors) although they only support theline-commutated converter (LCC) concept In the first decade of the twenty-first century there hasbeen very rapid development of fundamentally new technologies and an increasing demand forHVDC technology The introduction of voltage-source converters (VSCs) requires new valves whichuse insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and also new protection and control approaches Themodular multilevel converters have eventually emerged as the most cost effective VSC converterconcept which practically eliminates filtering needs with HVDC and removes voltage limits withVSC valves

In the second decade of the twenty-first century it has become apparent that DC transmission gridsare a technically feasible and viable solution to large-scale energy challenges The primary applicationdrivers come from initiatives like the North Sea DC grid Medtech Desertec the European overlaysuper grid and Atlantic Wind It is accepted that the DC transmission grids must have levels of reliabil-ity and technical performance that are similar to or better than an AC transmission system This level ofperformance security and reliability is technically feasible although in many aspects DC grids will be

substantially different from traditional AC systems The development of DC grids brings significanttechnical advances in HVDC technologies in particular related to DC circuit breakers (CBs) DCDC converters and DC protection systems and substantial further research and development areanticipated

Nowadays HVDC and DC grids are associated with green energy as facilitators of large-scalerenewable energy plants This helps with public acceptance and image and facilitates furtherinvestments in large public projects HVDC is perceived as the technology that avoids pylons by usinglong underground cables further strengthening arguments for future funding decisions

The timing of this book is therefore in step with an increased interest in HVDC and a projectedsignificant increase in its use

The book is organized in three parts in order to study all three major HVDC concepts ndash linecommutated HVDC VSC HVDC and DC grids current research developments Each part will reviewtheoretical concepts and analyse aspects of technology interaction with AC grids modelling controlfaults and protection with particular emphasis on practical implementation aspects and on reportedoperational issues

The technical field of HVDC transmission and DC grids straddles three major traditional electricalengineering disciplines

bull Power transmission engineering The impact of HVDC systems on the connecting AC transmissionsystems and the national grid is of primary importance The influence of AC systems onHVDC is alsoof significance in terms of technical performance stability protection and power transfer security ingeneral Harmonic interaction will be studied in some depth

bull Power electronics Each HVDC link involves at least two ACDC converters whereas DC grids willhave many more including semiconductor DC CBs and DCDC converters These converters havefeatures that are similar to those of traditional low-power converters but many other unique require-ments exist to develop valves and converter assemblies capable of sustaining up to 800 kV andperhaps over 4500 A The protection of valves and converters is very important and is a definingpower electronics feature in HVDC

bull Control engineering Modelling and simulation of HVDC is essential for design and operation andseveral different modelling approaches exist depending on the model application In particularbecause of the high costs of HVDC testing and the consequences of any design issues model accur-acy and simulation speed play crucial role in the system design The control systems for HVDC haveevolved into very complex technologies which are always multivariable nonlinear and with multiplecontrol layers

The above three technical disciplines will be employed in this book in order to analyse all essentialtechnical aspects of HVDC and DC grids which is aimed to facilitate learning by researchers and engin-eers who are interested in this field

The material in this book includes contributions from many HVDC researchers and engineers andit is developed from research projects funded by several research councils and private firms Moreimportantly the studies are inspired by and build on previous work by numerous great HVDCengineers

The authors are particularly grateful to ALSTOM Grid UK for providing their comprehensivereport HVDC Connecting to the Future as well as to SIEMENS Germany and ABB Sweden fortheir HVDC photographs We are also indebted to the researchers at the University of Aberdeen PowerSystems Group and in particular to DrWeixing Lin Dr Ali Jamshidifar DrMasood Hajian Dr HuibinZhang and Dr Lu Zhang for their contributions

We would like to give our special thanks to SSE Scotland and in particular to Andrew Robertsonfor their support for the HVDC course at University of Aberdeen which provided important materialfor this book

xii Preface

The authors are also grateful to the following organizations which supported related research studiesat the University of Aberdeen

bull Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) UKbull European Research Council (ERC) FP 7 Ideas Programmebull Reacuteseau de Transport drsquoEacutelectriciteacute (RTE) France

Dragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmed

xiiiPreface

Part IHVDC with CurrentSource Converters

1Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

11 HVDC Applications

Thyristor-based high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission has been used in over 150point-to-point installations worldwide In each case it has proven to be technologically andor econom-ically superior to AC transmission Typical HVDC applications can be grouped as follows

bull Submarine power transmission The AC cables have large capacitance and for cables over 40ndash70 kmthe reactive power circulation is unacceptable This distance can be extended somewhat with reactivepower compensation For larger distances HVDC is more economical A good example is the580 km 700MW plusmn450 kV NorNed HVDC between Norway and the Netherlands

bull Long-distance overhead lines Long AC lines require variable reactive power compensation Typically600ndash800 km is the breakeven distance and for larger distances HVDC is more economical A goodexample is the 1360 km 31 GW plusmn500 kV Pacific DC intertie along the west coast of the United States

bull Interconnecting two AC networks of different frequencies A good example is the 500MW plusmn79 kVback-to-back Melo HVDC between Uruguay and Brazil The Uruguay system operates at 50 Hzwhereas Brazilrsquos national grid runs at 60 Hz

bull Interconnecting two unsynchronized AC grids If phase difference between two AC systems is largethey cannot be directly connected A typical example is the 150MW plusmn42 kV McNeill back-to-backHVDC link between Alberta and Saskatchewan interconnecting asynchronous eastern and westernAmerican systems

bull Controllable power exchange between two AC networks (for trading) The AC power flow is deter-mined by the line impedances and it cannot therefore be controlled directly in each line In complexAC networks it is common to observe loop power flow or even overloading or underutilization ofsome AC lines Many HVDC systems participate directly in trading power and one typical exampleis the 200MW plusmn57 kV Highgate HVDC between Quebec and Vermont

There are other less common applications of LCC (line-commutated converter) HVDC technologyincluding the 300MW Levis De-Icer HVDC project Here one standard HVDC converter station ndash a

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

converter from a Static Var Compensator (SVC) ndash is used to provide a very high DC current of up to7920A (feeding essentially a DC short circuit) to enable heating of remote Canadian overhead linesin order to prevent ice buildup

An important argument for selecting HVDC instead of an AC for a new transmission line is thecontribution to the short-circuit level High-voltage direct current is able to limit the fault currentand therefore it will not require the upgrading of substation equipment

Figure 11 shows a comparison of costs for DC and AC transmission lines In the case of HVDC theinitial capital investment is much higher because of the converter costs As the transmission distanceincreases the benefits of DC offset the capital investment and at certain distance the total cost of anHVDC system is same as an AC line The breakeven distance is in the range of 40ndash70 km for submarinecables and in the range of 600ndash800 km for overhead lines Figure 12 shows an aerial view of the

HVDC station costs

Line length

Breakeven distanceFor cables 40ndash70 km

For overhead lines 600ndash800 kmHVAC station costs

HVAC

HVDC

Cost

Figure 11 HVDC and HVAC transmission cost comparison

Figure 12 Terminal station of Moyle HVDC interconnector (Bipole 2 times 250MW plusmn250 kV with light triggeredthyristors commissioned in 2001) Reproduced with permission of Siemens

4 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

terminal station of the 500 MW Moyle HVDC link This HVDC enables a controllable bidirectionalpower exchange between Scotland and Northern Ireland

12 Line-Commutated HVDC Components

Figure 13 shows a typical LCC HVDC schematic interconnecting AC systems 1 and 2 It consistsof two terminals and a DC line between them Each terminal (converter station) includes converterstransformers filters reactive power equipment control station and a range of other components Thereare two DC lines in this figure while one line is at ground potential

As shown in Figure 13 the major components of an HVDC system include

bull Converters They typically include one or more six-pulse thyristor (Graetz) bridges Each bridgeconsists of six thyristor valves which in turn contain hundreds of individual thyristors With largesystems bridges are connected in series in 12-pulse or 24-pulse configuration The 12-pulse converterscan be connected into poles or bipoles

bull Converter transformers These are a special converter transformer type which is somewhat moreexpensive than typical AC transformers of the same rating The converter transformers are designedto operate with high harmonic currents and they are designed to withstand AC and DC voltage stressIn most cases converter transformers will have tap changers which enable optimization of HVDCoperation

bull Smoothing reactors on DC side Typical inductance for large HVDC systems is 01ndash05 H which isdetermined considering DC fault responses commutation failure and dynamic stability The reactorsare of air-core natural air-cooling type and costs are modest

bull Reactive power compensation The converters typically require reactive power of around 60 ofthe converter power rating A large portion of this reactive power is supplied with filter banksand the remaining part with capacitor banks Reactive power demand varies with DC power levelso the capacitors are arranged in switchable banks

bull Filters A typical 12-pulse thyristor terminal will require 11th 13th 23rd and 25th filters on the ACside A high-pass filter is frequently included In some cases third harmonic filters are required SomeHVDC systems with overhead lines also employ DC-side filters

Reactive power

compensationReactive powercompensation

FiltersFilters

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Terminal 1 Terminal 2Smoothing

reactorSmoothing

reactor

Thyristorbridge

α1 α2

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Electrodes

Station 1

control

Station 2

controlCommunication

system

DC line

DC lineI1dc I2dc

V1dcpV2dcp

CB

CB

CB

CB

V1g V2g

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

AC system 23 phase V2g f2

Y ΔYΔ

YYY Y

Figure 13 Typical HVDC schematic (12-pulse monopole with metallic return)

5Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

bull Electrodes Some old HVDC systems normally operate with seaground return but most grid oper-ators no longer allow permanent ground currents for environmental reasons Electrodes demandongoing maintenance costs Many new bipolar systems are allowed to operate with ground returnat half power for a short time (10ndash20 minutes) in case of loss of an HVDC pole This implies thatelectrodes are designed for full current but carry no current in normal operation

bull Control and communication system Each terminal will have a control system consisting of severalhierarchical layers A dedicated communication link between terminals is needed but speed is notcritical An HVDC link can operate in the event of a loss of a communication link

13 DC Cables and Overhead Lines

131 Introduction

Line-commutated converter HVDC has been implemented using overhead lines and undergroundsubsea DC cables Overhead lines are vulnerable to lightning strikes which are essentially DC faultsNevertheless DC faults only cause transient disturbances and they are readily managed by LCCHVDCOn the other hand with voltage source converter (VSC) HVDC as will be discussed later DC faultscause much more serious disturbances

The most common cable technologies that have been developed so far include

bull mass-impregnated (MI) cablesbull low-pressure oil-filled (LPOF) cablesbull extruded cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables

The above cable types have same conductors and their construction is similar but the insulationmaterial is substantially different The cable voltage rating depends on the capability of the insulation(dielectric) material and there are two main types of dielectrics namely lapped and extruded

132 Mass-impregnated (MI) Cables

Since 1895 MI cables have been used in power transmission In MI cables the dielectric is lappedpaper insulation which is impregnated with high-viscosity fluid For bulk power transmission massimpregnated cables still prove to be the most suitable solution because of their capacity to work upto 500 kV DC These cables also tolerate fast DC voltage polarity reversal making them suitablefor LCC HVDC The MI cables have a long record of field operation at voltages of 500 kV and trans-mission capacity of over 800 MW (16 kA) for monopole HVDC but 600 kV and 1000 MW ratingshave been announced An HVDCwith a bipolar connection is therefore able to transmit up to 2000MWwith MI cables These cables can be installed at depths to 1000 m under the sea level and with nearlyunlimited transmission length The capacity of this system is limited by the conductor temperaturewhich can reduce overload capabilities The 580 km-long 700MW 450 kV cable link between Norwayand the Netherlands represents the greatest power and length for this cable type At present over 90 ofsubmarine cables are of the MI type

133 Low-pressure Oil-filled Cables

Low-pressure oil-filled cables are similar in construction to MI cables but the cables are insulated withpaper impregnated with low viscosity oil under an overpressure of a few bars The technology availabletoday ensures voltages up to 500 kV and powers up to 2800MW for underground installation It can beused for bothACandDC transmission applicationsAs oil flow is required along the cable cable length islimited to around 80 km The risk of oil leakage must be taken into account for environmental reasons

6 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

134 Extruded Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE) Cables

Extruded cross-linked polyethylene cables cannot withstand fast polarity reversal and they are not nor-mally used with LCC HVDC (unless it is a unidirectional system) They will be discussed further withVSC HVDC

The above three types of cables are used for both underground and submarine cables and their basicproperties are shown in Table 11 The difference between the underground and submarine cables is inthe conductor material and the armour layer Armour strengthening is used in submarine cables to with-stand the axial mechanical tension during laying and operation

Cables with copper conductors are used for submarine applications whereas aluminium conductorsare generally preferred for underground Copper has high electrical conductivity and mechanical prop-erties It is also simpler to implement strong joints using copper However it is heavy and more expen-sive and for these reasons it is used when the mechanical properties are mandatory as in submarinecables Aluminium has low conductivity and low mechanical properties Splicing is more difficultIt is lighter and less expensive than copper

14 LCC HVDC Topologies

High-voltage direct-current systems are divided into transmission systems and back-to-back HVDCHigh-voltage direct-current transmission can be bipolar or monopolar

Monopolar HVDC is typically used for smaller systems and the topology is shown in Figure 14Typically positive DC voltage is adopted because of less corona issues The return current can runthrough ground or a dedicated cable can be employed If a return cable is used (metallic return) it will

Table 11 DC cables types for underground and submarine application

Type Mass impregnated Oil filled XLPE

Conductor CuAl CuAl CuAlInsulation Paper and mass Paper and fluid Cross-linked PEVoltage (kV) 600 500 320 (525 kV is available)Capacity per cable (MW) 1000 2800 1000Converter type LCC or VSC LCC or VSC VSC or unidirectional LCCDistance Unlimited Limited because of oil Unlimited

Y Y

Y ΔYΔ

YY

V1gV2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

V1dcp V2dcp

DC cable (p)I1dc I2dc

α1α2

Figure 14 Twelve-pulse monopolar HVDC with ground return

7Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

be at ground potential with low insulation level (typically around 10 kV) and costs are therefore lowerthan positive-pole DC cable A 12-pulse topology is shown with two six-pulse converters in series

Figure 15 shows a bipolar HVDC Bipolar HVDC has two independent poles and it can operate athalf power if one DC cable or pole is out of service Normally the poles are balanced and there is noground current but ground return would be used if one pole is out of service In modern grid codesground current would not be allowed because of environmental concerns In some national standardsground currents are allowed only for short periods of time in emergency situations (eg secondaryreserve startup for 10ndash20 minutes) Instead of ground return a third cable or DC cable from the faultedpole can sometimes be used

Figure 16 shows a back-to-back HVDC which is frequently monopolar In this topology bothconverter terminals are located in a single station and DC cables are very short The main purposeof back-to-back HVDC is to provide controllable power transfer between two asynchronous AC

α1

α1

α2

α2

Y Δ Δ

Y Y

Y Δ

Y Y

Y

Y

Δ Y

Y

Y

Y

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

Negative

pole

Negative

pole

Positive

polePositive

pole

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

Terminal 1

Bridge

Bridge

Bridge Bridge

Bridge

Bridge

Electrodes Electrodes

Bridge

Bridge

Terminal 2

DC cable (p)

DC cable (n)

V1dcp

V1dcn

V2dcp

V2dcn

I1dc I2dc

V1g V2g

Figure 15 Bipolar HVDC (12-pulse) with ground return

Y ΔΔ

Y Y

Y

YY

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2

V1gV2g

α1α2

V1dcp

I1dc

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

Figure 16 Back-to-back HVDC topology

8 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

systems or AC systems with different frequency As DC cables are very short and therefore transmis-sion losses are low back-to-back HVDC are designed at low voltage (as high current as possible) inorder to reduce costs (costs are proportional to insulation level) The smoothing reactors are very smallor not required because there is a low probability of DC line faults Back-to-back HVDC allows foroperation with variable DC voltage and this facilitates some limited reactive power control capability

15 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems

The losses in HVDC systems will include converter station losses and DC cable losses Figure 17shows the main components of typical HVDC station losses The total LCC HVDC station losses willdepend on the size of HVDC station the voltage level configuration and typically may amount to05ndash1 of the power transfer

At partial loading the percentage losses will generally increase Figure 18 shows the load depen-dence of major loss components As an example magnetizing current in converter transformers willbe constant irrespective of loading and at 10 loading the transformer losses are 20

3

25

8

2

5

1

56

Auxiliaries

Converter valves

AC harmonic filters

Valve cooling plant

DC smoothing reactors

HF filter

Converter transformer

Figure 17 Breakdown of typical LCC HVDC station losses at 1 pu power

100

Loss c

om

ponent (

)

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Converted valves

Converted transformer

AC harmonic filters

DC smoothing reactor

DC power ()

Figure 18 Variation of HVDC station losses with the DC power shown relative to 1 pu losses

9Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

16 Conversion of AC Lines to DC

There have been many studies worldwide on converting existing AC lines into DC This mainly resultsfrom the desire to increase AC line capacity or to remove stability constraints These issues usuallyrequire costly line upgradesreconductoring series compensation or installing a device from the flexibleAC transmission systems (FACTS) family In such cases conversion to HVDC can usually offer thehighest capacity increase and a range of other benefits Typically towers and conductors will not bechanged but insulators may need to be upgraded to operate with DC lines

The main advantages of converting existing AC line to HVDC are

bull an increase in capacitybull fewer corona issues and a generally higher operating voltagebull better control of active and reactive power and other system-level benefitsbull better stability limits and active stabilization of the gridbull lower transmission losses

Some of the disadvantages of conversion to HVDC include

bull more pollution is attracted to insulators energized with DC ndash insulator upgrade is recommendedbull converter station costs

Figure 19 shows some common options for converting a single-circuit three-phase AC transmissioninto DC which include

bull The first option employs all three conductors for a single DC pole while the ground is used for returnThis method will significantly increase current carrying capacity but ground return will not beallowed in many modern systems

bull The second option adopts DC bipole with metallic return The neutral conductor can be used formonopolar operation

bull The third option is based on the tripole HVDC concept This method uses the third conductor alter-natively as a positive or negative pole which exploits the long thermal constants of conductors Thecapacity increase of around 37 is achieved (over bipole configuration) using lines and the RMSvalues of current in the conductors (over 10 minutes) are equal to the conductor rating An additionalbidirectional converter is required

17 Ultra-High Voltage HVDC

The standard DC voltage for HVDC is 500 kV and the Itaipu 3150MW plusmn600 kV HVDC has used thehighest DC voltage for a long period However the emerging requirements for bulk power transmission

R S

+

0

+

ndash

+

+

+ndash ndash+

TAC

DC monopole with ground return

DC bipole with metalic return

DC tripole with metalic return

Figure 19 Options for conversion of three-phase AC lines into DC

10 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

over long distances of 5ndash10 GW in Asia Africa and South America in late 1990s have resulted in theprogressive development of UHVDC (ultra-high voltage direct current)

XiangjiabandashShanghai 6400MW plusmn800 kV UHVDC implemented in 2010 was the first commercialUHVDC and four other plusmn800 kV systems have been implemented in 2011ndash2013 while studies areunderway for 1100 kV DC voltages The progress towards UHVDC has demanded a lot of researchand development effort and the main challenges are summarized below

bull improving insulation in particular in polluted areasbull transformer development including bushingsbull developing ultra-high voltage (UHV) test centres

It is important to appreciate that all the equipment including auxiliaries that connect to DC linesmust be changed to UHV In practice this translates to longer units ndash bushings arresters VT (voltagetransducers) CT (current transducers) and so forth ndash with more series-connected basic elementsFrequently the main challenge is the need for mechanical strength in the face of increased forces fromseismic requirements wind and other factors

The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes a standard method of increasinginsulation levels although developing UHV insulators and bushings remains challenging

The UHV valve design is not considered to be a significant obstacle

11Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

substantially different from traditional AC systems The development of DC grids brings significanttechnical advances in HVDC technologies in particular related to DC circuit breakers (CBs) DCDC converters and DC protection systems and substantial further research and development areanticipated

Nowadays HVDC and DC grids are associated with green energy as facilitators of large-scalerenewable energy plants This helps with public acceptance and image and facilitates furtherinvestments in large public projects HVDC is perceived as the technology that avoids pylons by usinglong underground cables further strengthening arguments for future funding decisions

The timing of this book is therefore in step with an increased interest in HVDC and a projectedsignificant increase in its use

The book is organized in three parts in order to study all three major HVDC concepts ndash linecommutated HVDC VSC HVDC and DC grids current research developments Each part will reviewtheoretical concepts and analyse aspects of technology interaction with AC grids modelling controlfaults and protection with particular emphasis on practical implementation aspects and on reportedoperational issues

The technical field of HVDC transmission and DC grids straddles three major traditional electricalengineering disciplines

bull Power transmission engineering The impact of HVDC systems on the connecting AC transmissionsystems and the national grid is of primary importance The influence of AC systems onHVDC is alsoof significance in terms of technical performance stability protection and power transfer security ingeneral Harmonic interaction will be studied in some depth

bull Power electronics Each HVDC link involves at least two ACDC converters whereas DC grids willhave many more including semiconductor DC CBs and DCDC converters These converters havefeatures that are similar to those of traditional low-power converters but many other unique require-ments exist to develop valves and converter assemblies capable of sustaining up to 800 kV andperhaps over 4500 A The protection of valves and converters is very important and is a definingpower electronics feature in HVDC

bull Control engineering Modelling and simulation of HVDC is essential for design and operation andseveral different modelling approaches exist depending on the model application In particularbecause of the high costs of HVDC testing and the consequences of any design issues model accur-acy and simulation speed play crucial role in the system design The control systems for HVDC haveevolved into very complex technologies which are always multivariable nonlinear and with multiplecontrol layers

The above three technical disciplines will be employed in this book in order to analyse all essentialtechnical aspects of HVDC and DC grids which is aimed to facilitate learning by researchers and engin-eers who are interested in this field

The material in this book includes contributions from many HVDC researchers and engineers andit is developed from research projects funded by several research councils and private firms Moreimportantly the studies are inspired by and build on previous work by numerous great HVDCengineers

The authors are particularly grateful to ALSTOM Grid UK for providing their comprehensivereport HVDC Connecting to the Future as well as to SIEMENS Germany and ABB Sweden fortheir HVDC photographs We are also indebted to the researchers at the University of Aberdeen PowerSystems Group and in particular to DrWeixing Lin Dr Ali Jamshidifar DrMasood Hajian Dr HuibinZhang and Dr Lu Zhang for their contributions

We would like to give our special thanks to SSE Scotland and in particular to Andrew Robertsonfor their support for the HVDC course at University of Aberdeen which provided important materialfor this book

xii Preface

The authors are also grateful to the following organizations which supported related research studiesat the University of Aberdeen

bull Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) UKbull European Research Council (ERC) FP 7 Ideas Programmebull Reacuteseau de Transport drsquoEacutelectriciteacute (RTE) France

Dragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmed

xiiiPreface

Part IHVDC with CurrentSource Converters

1Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

11 HVDC Applications

Thyristor-based high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission has been used in over 150point-to-point installations worldwide In each case it has proven to be technologically andor econom-ically superior to AC transmission Typical HVDC applications can be grouped as follows

bull Submarine power transmission The AC cables have large capacitance and for cables over 40ndash70 kmthe reactive power circulation is unacceptable This distance can be extended somewhat with reactivepower compensation For larger distances HVDC is more economical A good example is the580 km 700MW plusmn450 kV NorNed HVDC between Norway and the Netherlands

bull Long-distance overhead lines Long AC lines require variable reactive power compensation Typically600ndash800 km is the breakeven distance and for larger distances HVDC is more economical A goodexample is the 1360 km 31 GW plusmn500 kV Pacific DC intertie along the west coast of the United States

bull Interconnecting two AC networks of different frequencies A good example is the 500MW plusmn79 kVback-to-back Melo HVDC between Uruguay and Brazil The Uruguay system operates at 50 Hzwhereas Brazilrsquos national grid runs at 60 Hz

bull Interconnecting two unsynchronized AC grids If phase difference between two AC systems is largethey cannot be directly connected A typical example is the 150MW plusmn42 kV McNeill back-to-backHVDC link between Alberta and Saskatchewan interconnecting asynchronous eastern and westernAmerican systems

bull Controllable power exchange between two AC networks (for trading) The AC power flow is deter-mined by the line impedances and it cannot therefore be controlled directly in each line In complexAC networks it is common to observe loop power flow or even overloading or underutilization ofsome AC lines Many HVDC systems participate directly in trading power and one typical exampleis the 200MW plusmn57 kV Highgate HVDC between Quebec and Vermont

There are other less common applications of LCC (line-commutated converter) HVDC technologyincluding the 300MW Levis De-Icer HVDC project Here one standard HVDC converter station ndash a

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

converter from a Static Var Compensator (SVC) ndash is used to provide a very high DC current of up to7920A (feeding essentially a DC short circuit) to enable heating of remote Canadian overhead linesin order to prevent ice buildup

An important argument for selecting HVDC instead of an AC for a new transmission line is thecontribution to the short-circuit level High-voltage direct current is able to limit the fault currentand therefore it will not require the upgrading of substation equipment

Figure 11 shows a comparison of costs for DC and AC transmission lines In the case of HVDC theinitial capital investment is much higher because of the converter costs As the transmission distanceincreases the benefits of DC offset the capital investment and at certain distance the total cost of anHVDC system is same as an AC line The breakeven distance is in the range of 40ndash70 km for submarinecables and in the range of 600ndash800 km for overhead lines Figure 12 shows an aerial view of the

HVDC station costs

Line length

Breakeven distanceFor cables 40ndash70 km

For overhead lines 600ndash800 kmHVAC station costs

HVAC

HVDC

Cost

Figure 11 HVDC and HVAC transmission cost comparison

Figure 12 Terminal station of Moyle HVDC interconnector (Bipole 2 times 250MW plusmn250 kV with light triggeredthyristors commissioned in 2001) Reproduced with permission of Siemens

4 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

terminal station of the 500 MW Moyle HVDC link This HVDC enables a controllable bidirectionalpower exchange between Scotland and Northern Ireland

12 Line-Commutated HVDC Components

Figure 13 shows a typical LCC HVDC schematic interconnecting AC systems 1 and 2 It consistsof two terminals and a DC line between them Each terminal (converter station) includes converterstransformers filters reactive power equipment control station and a range of other components Thereare two DC lines in this figure while one line is at ground potential

As shown in Figure 13 the major components of an HVDC system include

bull Converters They typically include one or more six-pulse thyristor (Graetz) bridges Each bridgeconsists of six thyristor valves which in turn contain hundreds of individual thyristors With largesystems bridges are connected in series in 12-pulse or 24-pulse configuration The 12-pulse converterscan be connected into poles or bipoles

bull Converter transformers These are a special converter transformer type which is somewhat moreexpensive than typical AC transformers of the same rating The converter transformers are designedto operate with high harmonic currents and they are designed to withstand AC and DC voltage stressIn most cases converter transformers will have tap changers which enable optimization of HVDCoperation

bull Smoothing reactors on DC side Typical inductance for large HVDC systems is 01ndash05 H which isdetermined considering DC fault responses commutation failure and dynamic stability The reactorsare of air-core natural air-cooling type and costs are modest

bull Reactive power compensation The converters typically require reactive power of around 60 ofthe converter power rating A large portion of this reactive power is supplied with filter banksand the remaining part with capacitor banks Reactive power demand varies with DC power levelso the capacitors are arranged in switchable banks

bull Filters A typical 12-pulse thyristor terminal will require 11th 13th 23rd and 25th filters on the ACside A high-pass filter is frequently included In some cases third harmonic filters are required SomeHVDC systems with overhead lines also employ DC-side filters

Reactive power

compensationReactive powercompensation

FiltersFilters

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Terminal 1 Terminal 2Smoothing

reactorSmoothing

reactor

Thyristorbridge

α1 α2

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Electrodes

Station 1

control

Station 2

controlCommunication

system

DC line

DC lineI1dc I2dc

V1dcpV2dcp

CB

CB

CB

CB

V1g V2g

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

AC system 23 phase V2g f2

Y ΔYΔ

YYY Y

Figure 13 Typical HVDC schematic (12-pulse monopole with metallic return)

5Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

bull Electrodes Some old HVDC systems normally operate with seaground return but most grid oper-ators no longer allow permanent ground currents for environmental reasons Electrodes demandongoing maintenance costs Many new bipolar systems are allowed to operate with ground returnat half power for a short time (10ndash20 minutes) in case of loss of an HVDC pole This implies thatelectrodes are designed for full current but carry no current in normal operation

bull Control and communication system Each terminal will have a control system consisting of severalhierarchical layers A dedicated communication link between terminals is needed but speed is notcritical An HVDC link can operate in the event of a loss of a communication link

13 DC Cables and Overhead Lines

131 Introduction

Line-commutated converter HVDC has been implemented using overhead lines and undergroundsubsea DC cables Overhead lines are vulnerable to lightning strikes which are essentially DC faultsNevertheless DC faults only cause transient disturbances and they are readily managed by LCCHVDCOn the other hand with voltage source converter (VSC) HVDC as will be discussed later DC faultscause much more serious disturbances

The most common cable technologies that have been developed so far include

bull mass-impregnated (MI) cablesbull low-pressure oil-filled (LPOF) cablesbull extruded cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables

The above cable types have same conductors and their construction is similar but the insulationmaterial is substantially different The cable voltage rating depends on the capability of the insulation(dielectric) material and there are two main types of dielectrics namely lapped and extruded

132 Mass-impregnated (MI) Cables

Since 1895 MI cables have been used in power transmission In MI cables the dielectric is lappedpaper insulation which is impregnated with high-viscosity fluid For bulk power transmission massimpregnated cables still prove to be the most suitable solution because of their capacity to work upto 500 kV DC These cables also tolerate fast DC voltage polarity reversal making them suitablefor LCC HVDC The MI cables have a long record of field operation at voltages of 500 kV and trans-mission capacity of over 800 MW (16 kA) for monopole HVDC but 600 kV and 1000 MW ratingshave been announced An HVDCwith a bipolar connection is therefore able to transmit up to 2000MWwith MI cables These cables can be installed at depths to 1000 m under the sea level and with nearlyunlimited transmission length The capacity of this system is limited by the conductor temperaturewhich can reduce overload capabilities The 580 km-long 700MW 450 kV cable link between Norwayand the Netherlands represents the greatest power and length for this cable type At present over 90 ofsubmarine cables are of the MI type

133 Low-pressure Oil-filled Cables

Low-pressure oil-filled cables are similar in construction to MI cables but the cables are insulated withpaper impregnated with low viscosity oil under an overpressure of a few bars The technology availabletoday ensures voltages up to 500 kV and powers up to 2800MW for underground installation It can beused for bothACandDC transmission applicationsAs oil flow is required along the cable cable length islimited to around 80 km The risk of oil leakage must be taken into account for environmental reasons

6 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

134 Extruded Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE) Cables

Extruded cross-linked polyethylene cables cannot withstand fast polarity reversal and they are not nor-mally used with LCC HVDC (unless it is a unidirectional system) They will be discussed further withVSC HVDC

The above three types of cables are used for both underground and submarine cables and their basicproperties are shown in Table 11 The difference between the underground and submarine cables is inthe conductor material and the armour layer Armour strengthening is used in submarine cables to with-stand the axial mechanical tension during laying and operation

Cables with copper conductors are used for submarine applications whereas aluminium conductorsare generally preferred for underground Copper has high electrical conductivity and mechanical prop-erties It is also simpler to implement strong joints using copper However it is heavy and more expen-sive and for these reasons it is used when the mechanical properties are mandatory as in submarinecables Aluminium has low conductivity and low mechanical properties Splicing is more difficultIt is lighter and less expensive than copper

14 LCC HVDC Topologies

High-voltage direct-current systems are divided into transmission systems and back-to-back HVDCHigh-voltage direct-current transmission can be bipolar or monopolar

Monopolar HVDC is typically used for smaller systems and the topology is shown in Figure 14Typically positive DC voltage is adopted because of less corona issues The return current can runthrough ground or a dedicated cable can be employed If a return cable is used (metallic return) it will

Table 11 DC cables types for underground and submarine application

Type Mass impregnated Oil filled XLPE

Conductor CuAl CuAl CuAlInsulation Paper and mass Paper and fluid Cross-linked PEVoltage (kV) 600 500 320 (525 kV is available)Capacity per cable (MW) 1000 2800 1000Converter type LCC or VSC LCC or VSC VSC or unidirectional LCCDistance Unlimited Limited because of oil Unlimited

Y Y

Y ΔYΔ

YY

V1gV2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

V1dcp V2dcp

DC cable (p)I1dc I2dc

α1α2

Figure 14 Twelve-pulse monopolar HVDC with ground return

7Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

be at ground potential with low insulation level (typically around 10 kV) and costs are therefore lowerthan positive-pole DC cable A 12-pulse topology is shown with two six-pulse converters in series

Figure 15 shows a bipolar HVDC Bipolar HVDC has two independent poles and it can operate athalf power if one DC cable or pole is out of service Normally the poles are balanced and there is noground current but ground return would be used if one pole is out of service In modern grid codesground current would not be allowed because of environmental concerns In some national standardsground currents are allowed only for short periods of time in emergency situations (eg secondaryreserve startup for 10ndash20 minutes) Instead of ground return a third cable or DC cable from the faultedpole can sometimes be used

Figure 16 shows a back-to-back HVDC which is frequently monopolar In this topology bothconverter terminals are located in a single station and DC cables are very short The main purposeof back-to-back HVDC is to provide controllable power transfer between two asynchronous AC

α1

α1

α2

α2

Y Δ Δ

Y Y

Y Δ

Y Y

Y

Y

Δ Y

Y

Y

Y

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

Negative

pole

Negative

pole

Positive

polePositive

pole

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

Terminal 1

Bridge

Bridge

Bridge Bridge

Bridge

Bridge

Electrodes Electrodes

Bridge

Bridge

Terminal 2

DC cable (p)

DC cable (n)

V1dcp

V1dcn

V2dcp

V2dcn

I1dc I2dc

V1g V2g

Figure 15 Bipolar HVDC (12-pulse) with ground return

Y ΔΔ

Y Y

Y

YY

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2

V1gV2g

α1α2

V1dcp

I1dc

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

Figure 16 Back-to-back HVDC topology

8 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

systems or AC systems with different frequency As DC cables are very short and therefore transmis-sion losses are low back-to-back HVDC are designed at low voltage (as high current as possible) inorder to reduce costs (costs are proportional to insulation level) The smoothing reactors are very smallor not required because there is a low probability of DC line faults Back-to-back HVDC allows foroperation with variable DC voltage and this facilitates some limited reactive power control capability

15 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems

The losses in HVDC systems will include converter station losses and DC cable losses Figure 17shows the main components of typical HVDC station losses The total LCC HVDC station losses willdepend on the size of HVDC station the voltage level configuration and typically may amount to05ndash1 of the power transfer

At partial loading the percentage losses will generally increase Figure 18 shows the load depen-dence of major loss components As an example magnetizing current in converter transformers willbe constant irrespective of loading and at 10 loading the transformer losses are 20

3

25

8

2

5

1

56

Auxiliaries

Converter valves

AC harmonic filters

Valve cooling plant

DC smoothing reactors

HF filter

Converter transformer

Figure 17 Breakdown of typical LCC HVDC station losses at 1 pu power

100

Loss c

om

ponent (

)

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Converted valves

Converted transformer

AC harmonic filters

DC smoothing reactor

DC power ()

Figure 18 Variation of HVDC station losses with the DC power shown relative to 1 pu losses

9Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

16 Conversion of AC Lines to DC

There have been many studies worldwide on converting existing AC lines into DC This mainly resultsfrom the desire to increase AC line capacity or to remove stability constraints These issues usuallyrequire costly line upgradesreconductoring series compensation or installing a device from the flexibleAC transmission systems (FACTS) family In such cases conversion to HVDC can usually offer thehighest capacity increase and a range of other benefits Typically towers and conductors will not bechanged but insulators may need to be upgraded to operate with DC lines

The main advantages of converting existing AC line to HVDC are

bull an increase in capacitybull fewer corona issues and a generally higher operating voltagebull better control of active and reactive power and other system-level benefitsbull better stability limits and active stabilization of the gridbull lower transmission losses

Some of the disadvantages of conversion to HVDC include

bull more pollution is attracted to insulators energized with DC ndash insulator upgrade is recommendedbull converter station costs

Figure 19 shows some common options for converting a single-circuit three-phase AC transmissioninto DC which include

bull The first option employs all three conductors for a single DC pole while the ground is used for returnThis method will significantly increase current carrying capacity but ground return will not beallowed in many modern systems

bull The second option adopts DC bipole with metallic return The neutral conductor can be used formonopolar operation

bull The third option is based on the tripole HVDC concept This method uses the third conductor alter-natively as a positive or negative pole which exploits the long thermal constants of conductors Thecapacity increase of around 37 is achieved (over bipole configuration) using lines and the RMSvalues of current in the conductors (over 10 minutes) are equal to the conductor rating An additionalbidirectional converter is required

17 Ultra-High Voltage HVDC

The standard DC voltage for HVDC is 500 kV and the Itaipu 3150MW plusmn600 kV HVDC has used thehighest DC voltage for a long period However the emerging requirements for bulk power transmission

R S

+

0

+

ndash

+

+

+ndash ndash+

TAC

DC monopole with ground return

DC bipole with metalic return

DC tripole with metalic return

Figure 19 Options for conversion of three-phase AC lines into DC

10 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

over long distances of 5ndash10 GW in Asia Africa and South America in late 1990s have resulted in theprogressive development of UHVDC (ultra-high voltage direct current)

XiangjiabandashShanghai 6400MW plusmn800 kV UHVDC implemented in 2010 was the first commercialUHVDC and four other plusmn800 kV systems have been implemented in 2011ndash2013 while studies areunderway for 1100 kV DC voltages The progress towards UHVDC has demanded a lot of researchand development effort and the main challenges are summarized below

bull improving insulation in particular in polluted areasbull transformer development including bushingsbull developing ultra-high voltage (UHV) test centres

It is important to appreciate that all the equipment including auxiliaries that connect to DC linesmust be changed to UHV In practice this translates to longer units ndash bushings arresters VT (voltagetransducers) CT (current transducers) and so forth ndash with more series-connected basic elementsFrequently the main challenge is the need for mechanical strength in the face of increased forces fromseismic requirements wind and other factors

The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes a standard method of increasinginsulation levels although developing UHV insulators and bushings remains challenging

The UHV valve design is not considered to be a significant obstacle

11Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

The authors are also grateful to the following organizations which supported related research studiesat the University of Aberdeen

bull Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) UKbull European Research Council (ERC) FP 7 Ideas Programmebull Reacuteseau de Transport drsquoEacutelectriciteacute (RTE) France

Dragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmed

xiiiPreface

Part IHVDC with CurrentSource Converters

1Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

11 HVDC Applications

Thyristor-based high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission has been used in over 150point-to-point installations worldwide In each case it has proven to be technologically andor econom-ically superior to AC transmission Typical HVDC applications can be grouped as follows

bull Submarine power transmission The AC cables have large capacitance and for cables over 40ndash70 kmthe reactive power circulation is unacceptable This distance can be extended somewhat with reactivepower compensation For larger distances HVDC is more economical A good example is the580 km 700MW plusmn450 kV NorNed HVDC between Norway and the Netherlands

bull Long-distance overhead lines Long AC lines require variable reactive power compensation Typically600ndash800 km is the breakeven distance and for larger distances HVDC is more economical A goodexample is the 1360 km 31 GW plusmn500 kV Pacific DC intertie along the west coast of the United States

bull Interconnecting two AC networks of different frequencies A good example is the 500MW plusmn79 kVback-to-back Melo HVDC between Uruguay and Brazil The Uruguay system operates at 50 Hzwhereas Brazilrsquos national grid runs at 60 Hz

bull Interconnecting two unsynchronized AC grids If phase difference between two AC systems is largethey cannot be directly connected A typical example is the 150MW plusmn42 kV McNeill back-to-backHVDC link between Alberta and Saskatchewan interconnecting asynchronous eastern and westernAmerican systems

bull Controllable power exchange between two AC networks (for trading) The AC power flow is deter-mined by the line impedances and it cannot therefore be controlled directly in each line In complexAC networks it is common to observe loop power flow or even overloading or underutilization ofsome AC lines Many HVDC systems participate directly in trading power and one typical exampleis the 200MW plusmn57 kV Highgate HVDC between Quebec and Vermont

There are other less common applications of LCC (line-commutated converter) HVDC technologyincluding the 300MW Levis De-Icer HVDC project Here one standard HVDC converter station ndash a

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

converter from a Static Var Compensator (SVC) ndash is used to provide a very high DC current of up to7920A (feeding essentially a DC short circuit) to enable heating of remote Canadian overhead linesin order to prevent ice buildup

An important argument for selecting HVDC instead of an AC for a new transmission line is thecontribution to the short-circuit level High-voltage direct current is able to limit the fault currentand therefore it will not require the upgrading of substation equipment

Figure 11 shows a comparison of costs for DC and AC transmission lines In the case of HVDC theinitial capital investment is much higher because of the converter costs As the transmission distanceincreases the benefits of DC offset the capital investment and at certain distance the total cost of anHVDC system is same as an AC line The breakeven distance is in the range of 40ndash70 km for submarinecables and in the range of 600ndash800 km for overhead lines Figure 12 shows an aerial view of the

HVDC station costs

Line length

Breakeven distanceFor cables 40ndash70 km

For overhead lines 600ndash800 kmHVAC station costs

HVAC

HVDC

Cost

Figure 11 HVDC and HVAC transmission cost comparison

Figure 12 Terminal station of Moyle HVDC interconnector (Bipole 2 times 250MW plusmn250 kV with light triggeredthyristors commissioned in 2001) Reproduced with permission of Siemens

4 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

terminal station of the 500 MW Moyle HVDC link This HVDC enables a controllable bidirectionalpower exchange between Scotland and Northern Ireland

12 Line-Commutated HVDC Components

Figure 13 shows a typical LCC HVDC schematic interconnecting AC systems 1 and 2 It consistsof two terminals and a DC line between them Each terminal (converter station) includes converterstransformers filters reactive power equipment control station and a range of other components Thereare two DC lines in this figure while one line is at ground potential

As shown in Figure 13 the major components of an HVDC system include

bull Converters They typically include one or more six-pulse thyristor (Graetz) bridges Each bridgeconsists of six thyristor valves which in turn contain hundreds of individual thyristors With largesystems bridges are connected in series in 12-pulse or 24-pulse configuration The 12-pulse converterscan be connected into poles or bipoles

bull Converter transformers These are a special converter transformer type which is somewhat moreexpensive than typical AC transformers of the same rating The converter transformers are designedto operate with high harmonic currents and they are designed to withstand AC and DC voltage stressIn most cases converter transformers will have tap changers which enable optimization of HVDCoperation

bull Smoothing reactors on DC side Typical inductance for large HVDC systems is 01ndash05 H which isdetermined considering DC fault responses commutation failure and dynamic stability The reactorsare of air-core natural air-cooling type and costs are modest

bull Reactive power compensation The converters typically require reactive power of around 60 ofthe converter power rating A large portion of this reactive power is supplied with filter banksand the remaining part with capacitor banks Reactive power demand varies with DC power levelso the capacitors are arranged in switchable banks

bull Filters A typical 12-pulse thyristor terminal will require 11th 13th 23rd and 25th filters on the ACside A high-pass filter is frequently included In some cases third harmonic filters are required SomeHVDC systems with overhead lines also employ DC-side filters

Reactive power

compensationReactive powercompensation

FiltersFilters

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Terminal 1 Terminal 2Smoothing

reactorSmoothing

reactor

Thyristorbridge

α1 α2

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Electrodes

Station 1

control

Station 2

controlCommunication

system

DC line

DC lineI1dc I2dc

V1dcpV2dcp

CB

CB

CB

CB

V1g V2g

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

AC system 23 phase V2g f2

Y ΔYΔ

YYY Y

Figure 13 Typical HVDC schematic (12-pulse monopole with metallic return)

5Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

bull Electrodes Some old HVDC systems normally operate with seaground return but most grid oper-ators no longer allow permanent ground currents for environmental reasons Electrodes demandongoing maintenance costs Many new bipolar systems are allowed to operate with ground returnat half power for a short time (10ndash20 minutes) in case of loss of an HVDC pole This implies thatelectrodes are designed for full current but carry no current in normal operation

bull Control and communication system Each terminal will have a control system consisting of severalhierarchical layers A dedicated communication link between terminals is needed but speed is notcritical An HVDC link can operate in the event of a loss of a communication link

13 DC Cables and Overhead Lines

131 Introduction

Line-commutated converter HVDC has been implemented using overhead lines and undergroundsubsea DC cables Overhead lines are vulnerable to lightning strikes which are essentially DC faultsNevertheless DC faults only cause transient disturbances and they are readily managed by LCCHVDCOn the other hand with voltage source converter (VSC) HVDC as will be discussed later DC faultscause much more serious disturbances

The most common cable technologies that have been developed so far include

bull mass-impregnated (MI) cablesbull low-pressure oil-filled (LPOF) cablesbull extruded cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables

The above cable types have same conductors and their construction is similar but the insulationmaterial is substantially different The cable voltage rating depends on the capability of the insulation(dielectric) material and there are two main types of dielectrics namely lapped and extruded

132 Mass-impregnated (MI) Cables

Since 1895 MI cables have been used in power transmission In MI cables the dielectric is lappedpaper insulation which is impregnated with high-viscosity fluid For bulk power transmission massimpregnated cables still prove to be the most suitable solution because of their capacity to work upto 500 kV DC These cables also tolerate fast DC voltage polarity reversal making them suitablefor LCC HVDC The MI cables have a long record of field operation at voltages of 500 kV and trans-mission capacity of over 800 MW (16 kA) for monopole HVDC but 600 kV and 1000 MW ratingshave been announced An HVDCwith a bipolar connection is therefore able to transmit up to 2000MWwith MI cables These cables can be installed at depths to 1000 m under the sea level and with nearlyunlimited transmission length The capacity of this system is limited by the conductor temperaturewhich can reduce overload capabilities The 580 km-long 700MW 450 kV cable link between Norwayand the Netherlands represents the greatest power and length for this cable type At present over 90 ofsubmarine cables are of the MI type

133 Low-pressure Oil-filled Cables

Low-pressure oil-filled cables are similar in construction to MI cables but the cables are insulated withpaper impregnated with low viscosity oil under an overpressure of a few bars The technology availabletoday ensures voltages up to 500 kV and powers up to 2800MW for underground installation It can beused for bothACandDC transmission applicationsAs oil flow is required along the cable cable length islimited to around 80 km The risk of oil leakage must be taken into account for environmental reasons

6 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

134 Extruded Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE) Cables

Extruded cross-linked polyethylene cables cannot withstand fast polarity reversal and they are not nor-mally used with LCC HVDC (unless it is a unidirectional system) They will be discussed further withVSC HVDC

The above three types of cables are used for both underground and submarine cables and their basicproperties are shown in Table 11 The difference between the underground and submarine cables is inthe conductor material and the armour layer Armour strengthening is used in submarine cables to with-stand the axial mechanical tension during laying and operation

Cables with copper conductors are used for submarine applications whereas aluminium conductorsare generally preferred for underground Copper has high electrical conductivity and mechanical prop-erties It is also simpler to implement strong joints using copper However it is heavy and more expen-sive and for these reasons it is used when the mechanical properties are mandatory as in submarinecables Aluminium has low conductivity and low mechanical properties Splicing is more difficultIt is lighter and less expensive than copper

14 LCC HVDC Topologies

High-voltage direct-current systems are divided into transmission systems and back-to-back HVDCHigh-voltage direct-current transmission can be bipolar or monopolar

Monopolar HVDC is typically used for smaller systems and the topology is shown in Figure 14Typically positive DC voltage is adopted because of less corona issues The return current can runthrough ground or a dedicated cable can be employed If a return cable is used (metallic return) it will

Table 11 DC cables types for underground and submarine application

Type Mass impregnated Oil filled XLPE

Conductor CuAl CuAl CuAlInsulation Paper and mass Paper and fluid Cross-linked PEVoltage (kV) 600 500 320 (525 kV is available)Capacity per cable (MW) 1000 2800 1000Converter type LCC or VSC LCC or VSC VSC or unidirectional LCCDistance Unlimited Limited because of oil Unlimited

Y Y

Y ΔYΔ

YY

V1gV2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

V1dcp V2dcp

DC cable (p)I1dc I2dc

α1α2

Figure 14 Twelve-pulse monopolar HVDC with ground return

7Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

be at ground potential with low insulation level (typically around 10 kV) and costs are therefore lowerthan positive-pole DC cable A 12-pulse topology is shown with two six-pulse converters in series

Figure 15 shows a bipolar HVDC Bipolar HVDC has two independent poles and it can operate athalf power if one DC cable or pole is out of service Normally the poles are balanced and there is noground current but ground return would be used if one pole is out of service In modern grid codesground current would not be allowed because of environmental concerns In some national standardsground currents are allowed only for short periods of time in emergency situations (eg secondaryreserve startup for 10ndash20 minutes) Instead of ground return a third cable or DC cable from the faultedpole can sometimes be used

Figure 16 shows a back-to-back HVDC which is frequently monopolar In this topology bothconverter terminals are located in a single station and DC cables are very short The main purposeof back-to-back HVDC is to provide controllable power transfer between two asynchronous AC

α1

α1

α2

α2

Y Δ Δ

Y Y

Y Δ

Y Y

Y

Y

Δ Y

Y

Y

Y

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

Negative

pole

Negative

pole

Positive

polePositive

pole

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

Terminal 1

Bridge

Bridge

Bridge Bridge

Bridge

Bridge

Electrodes Electrodes

Bridge

Bridge

Terminal 2

DC cable (p)

DC cable (n)

V1dcp

V1dcn

V2dcp

V2dcn

I1dc I2dc

V1g V2g

Figure 15 Bipolar HVDC (12-pulse) with ground return

Y ΔΔ

Y Y

Y

YY

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2

V1gV2g

α1α2

V1dcp

I1dc

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

Figure 16 Back-to-back HVDC topology

8 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

systems or AC systems with different frequency As DC cables are very short and therefore transmis-sion losses are low back-to-back HVDC are designed at low voltage (as high current as possible) inorder to reduce costs (costs are proportional to insulation level) The smoothing reactors are very smallor not required because there is a low probability of DC line faults Back-to-back HVDC allows foroperation with variable DC voltage and this facilitates some limited reactive power control capability

15 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems

The losses in HVDC systems will include converter station losses and DC cable losses Figure 17shows the main components of typical HVDC station losses The total LCC HVDC station losses willdepend on the size of HVDC station the voltage level configuration and typically may amount to05ndash1 of the power transfer

At partial loading the percentage losses will generally increase Figure 18 shows the load depen-dence of major loss components As an example magnetizing current in converter transformers willbe constant irrespective of loading and at 10 loading the transformer losses are 20

3

25

8

2

5

1

56

Auxiliaries

Converter valves

AC harmonic filters

Valve cooling plant

DC smoothing reactors

HF filter

Converter transformer

Figure 17 Breakdown of typical LCC HVDC station losses at 1 pu power

100

Loss c

om

ponent (

)

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Converted valves

Converted transformer

AC harmonic filters

DC smoothing reactor

DC power ()

Figure 18 Variation of HVDC station losses with the DC power shown relative to 1 pu losses

9Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

16 Conversion of AC Lines to DC

There have been many studies worldwide on converting existing AC lines into DC This mainly resultsfrom the desire to increase AC line capacity or to remove stability constraints These issues usuallyrequire costly line upgradesreconductoring series compensation or installing a device from the flexibleAC transmission systems (FACTS) family In such cases conversion to HVDC can usually offer thehighest capacity increase and a range of other benefits Typically towers and conductors will not bechanged but insulators may need to be upgraded to operate with DC lines

The main advantages of converting existing AC line to HVDC are

bull an increase in capacitybull fewer corona issues and a generally higher operating voltagebull better control of active and reactive power and other system-level benefitsbull better stability limits and active stabilization of the gridbull lower transmission losses

Some of the disadvantages of conversion to HVDC include

bull more pollution is attracted to insulators energized with DC ndash insulator upgrade is recommendedbull converter station costs

Figure 19 shows some common options for converting a single-circuit three-phase AC transmissioninto DC which include

bull The first option employs all three conductors for a single DC pole while the ground is used for returnThis method will significantly increase current carrying capacity but ground return will not beallowed in many modern systems

bull The second option adopts DC bipole with metallic return The neutral conductor can be used formonopolar operation

bull The third option is based on the tripole HVDC concept This method uses the third conductor alter-natively as a positive or negative pole which exploits the long thermal constants of conductors Thecapacity increase of around 37 is achieved (over bipole configuration) using lines and the RMSvalues of current in the conductors (over 10 minutes) are equal to the conductor rating An additionalbidirectional converter is required

17 Ultra-High Voltage HVDC

The standard DC voltage for HVDC is 500 kV and the Itaipu 3150MW plusmn600 kV HVDC has used thehighest DC voltage for a long period However the emerging requirements for bulk power transmission

R S

+

0

+

ndash

+

+

+ndash ndash+

TAC

DC monopole with ground return

DC bipole with metalic return

DC tripole with metalic return

Figure 19 Options for conversion of three-phase AC lines into DC

10 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

over long distances of 5ndash10 GW in Asia Africa and South America in late 1990s have resulted in theprogressive development of UHVDC (ultra-high voltage direct current)

XiangjiabandashShanghai 6400MW plusmn800 kV UHVDC implemented in 2010 was the first commercialUHVDC and four other plusmn800 kV systems have been implemented in 2011ndash2013 while studies areunderway for 1100 kV DC voltages The progress towards UHVDC has demanded a lot of researchand development effort and the main challenges are summarized below

bull improving insulation in particular in polluted areasbull transformer development including bushingsbull developing ultra-high voltage (UHV) test centres

It is important to appreciate that all the equipment including auxiliaries that connect to DC linesmust be changed to UHV In practice this translates to longer units ndash bushings arresters VT (voltagetransducers) CT (current transducers) and so forth ndash with more series-connected basic elementsFrequently the main challenge is the need for mechanical strength in the face of increased forces fromseismic requirements wind and other factors

The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes a standard method of increasinginsulation levels although developing UHV insulators and bushings remains challenging

The UHV valve design is not considered to be a significant obstacle

11Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

Part IHVDC with CurrentSource Converters

1Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

11 HVDC Applications

Thyristor-based high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission has been used in over 150point-to-point installations worldwide In each case it has proven to be technologically andor econom-ically superior to AC transmission Typical HVDC applications can be grouped as follows

bull Submarine power transmission The AC cables have large capacitance and for cables over 40ndash70 kmthe reactive power circulation is unacceptable This distance can be extended somewhat with reactivepower compensation For larger distances HVDC is more economical A good example is the580 km 700MW plusmn450 kV NorNed HVDC between Norway and the Netherlands

bull Long-distance overhead lines Long AC lines require variable reactive power compensation Typically600ndash800 km is the breakeven distance and for larger distances HVDC is more economical A goodexample is the 1360 km 31 GW plusmn500 kV Pacific DC intertie along the west coast of the United States

bull Interconnecting two AC networks of different frequencies A good example is the 500MW plusmn79 kVback-to-back Melo HVDC between Uruguay and Brazil The Uruguay system operates at 50 Hzwhereas Brazilrsquos national grid runs at 60 Hz

bull Interconnecting two unsynchronized AC grids If phase difference between two AC systems is largethey cannot be directly connected A typical example is the 150MW plusmn42 kV McNeill back-to-backHVDC link between Alberta and Saskatchewan interconnecting asynchronous eastern and westernAmerican systems

bull Controllable power exchange between two AC networks (for trading) The AC power flow is deter-mined by the line impedances and it cannot therefore be controlled directly in each line In complexAC networks it is common to observe loop power flow or even overloading or underutilization ofsome AC lines Many HVDC systems participate directly in trading power and one typical exampleis the 200MW plusmn57 kV Highgate HVDC between Quebec and Vermont

There are other less common applications of LCC (line-commutated converter) HVDC technologyincluding the 300MW Levis De-Icer HVDC project Here one standard HVDC converter station ndash a

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

converter from a Static Var Compensator (SVC) ndash is used to provide a very high DC current of up to7920A (feeding essentially a DC short circuit) to enable heating of remote Canadian overhead linesin order to prevent ice buildup

An important argument for selecting HVDC instead of an AC for a new transmission line is thecontribution to the short-circuit level High-voltage direct current is able to limit the fault currentand therefore it will not require the upgrading of substation equipment

Figure 11 shows a comparison of costs for DC and AC transmission lines In the case of HVDC theinitial capital investment is much higher because of the converter costs As the transmission distanceincreases the benefits of DC offset the capital investment and at certain distance the total cost of anHVDC system is same as an AC line The breakeven distance is in the range of 40ndash70 km for submarinecables and in the range of 600ndash800 km for overhead lines Figure 12 shows an aerial view of the

HVDC station costs

Line length

Breakeven distanceFor cables 40ndash70 km

For overhead lines 600ndash800 kmHVAC station costs

HVAC

HVDC

Cost

Figure 11 HVDC and HVAC transmission cost comparison

Figure 12 Terminal station of Moyle HVDC interconnector (Bipole 2 times 250MW plusmn250 kV with light triggeredthyristors commissioned in 2001) Reproduced with permission of Siemens

4 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

terminal station of the 500 MW Moyle HVDC link This HVDC enables a controllable bidirectionalpower exchange between Scotland and Northern Ireland

12 Line-Commutated HVDC Components

Figure 13 shows a typical LCC HVDC schematic interconnecting AC systems 1 and 2 It consistsof two terminals and a DC line between them Each terminal (converter station) includes converterstransformers filters reactive power equipment control station and a range of other components Thereare two DC lines in this figure while one line is at ground potential

As shown in Figure 13 the major components of an HVDC system include

bull Converters They typically include one or more six-pulse thyristor (Graetz) bridges Each bridgeconsists of six thyristor valves which in turn contain hundreds of individual thyristors With largesystems bridges are connected in series in 12-pulse or 24-pulse configuration The 12-pulse converterscan be connected into poles or bipoles

bull Converter transformers These are a special converter transformer type which is somewhat moreexpensive than typical AC transformers of the same rating The converter transformers are designedto operate with high harmonic currents and they are designed to withstand AC and DC voltage stressIn most cases converter transformers will have tap changers which enable optimization of HVDCoperation

bull Smoothing reactors on DC side Typical inductance for large HVDC systems is 01ndash05 H which isdetermined considering DC fault responses commutation failure and dynamic stability The reactorsare of air-core natural air-cooling type and costs are modest

bull Reactive power compensation The converters typically require reactive power of around 60 ofthe converter power rating A large portion of this reactive power is supplied with filter banksand the remaining part with capacitor banks Reactive power demand varies with DC power levelso the capacitors are arranged in switchable banks

bull Filters A typical 12-pulse thyristor terminal will require 11th 13th 23rd and 25th filters on the ACside A high-pass filter is frequently included In some cases third harmonic filters are required SomeHVDC systems with overhead lines also employ DC-side filters

Reactive power

compensationReactive powercompensation

FiltersFilters

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Terminal 1 Terminal 2Smoothing

reactorSmoothing

reactor

Thyristorbridge

α1 α2

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Electrodes

Station 1

control

Station 2

controlCommunication

system

DC line

DC lineI1dc I2dc

V1dcpV2dcp

CB

CB

CB

CB

V1g V2g

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

AC system 23 phase V2g f2

Y ΔYΔ

YYY Y

Figure 13 Typical HVDC schematic (12-pulse monopole with metallic return)

5Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

bull Electrodes Some old HVDC systems normally operate with seaground return but most grid oper-ators no longer allow permanent ground currents for environmental reasons Electrodes demandongoing maintenance costs Many new bipolar systems are allowed to operate with ground returnat half power for a short time (10ndash20 minutes) in case of loss of an HVDC pole This implies thatelectrodes are designed for full current but carry no current in normal operation

bull Control and communication system Each terminal will have a control system consisting of severalhierarchical layers A dedicated communication link between terminals is needed but speed is notcritical An HVDC link can operate in the event of a loss of a communication link

13 DC Cables and Overhead Lines

131 Introduction

Line-commutated converter HVDC has been implemented using overhead lines and undergroundsubsea DC cables Overhead lines are vulnerable to lightning strikes which are essentially DC faultsNevertheless DC faults only cause transient disturbances and they are readily managed by LCCHVDCOn the other hand with voltage source converter (VSC) HVDC as will be discussed later DC faultscause much more serious disturbances

The most common cable technologies that have been developed so far include

bull mass-impregnated (MI) cablesbull low-pressure oil-filled (LPOF) cablesbull extruded cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables

The above cable types have same conductors and their construction is similar but the insulationmaterial is substantially different The cable voltage rating depends on the capability of the insulation(dielectric) material and there are two main types of dielectrics namely lapped and extruded

132 Mass-impregnated (MI) Cables

Since 1895 MI cables have been used in power transmission In MI cables the dielectric is lappedpaper insulation which is impregnated with high-viscosity fluid For bulk power transmission massimpregnated cables still prove to be the most suitable solution because of their capacity to work upto 500 kV DC These cables also tolerate fast DC voltage polarity reversal making them suitablefor LCC HVDC The MI cables have a long record of field operation at voltages of 500 kV and trans-mission capacity of over 800 MW (16 kA) for monopole HVDC but 600 kV and 1000 MW ratingshave been announced An HVDCwith a bipolar connection is therefore able to transmit up to 2000MWwith MI cables These cables can be installed at depths to 1000 m under the sea level and with nearlyunlimited transmission length The capacity of this system is limited by the conductor temperaturewhich can reduce overload capabilities The 580 km-long 700MW 450 kV cable link between Norwayand the Netherlands represents the greatest power and length for this cable type At present over 90 ofsubmarine cables are of the MI type

133 Low-pressure Oil-filled Cables

Low-pressure oil-filled cables are similar in construction to MI cables but the cables are insulated withpaper impregnated with low viscosity oil under an overpressure of a few bars The technology availabletoday ensures voltages up to 500 kV and powers up to 2800MW for underground installation It can beused for bothACandDC transmission applicationsAs oil flow is required along the cable cable length islimited to around 80 km The risk of oil leakage must be taken into account for environmental reasons

6 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

134 Extruded Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE) Cables

Extruded cross-linked polyethylene cables cannot withstand fast polarity reversal and they are not nor-mally used with LCC HVDC (unless it is a unidirectional system) They will be discussed further withVSC HVDC

The above three types of cables are used for both underground and submarine cables and their basicproperties are shown in Table 11 The difference between the underground and submarine cables is inthe conductor material and the armour layer Armour strengthening is used in submarine cables to with-stand the axial mechanical tension during laying and operation

Cables with copper conductors are used for submarine applications whereas aluminium conductorsare generally preferred for underground Copper has high electrical conductivity and mechanical prop-erties It is also simpler to implement strong joints using copper However it is heavy and more expen-sive and for these reasons it is used when the mechanical properties are mandatory as in submarinecables Aluminium has low conductivity and low mechanical properties Splicing is more difficultIt is lighter and less expensive than copper

14 LCC HVDC Topologies

High-voltage direct-current systems are divided into transmission systems and back-to-back HVDCHigh-voltage direct-current transmission can be bipolar or monopolar

Monopolar HVDC is typically used for smaller systems and the topology is shown in Figure 14Typically positive DC voltage is adopted because of less corona issues The return current can runthrough ground or a dedicated cable can be employed If a return cable is used (metallic return) it will

Table 11 DC cables types for underground and submarine application

Type Mass impregnated Oil filled XLPE

Conductor CuAl CuAl CuAlInsulation Paper and mass Paper and fluid Cross-linked PEVoltage (kV) 600 500 320 (525 kV is available)Capacity per cable (MW) 1000 2800 1000Converter type LCC or VSC LCC or VSC VSC or unidirectional LCCDistance Unlimited Limited because of oil Unlimited

Y Y

Y ΔYΔ

YY

V1gV2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

V1dcp V2dcp

DC cable (p)I1dc I2dc

α1α2

Figure 14 Twelve-pulse monopolar HVDC with ground return

7Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

be at ground potential with low insulation level (typically around 10 kV) and costs are therefore lowerthan positive-pole DC cable A 12-pulse topology is shown with two six-pulse converters in series

Figure 15 shows a bipolar HVDC Bipolar HVDC has two independent poles and it can operate athalf power if one DC cable or pole is out of service Normally the poles are balanced and there is noground current but ground return would be used if one pole is out of service In modern grid codesground current would not be allowed because of environmental concerns In some national standardsground currents are allowed only for short periods of time in emergency situations (eg secondaryreserve startup for 10ndash20 minutes) Instead of ground return a third cable or DC cable from the faultedpole can sometimes be used

Figure 16 shows a back-to-back HVDC which is frequently monopolar In this topology bothconverter terminals are located in a single station and DC cables are very short The main purposeof back-to-back HVDC is to provide controllable power transfer between two asynchronous AC

α1

α1

α2

α2

Y Δ Δ

Y Y

Y Δ

Y Y

Y

Y

Δ Y

Y

Y

Y

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

Negative

pole

Negative

pole

Positive

polePositive

pole

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

Terminal 1

Bridge

Bridge

Bridge Bridge

Bridge

Bridge

Electrodes Electrodes

Bridge

Bridge

Terminal 2

DC cable (p)

DC cable (n)

V1dcp

V1dcn

V2dcp

V2dcn

I1dc I2dc

V1g V2g

Figure 15 Bipolar HVDC (12-pulse) with ground return

Y ΔΔ

Y Y

Y

YY

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2

V1gV2g

α1α2

V1dcp

I1dc

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

Figure 16 Back-to-back HVDC topology

8 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

systems or AC systems with different frequency As DC cables are very short and therefore transmis-sion losses are low back-to-back HVDC are designed at low voltage (as high current as possible) inorder to reduce costs (costs are proportional to insulation level) The smoothing reactors are very smallor not required because there is a low probability of DC line faults Back-to-back HVDC allows foroperation with variable DC voltage and this facilitates some limited reactive power control capability

15 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems

The losses in HVDC systems will include converter station losses and DC cable losses Figure 17shows the main components of typical HVDC station losses The total LCC HVDC station losses willdepend on the size of HVDC station the voltage level configuration and typically may amount to05ndash1 of the power transfer

At partial loading the percentage losses will generally increase Figure 18 shows the load depen-dence of major loss components As an example magnetizing current in converter transformers willbe constant irrespective of loading and at 10 loading the transformer losses are 20

3

25

8

2

5

1

56

Auxiliaries

Converter valves

AC harmonic filters

Valve cooling plant

DC smoothing reactors

HF filter

Converter transformer

Figure 17 Breakdown of typical LCC HVDC station losses at 1 pu power

100

Loss c

om

ponent (

)

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Converted valves

Converted transformer

AC harmonic filters

DC smoothing reactor

DC power ()

Figure 18 Variation of HVDC station losses with the DC power shown relative to 1 pu losses

9Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

16 Conversion of AC Lines to DC

There have been many studies worldwide on converting existing AC lines into DC This mainly resultsfrom the desire to increase AC line capacity or to remove stability constraints These issues usuallyrequire costly line upgradesreconductoring series compensation or installing a device from the flexibleAC transmission systems (FACTS) family In such cases conversion to HVDC can usually offer thehighest capacity increase and a range of other benefits Typically towers and conductors will not bechanged but insulators may need to be upgraded to operate with DC lines

The main advantages of converting existing AC line to HVDC are

bull an increase in capacitybull fewer corona issues and a generally higher operating voltagebull better control of active and reactive power and other system-level benefitsbull better stability limits and active stabilization of the gridbull lower transmission losses

Some of the disadvantages of conversion to HVDC include

bull more pollution is attracted to insulators energized with DC ndash insulator upgrade is recommendedbull converter station costs

Figure 19 shows some common options for converting a single-circuit three-phase AC transmissioninto DC which include

bull The first option employs all three conductors for a single DC pole while the ground is used for returnThis method will significantly increase current carrying capacity but ground return will not beallowed in many modern systems

bull The second option adopts DC bipole with metallic return The neutral conductor can be used formonopolar operation

bull The third option is based on the tripole HVDC concept This method uses the third conductor alter-natively as a positive or negative pole which exploits the long thermal constants of conductors Thecapacity increase of around 37 is achieved (over bipole configuration) using lines and the RMSvalues of current in the conductors (over 10 minutes) are equal to the conductor rating An additionalbidirectional converter is required

17 Ultra-High Voltage HVDC

The standard DC voltage for HVDC is 500 kV and the Itaipu 3150MW plusmn600 kV HVDC has used thehighest DC voltage for a long period However the emerging requirements for bulk power transmission

R S

+

0

+

ndash

+

+

+ndash ndash+

TAC

DC monopole with ground return

DC bipole with metalic return

DC tripole with metalic return

Figure 19 Options for conversion of three-phase AC lines into DC

10 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

over long distances of 5ndash10 GW in Asia Africa and South America in late 1990s have resulted in theprogressive development of UHVDC (ultra-high voltage direct current)

XiangjiabandashShanghai 6400MW plusmn800 kV UHVDC implemented in 2010 was the first commercialUHVDC and four other plusmn800 kV systems have been implemented in 2011ndash2013 while studies areunderway for 1100 kV DC voltages The progress towards UHVDC has demanded a lot of researchand development effort and the main challenges are summarized below

bull improving insulation in particular in polluted areasbull transformer development including bushingsbull developing ultra-high voltage (UHV) test centres

It is important to appreciate that all the equipment including auxiliaries that connect to DC linesmust be changed to UHV In practice this translates to longer units ndash bushings arresters VT (voltagetransducers) CT (current transducers) and so forth ndash with more series-connected basic elementsFrequently the main challenge is the need for mechanical strength in the face of increased forces fromseismic requirements wind and other factors

The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes a standard method of increasinginsulation levels although developing UHV insulators and bushings remains challenging

The UHV valve design is not considered to be a significant obstacle

11Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

1Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

11 HVDC Applications

Thyristor-based high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission has been used in over 150point-to-point installations worldwide In each case it has proven to be technologically andor econom-ically superior to AC transmission Typical HVDC applications can be grouped as follows

bull Submarine power transmission The AC cables have large capacitance and for cables over 40ndash70 kmthe reactive power circulation is unacceptable This distance can be extended somewhat with reactivepower compensation For larger distances HVDC is more economical A good example is the580 km 700MW plusmn450 kV NorNed HVDC between Norway and the Netherlands

bull Long-distance overhead lines Long AC lines require variable reactive power compensation Typically600ndash800 km is the breakeven distance and for larger distances HVDC is more economical A goodexample is the 1360 km 31 GW plusmn500 kV Pacific DC intertie along the west coast of the United States

bull Interconnecting two AC networks of different frequencies A good example is the 500MW plusmn79 kVback-to-back Melo HVDC between Uruguay and Brazil The Uruguay system operates at 50 Hzwhereas Brazilrsquos national grid runs at 60 Hz

bull Interconnecting two unsynchronized AC grids If phase difference between two AC systems is largethey cannot be directly connected A typical example is the 150MW plusmn42 kV McNeill back-to-backHVDC link between Alberta and Saskatchewan interconnecting asynchronous eastern and westernAmerican systems

bull Controllable power exchange between two AC networks (for trading) The AC power flow is deter-mined by the line impedances and it cannot therefore be controlled directly in each line In complexAC networks it is common to observe loop power flow or even overloading or underutilization ofsome AC lines Many HVDC systems participate directly in trading power and one typical exampleis the 200MW plusmn57 kV Highgate HVDC between Quebec and Vermont

There are other less common applications of LCC (line-commutated converter) HVDC technologyincluding the 300MW Levis De-Icer HVDC project Here one standard HVDC converter station ndash a

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

converter from a Static Var Compensator (SVC) ndash is used to provide a very high DC current of up to7920A (feeding essentially a DC short circuit) to enable heating of remote Canadian overhead linesin order to prevent ice buildup

An important argument for selecting HVDC instead of an AC for a new transmission line is thecontribution to the short-circuit level High-voltage direct current is able to limit the fault currentand therefore it will not require the upgrading of substation equipment

Figure 11 shows a comparison of costs for DC and AC transmission lines In the case of HVDC theinitial capital investment is much higher because of the converter costs As the transmission distanceincreases the benefits of DC offset the capital investment and at certain distance the total cost of anHVDC system is same as an AC line The breakeven distance is in the range of 40ndash70 km for submarinecables and in the range of 600ndash800 km for overhead lines Figure 12 shows an aerial view of the

HVDC station costs

Line length

Breakeven distanceFor cables 40ndash70 km

For overhead lines 600ndash800 kmHVAC station costs

HVAC

HVDC

Cost

Figure 11 HVDC and HVAC transmission cost comparison

Figure 12 Terminal station of Moyle HVDC interconnector (Bipole 2 times 250MW plusmn250 kV with light triggeredthyristors commissioned in 2001) Reproduced with permission of Siemens

4 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

terminal station of the 500 MW Moyle HVDC link This HVDC enables a controllable bidirectionalpower exchange between Scotland and Northern Ireland

12 Line-Commutated HVDC Components

Figure 13 shows a typical LCC HVDC schematic interconnecting AC systems 1 and 2 It consistsof two terminals and a DC line between them Each terminal (converter station) includes converterstransformers filters reactive power equipment control station and a range of other components Thereare two DC lines in this figure while one line is at ground potential

As shown in Figure 13 the major components of an HVDC system include

bull Converters They typically include one or more six-pulse thyristor (Graetz) bridges Each bridgeconsists of six thyristor valves which in turn contain hundreds of individual thyristors With largesystems bridges are connected in series in 12-pulse or 24-pulse configuration The 12-pulse converterscan be connected into poles or bipoles

bull Converter transformers These are a special converter transformer type which is somewhat moreexpensive than typical AC transformers of the same rating The converter transformers are designedto operate with high harmonic currents and they are designed to withstand AC and DC voltage stressIn most cases converter transformers will have tap changers which enable optimization of HVDCoperation

bull Smoothing reactors on DC side Typical inductance for large HVDC systems is 01ndash05 H which isdetermined considering DC fault responses commutation failure and dynamic stability The reactorsare of air-core natural air-cooling type and costs are modest

bull Reactive power compensation The converters typically require reactive power of around 60 ofthe converter power rating A large portion of this reactive power is supplied with filter banksand the remaining part with capacitor banks Reactive power demand varies with DC power levelso the capacitors are arranged in switchable banks

bull Filters A typical 12-pulse thyristor terminal will require 11th 13th 23rd and 25th filters on the ACside A high-pass filter is frequently included In some cases third harmonic filters are required SomeHVDC systems with overhead lines also employ DC-side filters

Reactive power

compensationReactive powercompensation

FiltersFilters

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Terminal 1 Terminal 2Smoothing

reactorSmoothing

reactor

Thyristorbridge

α1 α2

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Electrodes

Station 1

control

Station 2

controlCommunication

system

DC line

DC lineI1dc I2dc

V1dcpV2dcp

CB

CB

CB

CB

V1g V2g

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

AC system 23 phase V2g f2

Y ΔYΔ

YYY Y

Figure 13 Typical HVDC schematic (12-pulse monopole with metallic return)

5Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

bull Electrodes Some old HVDC systems normally operate with seaground return but most grid oper-ators no longer allow permanent ground currents for environmental reasons Electrodes demandongoing maintenance costs Many new bipolar systems are allowed to operate with ground returnat half power for a short time (10ndash20 minutes) in case of loss of an HVDC pole This implies thatelectrodes are designed for full current but carry no current in normal operation

bull Control and communication system Each terminal will have a control system consisting of severalhierarchical layers A dedicated communication link between terminals is needed but speed is notcritical An HVDC link can operate in the event of a loss of a communication link

13 DC Cables and Overhead Lines

131 Introduction

Line-commutated converter HVDC has been implemented using overhead lines and undergroundsubsea DC cables Overhead lines are vulnerable to lightning strikes which are essentially DC faultsNevertheless DC faults only cause transient disturbances and they are readily managed by LCCHVDCOn the other hand with voltage source converter (VSC) HVDC as will be discussed later DC faultscause much more serious disturbances

The most common cable technologies that have been developed so far include

bull mass-impregnated (MI) cablesbull low-pressure oil-filled (LPOF) cablesbull extruded cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables

The above cable types have same conductors and their construction is similar but the insulationmaterial is substantially different The cable voltage rating depends on the capability of the insulation(dielectric) material and there are two main types of dielectrics namely lapped and extruded

132 Mass-impregnated (MI) Cables

Since 1895 MI cables have been used in power transmission In MI cables the dielectric is lappedpaper insulation which is impregnated with high-viscosity fluid For bulk power transmission massimpregnated cables still prove to be the most suitable solution because of their capacity to work upto 500 kV DC These cables also tolerate fast DC voltage polarity reversal making them suitablefor LCC HVDC The MI cables have a long record of field operation at voltages of 500 kV and trans-mission capacity of over 800 MW (16 kA) for monopole HVDC but 600 kV and 1000 MW ratingshave been announced An HVDCwith a bipolar connection is therefore able to transmit up to 2000MWwith MI cables These cables can be installed at depths to 1000 m under the sea level and with nearlyunlimited transmission length The capacity of this system is limited by the conductor temperaturewhich can reduce overload capabilities The 580 km-long 700MW 450 kV cable link between Norwayand the Netherlands represents the greatest power and length for this cable type At present over 90 ofsubmarine cables are of the MI type

133 Low-pressure Oil-filled Cables

Low-pressure oil-filled cables are similar in construction to MI cables but the cables are insulated withpaper impregnated with low viscosity oil under an overpressure of a few bars The technology availabletoday ensures voltages up to 500 kV and powers up to 2800MW for underground installation It can beused for bothACandDC transmission applicationsAs oil flow is required along the cable cable length islimited to around 80 km The risk of oil leakage must be taken into account for environmental reasons

6 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

134 Extruded Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE) Cables

Extruded cross-linked polyethylene cables cannot withstand fast polarity reversal and they are not nor-mally used with LCC HVDC (unless it is a unidirectional system) They will be discussed further withVSC HVDC

The above three types of cables are used for both underground and submarine cables and their basicproperties are shown in Table 11 The difference between the underground and submarine cables is inthe conductor material and the armour layer Armour strengthening is used in submarine cables to with-stand the axial mechanical tension during laying and operation

Cables with copper conductors are used for submarine applications whereas aluminium conductorsare generally preferred for underground Copper has high electrical conductivity and mechanical prop-erties It is also simpler to implement strong joints using copper However it is heavy and more expen-sive and for these reasons it is used when the mechanical properties are mandatory as in submarinecables Aluminium has low conductivity and low mechanical properties Splicing is more difficultIt is lighter and less expensive than copper

14 LCC HVDC Topologies

High-voltage direct-current systems are divided into transmission systems and back-to-back HVDCHigh-voltage direct-current transmission can be bipolar or monopolar

Monopolar HVDC is typically used for smaller systems and the topology is shown in Figure 14Typically positive DC voltage is adopted because of less corona issues The return current can runthrough ground or a dedicated cable can be employed If a return cable is used (metallic return) it will

Table 11 DC cables types for underground and submarine application

Type Mass impregnated Oil filled XLPE

Conductor CuAl CuAl CuAlInsulation Paper and mass Paper and fluid Cross-linked PEVoltage (kV) 600 500 320 (525 kV is available)Capacity per cable (MW) 1000 2800 1000Converter type LCC or VSC LCC or VSC VSC or unidirectional LCCDistance Unlimited Limited because of oil Unlimited

Y Y

Y ΔYΔ

YY

V1gV2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

V1dcp V2dcp

DC cable (p)I1dc I2dc

α1α2

Figure 14 Twelve-pulse monopolar HVDC with ground return

7Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

be at ground potential with low insulation level (typically around 10 kV) and costs are therefore lowerthan positive-pole DC cable A 12-pulse topology is shown with two six-pulse converters in series

Figure 15 shows a bipolar HVDC Bipolar HVDC has two independent poles and it can operate athalf power if one DC cable or pole is out of service Normally the poles are balanced and there is noground current but ground return would be used if one pole is out of service In modern grid codesground current would not be allowed because of environmental concerns In some national standardsground currents are allowed only for short periods of time in emergency situations (eg secondaryreserve startup for 10ndash20 minutes) Instead of ground return a third cable or DC cable from the faultedpole can sometimes be used

Figure 16 shows a back-to-back HVDC which is frequently monopolar In this topology bothconverter terminals are located in a single station and DC cables are very short The main purposeof back-to-back HVDC is to provide controllable power transfer between two asynchronous AC

α1

α1

α2

α2

Y Δ Δ

Y Y

Y Δ

Y Y

Y

Y

Δ Y

Y

Y

Y

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

Negative

pole

Negative

pole

Positive

polePositive

pole

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

Terminal 1

Bridge

Bridge

Bridge Bridge

Bridge

Bridge

Electrodes Electrodes

Bridge

Bridge

Terminal 2

DC cable (p)

DC cable (n)

V1dcp

V1dcn

V2dcp

V2dcn

I1dc I2dc

V1g V2g

Figure 15 Bipolar HVDC (12-pulse) with ground return

Y ΔΔ

Y Y

Y

YY

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2

V1gV2g

α1α2

V1dcp

I1dc

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

Figure 16 Back-to-back HVDC topology

8 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

systems or AC systems with different frequency As DC cables are very short and therefore transmis-sion losses are low back-to-back HVDC are designed at low voltage (as high current as possible) inorder to reduce costs (costs are proportional to insulation level) The smoothing reactors are very smallor not required because there is a low probability of DC line faults Back-to-back HVDC allows foroperation with variable DC voltage and this facilitates some limited reactive power control capability

15 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems

The losses in HVDC systems will include converter station losses and DC cable losses Figure 17shows the main components of typical HVDC station losses The total LCC HVDC station losses willdepend on the size of HVDC station the voltage level configuration and typically may amount to05ndash1 of the power transfer

At partial loading the percentage losses will generally increase Figure 18 shows the load depen-dence of major loss components As an example magnetizing current in converter transformers willbe constant irrespective of loading and at 10 loading the transformer losses are 20

3

25

8

2

5

1

56

Auxiliaries

Converter valves

AC harmonic filters

Valve cooling plant

DC smoothing reactors

HF filter

Converter transformer

Figure 17 Breakdown of typical LCC HVDC station losses at 1 pu power

100

Loss c

om

ponent (

)

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Converted valves

Converted transformer

AC harmonic filters

DC smoothing reactor

DC power ()

Figure 18 Variation of HVDC station losses with the DC power shown relative to 1 pu losses

9Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

16 Conversion of AC Lines to DC

There have been many studies worldwide on converting existing AC lines into DC This mainly resultsfrom the desire to increase AC line capacity or to remove stability constraints These issues usuallyrequire costly line upgradesreconductoring series compensation or installing a device from the flexibleAC transmission systems (FACTS) family In such cases conversion to HVDC can usually offer thehighest capacity increase and a range of other benefits Typically towers and conductors will not bechanged but insulators may need to be upgraded to operate with DC lines

The main advantages of converting existing AC line to HVDC are

bull an increase in capacitybull fewer corona issues and a generally higher operating voltagebull better control of active and reactive power and other system-level benefitsbull better stability limits and active stabilization of the gridbull lower transmission losses

Some of the disadvantages of conversion to HVDC include

bull more pollution is attracted to insulators energized with DC ndash insulator upgrade is recommendedbull converter station costs

Figure 19 shows some common options for converting a single-circuit three-phase AC transmissioninto DC which include

bull The first option employs all three conductors for a single DC pole while the ground is used for returnThis method will significantly increase current carrying capacity but ground return will not beallowed in many modern systems

bull The second option adopts DC bipole with metallic return The neutral conductor can be used formonopolar operation

bull The third option is based on the tripole HVDC concept This method uses the third conductor alter-natively as a positive or negative pole which exploits the long thermal constants of conductors Thecapacity increase of around 37 is achieved (over bipole configuration) using lines and the RMSvalues of current in the conductors (over 10 minutes) are equal to the conductor rating An additionalbidirectional converter is required

17 Ultra-High Voltage HVDC

The standard DC voltage for HVDC is 500 kV and the Itaipu 3150MW plusmn600 kV HVDC has used thehighest DC voltage for a long period However the emerging requirements for bulk power transmission

R S

+

0

+

ndash

+

+

+ndash ndash+

TAC

DC monopole with ground return

DC bipole with metalic return

DC tripole with metalic return

Figure 19 Options for conversion of three-phase AC lines into DC

10 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

over long distances of 5ndash10 GW in Asia Africa and South America in late 1990s have resulted in theprogressive development of UHVDC (ultra-high voltage direct current)

XiangjiabandashShanghai 6400MW plusmn800 kV UHVDC implemented in 2010 was the first commercialUHVDC and four other plusmn800 kV systems have been implemented in 2011ndash2013 while studies areunderway for 1100 kV DC voltages The progress towards UHVDC has demanded a lot of researchand development effort and the main challenges are summarized below

bull improving insulation in particular in polluted areasbull transformer development including bushingsbull developing ultra-high voltage (UHV) test centres

It is important to appreciate that all the equipment including auxiliaries that connect to DC linesmust be changed to UHV In practice this translates to longer units ndash bushings arresters VT (voltagetransducers) CT (current transducers) and so forth ndash with more series-connected basic elementsFrequently the main challenge is the need for mechanical strength in the face of increased forces fromseismic requirements wind and other factors

The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes a standard method of increasinginsulation levels although developing UHV insulators and bushings remains challenging

The UHV valve design is not considered to be a significant obstacle

11Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

converter from a Static Var Compensator (SVC) ndash is used to provide a very high DC current of up to7920A (feeding essentially a DC short circuit) to enable heating of remote Canadian overhead linesin order to prevent ice buildup

An important argument for selecting HVDC instead of an AC for a new transmission line is thecontribution to the short-circuit level High-voltage direct current is able to limit the fault currentand therefore it will not require the upgrading of substation equipment

Figure 11 shows a comparison of costs for DC and AC transmission lines In the case of HVDC theinitial capital investment is much higher because of the converter costs As the transmission distanceincreases the benefits of DC offset the capital investment and at certain distance the total cost of anHVDC system is same as an AC line The breakeven distance is in the range of 40ndash70 km for submarinecables and in the range of 600ndash800 km for overhead lines Figure 12 shows an aerial view of the

HVDC station costs

Line length

Breakeven distanceFor cables 40ndash70 km

For overhead lines 600ndash800 kmHVAC station costs

HVAC

HVDC

Cost

Figure 11 HVDC and HVAC transmission cost comparison

Figure 12 Terminal station of Moyle HVDC interconnector (Bipole 2 times 250MW plusmn250 kV with light triggeredthyristors commissioned in 2001) Reproduced with permission of Siemens

4 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

terminal station of the 500 MW Moyle HVDC link This HVDC enables a controllable bidirectionalpower exchange between Scotland and Northern Ireland

12 Line-Commutated HVDC Components

Figure 13 shows a typical LCC HVDC schematic interconnecting AC systems 1 and 2 It consistsof two terminals and a DC line between them Each terminal (converter station) includes converterstransformers filters reactive power equipment control station and a range of other components Thereare two DC lines in this figure while one line is at ground potential

As shown in Figure 13 the major components of an HVDC system include

bull Converters They typically include one or more six-pulse thyristor (Graetz) bridges Each bridgeconsists of six thyristor valves which in turn contain hundreds of individual thyristors With largesystems bridges are connected in series in 12-pulse or 24-pulse configuration The 12-pulse converterscan be connected into poles or bipoles

bull Converter transformers These are a special converter transformer type which is somewhat moreexpensive than typical AC transformers of the same rating The converter transformers are designedto operate with high harmonic currents and they are designed to withstand AC and DC voltage stressIn most cases converter transformers will have tap changers which enable optimization of HVDCoperation

bull Smoothing reactors on DC side Typical inductance for large HVDC systems is 01ndash05 H which isdetermined considering DC fault responses commutation failure and dynamic stability The reactorsare of air-core natural air-cooling type and costs are modest

bull Reactive power compensation The converters typically require reactive power of around 60 ofthe converter power rating A large portion of this reactive power is supplied with filter banksand the remaining part with capacitor banks Reactive power demand varies with DC power levelso the capacitors are arranged in switchable banks

bull Filters A typical 12-pulse thyristor terminal will require 11th 13th 23rd and 25th filters on the ACside A high-pass filter is frequently included In some cases third harmonic filters are required SomeHVDC systems with overhead lines also employ DC-side filters

Reactive power

compensationReactive powercompensation

FiltersFilters

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Terminal 1 Terminal 2Smoothing

reactorSmoothing

reactor

Thyristorbridge

α1 α2

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Electrodes

Station 1

control

Station 2

controlCommunication

system

DC line

DC lineI1dc I2dc

V1dcpV2dcp

CB

CB

CB

CB

V1g V2g

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

AC system 23 phase V2g f2

Y ΔYΔ

YYY Y

Figure 13 Typical HVDC schematic (12-pulse monopole with metallic return)

5Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

bull Electrodes Some old HVDC systems normally operate with seaground return but most grid oper-ators no longer allow permanent ground currents for environmental reasons Electrodes demandongoing maintenance costs Many new bipolar systems are allowed to operate with ground returnat half power for a short time (10ndash20 minutes) in case of loss of an HVDC pole This implies thatelectrodes are designed for full current but carry no current in normal operation

bull Control and communication system Each terminal will have a control system consisting of severalhierarchical layers A dedicated communication link between terminals is needed but speed is notcritical An HVDC link can operate in the event of a loss of a communication link

13 DC Cables and Overhead Lines

131 Introduction

Line-commutated converter HVDC has been implemented using overhead lines and undergroundsubsea DC cables Overhead lines are vulnerable to lightning strikes which are essentially DC faultsNevertheless DC faults only cause transient disturbances and they are readily managed by LCCHVDCOn the other hand with voltage source converter (VSC) HVDC as will be discussed later DC faultscause much more serious disturbances

The most common cable technologies that have been developed so far include

bull mass-impregnated (MI) cablesbull low-pressure oil-filled (LPOF) cablesbull extruded cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables

The above cable types have same conductors and their construction is similar but the insulationmaterial is substantially different The cable voltage rating depends on the capability of the insulation(dielectric) material and there are two main types of dielectrics namely lapped and extruded

132 Mass-impregnated (MI) Cables

Since 1895 MI cables have been used in power transmission In MI cables the dielectric is lappedpaper insulation which is impregnated with high-viscosity fluid For bulk power transmission massimpregnated cables still prove to be the most suitable solution because of their capacity to work upto 500 kV DC These cables also tolerate fast DC voltage polarity reversal making them suitablefor LCC HVDC The MI cables have a long record of field operation at voltages of 500 kV and trans-mission capacity of over 800 MW (16 kA) for monopole HVDC but 600 kV and 1000 MW ratingshave been announced An HVDCwith a bipolar connection is therefore able to transmit up to 2000MWwith MI cables These cables can be installed at depths to 1000 m under the sea level and with nearlyunlimited transmission length The capacity of this system is limited by the conductor temperaturewhich can reduce overload capabilities The 580 km-long 700MW 450 kV cable link between Norwayand the Netherlands represents the greatest power and length for this cable type At present over 90 ofsubmarine cables are of the MI type

133 Low-pressure Oil-filled Cables

Low-pressure oil-filled cables are similar in construction to MI cables but the cables are insulated withpaper impregnated with low viscosity oil under an overpressure of a few bars The technology availabletoday ensures voltages up to 500 kV and powers up to 2800MW for underground installation It can beused for bothACandDC transmission applicationsAs oil flow is required along the cable cable length islimited to around 80 km The risk of oil leakage must be taken into account for environmental reasons

6 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

134 Extruded Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE) Cables

Extruded cross-linked polyethylene cables cannot withstand fast polarity reversal and they are not nor-mally used with LCC HVDC (unless it is a unidirectional system) They will be discussed further withVSC HVDC

The above three types of cables are used for both underground and submarine cables and their basicproperties are shown in Table 11 The difference between the underground and submarine cables is inthe conductor material and the armour layer Armour strengthening is used in submarine cables to with-stand the axial mechanical tension during laying and operation

Cables with copper conductors are used for submarine applications whereas aluminium conductorsare generally preferred for underground Copper has high electrical conductivity and mechanical prop-erties It is also simpler to implement strong joints using copper However it is heavy and more expen-sive and for these reasons it is used when the mechanical properties are mandatory as in submarinecables Aluminium has low conductivity and low mechanical properties Splicing is more difficultIt is lighter and less expensive than copper

14 LCC HVDC Topologies

High-voltage direct-current systems are divided into transmission systems and back-to-back HVDCHigh-voltage direct-current transmission can be bipolar or monopolar

Monopolar HVDC is typically used for smaller systems and the topology is shown in Figure 14Typically positive DC voltage is adopted because of less corona issues The return current can runthrough ground or a dedicated cable can be employed If a return cable is used (metallic return) it will

Table 11 DC cables types for underground and submarine application

Type Mass impregnated Oil filled XLPE

Conductor CuAl CuAl CuAlInsulation Paper and mass Paper and fluid Cross-linked PEVoltage (kV) 600 500 320 (525 kV is available)Capacity per cable (MW) 1000 2800 1000Converter type LCC or VSC LCC or VSC VSC or unidirectional LCCDistance Unlimited Limited because of oil Unlimited

Y Y

Y ΔYΔ

YY

V1gV2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

V1dcp V2dcp

DC cable (p)I1dc I2dc

α1α2

Figure 14 Twelve-pulse monopolar HVDC with ground return

7Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

be at ground potential with low insulation level (typically around 10 kV) and costs are therefore lowerthan positive-pole DC cable A 12-pulse topology is shown with two six-pulse converters in series

Figure 15 shows a bipolar HVDC Bipolar HVDC has two independent poles and it can operate athalf power if one DC cable or pole is out of service Normally the poles are balanced and there is noground current but ground return would be used if one pole is out of service In modern grid codesground current would not be allowed because of environmental concerns In some national standardsground currents are allowed only for short periods of time in emergency situations (eg secondaryreserve startup for 10ndash20 minutes) Instead of ground return a third cable or DC cable from the faultedpole can sometimes be used

Figure 16 shows a back-to-back HVDC which is frequently monopolar In this topology bothconverter terminals are located in a single station and DC cables are very short The main purposeof back-to-back HVDC is to provide controllable power transfer between two asynchronous AC

α1

α1

α2

α2

Y Δ Δ

Y Y

Y Δ

Y Y

Y

Y

Δ Y

Y

Y

Y

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

Negative

pole

Negative

pole

Positive

polePositive

pole

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

Terminal 1

Bridge

Bridge

Bridge Bridge

Bridge

Bridge

Electrodes Electrodes

Bridge

Bridge

Terminal 2

DC cable (p)

DC cable (n)

V1dcp

V1dcn

V2dcp

V2dcn

I1dc I2dc

V1g V2g

Figure 15 Bipolar HVDC (12-pulse) with ground return

Y ΔΔ

Y Y

Y

YY

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2

V1gV2g

α1α2

V1dcp

I1dc

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

Figure 16 Back-to-back HVDC topology

8 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

systems or AC systems with different frequency As DC cables are very short and therefore transmis-sion losses are low back-to-back HVDC are designed at low voltage (as high current as possible) inorder to reduce costs (costs are proportional to insulation level) The smoothing reactors are very smallor not required because there is a low probability of DC line faults Back-to-back HVDC allows foroperation with variable DC voltage and this facilitates some limited reactive power control capability

15 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems

The losses in HVDC systems will include converter station losses and DC cable losses Figure 17shows the main components of typical HVDC station losses The total LCC HVDC station losses willdepend on the size of HVDC station the voltage level configuration and typically may amount to05ndash1 of the power transfer

At partial loading the percentage losses will generally increase Figure 18 shows the load depen-dence of major loss components As an example magnetizing current in converter transformers willbe constant irrespective of loading and at 10 loading the transformer losses are 20

3

25

8

2

5

1

56

Auxiliaries

Converter valves

AC harmonic filters

Valve cooling plant

DC smoothing reactors

HF filter

Converter transformer

Figure 17 Breakdown of typical LCC HVDC station losses at 1 pu power

100

Loss c

om

ponent (

)

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Converted valves

Converted transformer

AC harmonic filters

DC smoothing reactor

DC power ()

Figure 18 Variation of HVDC station losses with the DC power shown relative to 1 pu losses

9Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

16 Conversion of AC Lines to DC

There have been many studies worldwide on converting existing AC lines into DC This mainly resultsfrom the desire to increase AC line capacity or to remove stability constraints These issues usuallyrequire costly line upgradesreconductoring series compensation or installing a device from the flexibleAC transmission systems (FACTS) family In such cases conversion to HVDC can usually offer thehighest capacity increase and a range of other benefits Typically towers and conductors will not bechanged but insulators may need to be upgraded to operate with DC lines

The main advantages of converting existing AC line to HVDC are

bull an increase in capacitybull fewer corona issues and a generally higher operating voltagebull better control of active and reactive power and other system-level benefitsbull better stability limits and active stabilization of the gridbull lower transmission losses

Some of the disadvantages of conversion to HVDC include

bull more pollution is attracted to insulators energized with DC ndash insulator upgrade is recommendedbull converter station costs

Figure 19 shows some common options for converting a single-circuit three-phase AC transmissioninto DC which include

bull The first option employs all three conductors for a single DC pole while the ground is used for returnThis method will significantly increase current carrying capacity but ground return will not beallowed in many modern systems

bull The second option adopts DC bipole with metallic return The neutral conductor can be used formonopolar operation

bull The third option is based on the tripole HVDC concept This method uses the third conductor alter-natively as a positive or negative pole which exploits the long thermal constants of conductors Thecapacity increase of around 37 is achieved (over bipole configuration) using lines and the RMSvalues of current in the conductors (over 10 minutes) are equal to the conductor rating An additionalbidirectional converter is required

17 Ultra-High Voltage HVDC

The standard DC voltage for HVDC is 500 kV and the Itaipu 3150MW plusmn600 kV HVDC has used thehighest DC voltage for a long period However the emerging requirements for bulk power transmission

R S

+

0

+

ndash

+

+

+ndash ndash+

TAC

DC monopole with ground return

DC bipole with metalic return

DC tripole with metalic return

Figure 19 Options for conversion of three-phase AC lines into DC

10 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

over long distances of 5ndash10 GW in Asia Africa and South America in late 1990s have resulted in theprogressive development of UHVDC (ultra-high voltage direct current)

XiangjiabandashShanghai 6400MW plusmn800 kV UHVDC implemented in 2010 was the first commercialUHVDC and four other plusmn800 kV systems have been implemented in 2011ndash2013 while studies areunderway for 1100 kV DC voltages The progress towards UHVDC has demanded a lot of researchand development effort and the main challenges are summarized below

bull improving insulation in particular in polluted areasbull transformer development including bushingsbull developing ultra-high voltage (UHV) test centres

It is important to appreciate that all the equipment including auxiliaries that connect to DC linesmust be changed to UHV In practice this translates to longer units ndash bushings arresters VT (voltagetransducers) CT (current transducers) and so forth ndash with more series-connected basic elementsFrequently the main challenge is the need for mechanical strength in the face of increased forces fromseismic requirements wind and other factors

The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes a standard method of increasinginsulation levels although developing UHV insulators and bushings remains challenging

The UHV valve design is not considered to be a significant obstacle

11Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

terminal station of the 500 MW Moyle HVDC link This HVDC enables a controllable bidirectionalpower exchange between Scotland and Northern Ireland

12 Line-Commutated HVDC Components

Figure 13 shows a typical LCC HVDC schematic interconnecting AC systems 1 and 2 It consistsof two terminals and a DC line between them Each terminal (converter station) includes converterstransformers filters reactive power equipment control station and a range of other components Thereare two DC lines in this figure while one line is at ground potential

As shown in Figure 13 the major components of an HVDC system include

bull Converters They typically include one or more six-pulse thyristor (Graetz) bridges Each bridgeconsists of six thyristor valves which in turn contain hundreds of individual thyristors With largesystems bridges are connected in series in 12-pulse or 24-pulse configuration The 12-pulse converterscan be connected into poles or bipoles

bull Converter transformers These are a special converter transformer type which is somewhat moreexpensive than typical AC transformers of the same rating The converter transformers are designedto operate with high harmonic currents and they are designed to withstand AC and DC voltage stressIn most cases converter transformers will have tap changers which enable optimization of HVDCoperation

bull Smoothing reactors on DC side Typical inductance for large HVDC systems is 01ndash05 H which isdetermined considering DC fault responses commutation failure and dynamic stability The reactorsare of air-core natural air-cooling type and costs are modest

bull Reactive power compensation The converters typically require reactive power of around 60 ofthe converter power rating A large portion of this reactive power is supplied with filter banksand the remaining part with capacitor banks Reactive power demand varies with DC power levelso the capacitors are arranged in switchable banks

bull Filters A typical 12-pulse thyristor terminal will require 11th 13th 23rd and 25th filters on the ACside A high-pass filter is frequently included In some cases third harmonic filters are required SomeHVDC systems with overhead lines also employ DC-side filters

Reactive power

compensationReactive powercompensation

FiltersFilters

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Transformer

Terminal 1 Terminal 2Smoothing

reactorSmoothing

reactor

Thyristorbridge

α1 α2

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Thyristorbridge

Electrodes

Station 1

control

Station 2

controlCommunication

system

DC line

DC lineI1dc I2dc

V1dcpV2dcp

CB

CB

CB

CB

V1g V2g

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

AC system 23 phase V2g f2

Y ΔYΔ

YYY Y

Figure 13 Typical HVDC schematic (12-pulse monopole with metallic return)

5Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

bull Electrodes Some old HVDC systems normally operate with seaground return but most grid oper-ators no longer allow permanent ground currents for environmental reasons Electrodes demandongoing maintenance costs Many new bipolar systems are allowed to operate with ground returnat half power for a short time (10ndash20 minutes) in case of loss of an HVDC pole This implies thatelectrodes are designed for full current but carry no current in normal operation

bull Control and communication system Each terminal will have a control system consisting of severalhierarchical layers A dedicated communication link between terminals is needed but speed is notcritical An HVDC link can operate in the event of a loss of a communication link

13 DC Cables and Overhead Lines

131 Introduction

Line-commutated converter HVDC has been implemented using overhead lines and undergroundsubsea DC cables Overhead lines are vulnerable to lightning strikes which are essentially DC faultsNevertheless DC faults only cause transient disturbances and they are readily managed by LCCHVDCOn the other hand with voltage source converter (VSC) HVDC as will be discussed later DC faultscause much more serious disturbances

The most common cable technologies that have been developed so far include

bull mass-impregnated (MI) cablesbull low-pressure oil-filled (LPOF) cablesbull extruded cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables

The above cable types have same conductors and their construction is similar but the insulationmaterial is substantially different The cable voltage rating depends on the capability of the insulation(dielectric) material and there are two main types of dielectrics namely lapped and extruded

132 Mass-impregnated (MI) Cables

Since 1895 MI cables have been used in power transmission In MI cables the dielectric is lappedpaper insulation which is impregnated with high-viscosity fluid For bulk power transmission massimpregnated cables still prove to be the most suitable solution because of their capacity to work upto 500 kV DC These cables also tolerate fast DC voltage polarity reversal making them suitablefor LCC HVDC The MI cables have a long record of field operation at voltages of 500 kV and trans-mission capacity of over 800 MW (16 kA) for monopole HVDC but 600 kV and 1000 MW ratingshave been announced An HVDCwith a bipolar connection is therefore able to transmit up to 2000MWwith MI cables These cables can be installed at depths to 1000 m under the sea level and with nearlyunlimited transmission length The capacity of this system is limited by the conductor temperaturewhich can reduce overload capabilities The 580 km-long 700MW 450 kV cable link between Norwayand the Netherlands represents the greatest power and length for this cable type At present over 90 ofsubmarine cables are of the MI type

133 Low-pressure Oil-filled Cables

Low-pressure oil-filled cables are similar in construction to MI cables but the cables are insulated withpaper impregnated with low viscosity oil under an overpressure of a few bars The technology availabletoday ensures voltages up to 500 kV and powers up to 2800MW for underground installation It can beused for bothACandDC transmission applicationsAs oil flow is required along the cable cable length islimited to around 80 km The risk of oil leakage must be taken into account for environmental reasons

6 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

134 Extruded Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE) Cables

Extruded cross-linked polyethylene cables cannot withstand fast polarity reversal and they are not nor-mally used with LCC HVDC (unless it is a unidirectional system) They will be discussed further withVSC HVDC

The above three types of cables are used for both underground and submarine cables and their basicproperties are shown in Table 11 The difference between the underground and submarine cables is inthe conductor material and the armour layer Armour strengthening is used in submarine cables to with-stand the axial mechanical tension during laying and operation

Cables with copper conductors are used for submarine applications whereas aluminium conductorsare generally preferred for underground Copper has high electrical conductivity and mechanical prop-erties It is also simpler to implement strong joints using copper However it is heavy and more expen-sive and for these reasons it is used when the mechanical properties are mandatory as in submarinecables Aluminium has low conductivity and low mechanical properties Splicing is more difficultIt is lighter and less expensive than copper

14 LCC HVDC Topologies

High-voltage direct-current systems are divided into transmission systems and back-to-back HVDCHigh-voltage direct-current transmission can be bipolar or monopolar

Monopolar HVDC is typically used for smaller systems and the topology is shown in Figure 14Typically positive DC voltage is adopted because of less corona issues The return current can runthrough ground or a dedicated cable can be employed If a return cable is used (metallic return) it will

Table 11 DC cables types for underground and submarine application

Type Mass impregnated Oil filled XLPE

Conductor CuAl CuAl CuAlInsulation Paper and mass Paper and fluid Cross-linked PEVoltage (kV) 600 500 320 (525 kV is available)Capacity per cable (MW) 1000 2800 1000Converter type LCC or VSC LCC or VSC VSC or unidirectional LCCDistance Unlimited Limited because of oil Unlimited

Y Y

Y ΔYΔ

YY

V1gV2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

V1dcp V2dcp

DC cable (p)I1dc I2dc

α1α2

Figure 14 Twelve-pulse monopolar HVDC with ground return

7Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

be at ground potential with low insulation level (typically around 10 kV) and costs are therefore lowerthan positive-pole DC cable A 12-pulse topology is shown with two six-pulse converters in series

Figure 15 shows a bipolar HVDC Bipolar HVDC has two independent poles and it can operate athalf power if one DC cable or pole is out of service Normally the poles are balanced and there is noground current but ground return would be used if one pole is out of service In modern grid codesground current would not be allowed because of environmental concerns In some national standardsground currents are allowed only for short periods of time in emergency situations (eg secondaryreserve startup for 10ndash20 minutes) Instead of ground return a third cable or DC cable from the faultedpole can sometimes be used

Figure 16 shows a back-to-back HVDC which is frequently monopolar In this topology bothconverter terminals are located in a single station and DC cables are very short The main purposeof back-to-back HVDC is to provide controllable power transfer between two asynchronous AC

α1

α1

α2

α2

Y Δ Δ

Y Y

Y Δ

Y Y

Y

Y

Δ Y

Y

Y

Y

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

Negative

pole

Negative

pole

Positive

polePositive

pole

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

Terminal 1

Bridge

Bridge

Bridge Bridge

Bridge

Bridge

Electrodes Electrodes

Bridge

Bridge

Terminal 2

DC cable (p)

DC cable (n)

V1dcp

V1dcn

V2dcp

V2dcn

I1dc I2dc

V1g V2g

Figure 15 Bipolar HVDC (12-pulse) with ground return

Y ΔΔ

Y Y

Y

YY

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2

V1gV2g

α1α2

V1dcp

I1dc

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

Figure 16 Back-to-back HVDC topology

8 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

systems or AC systems with different frequency As DC cables are very short and therefore transmis-sion losses are low back-to-back HVDC are designed at low voltage (as high current as possible) inorder to reduce costs (costs are proportional to insulation level) The smoothing reactors are very smallor not required because there is a low probability of DC line faults Back-to-back HVDC allows foroperation with variable DC voltage and this facilitates some limited reactive power control capability

15 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems

The losses in HVDC systems will include converter station losses and DC cable losses Figure 17shows the main components of typical HVDC station losses The total LCC HVDC station losses willdepend on the size of HVDC station the voltage level configuration and typically may amount to05ndash1 of the power transfer

At partial loading the percentage losses will generally increase Figure 18 shows the load depen-dence of major loss components As an example magnetizing current in converter transformers willbe constant irrespective of loading and at 10 loading the transformer losses are 20

3

25

8

2

5

1

56

Auxiliaries

Converter valves

AC harmonic filters

Valve cooling plant

DC smoothing reactors

HF filter

Converter transformer

Figure 17 Breakdown of typical LCC HVDC station losses at 1 pu power

100

Loss c

om

ponent (

)

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Converted valves

Converted transformer

AC harmonic filters

DC smoothing reactor

DC power ()

Figure 18 Variation of HVDC station losses with the DC power shown relative to 1 pu losses

9Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

16 Conversion of AC Lines to DC

There have been many studies worldwide on converting existing AC lines into DC This mainly resultsfrom the desire to increase AC line capacity or to remove stability constraints These issues usuallyrequire costly line upgradesreconductoring series compensation or installing a device from the flexibleAC transmission systems (FACTS) family In such cases conversion to HVDC can usually offer thehighest capacity increase and a range of other benefits Typically towers and conductors will not bechanged but insulators may need to be upgraded to operate with DC lines

The main advantages of converting existing AC line to HVDC are

bull an increase in capacitybull fewer corona issues and a generally higher operating voltagebull better control of active and reactive power and other system-level benefitsbull better stability limits and active stabilization of the gridbull lower transmission losses

Some of the disadvantages of conversion to HVDC include

bull more pollution is attracted to insulators energized with DC ndash insulator upgrade is recommendedbull converter station costs

Figure 19 shows some common options for converting a single-circuit three-phase AC transmissioninto DC which include

bull The first option employs all three conductors for a single DC pole while the ground is used for returnThis method will significantly increase current carrying capacity but ground return will not beallowed in many modern systems

bull The second option adopts DC bipole with metallic return The neutral conductor can be used formonopolar operation

bull The third option is based on the tripole HVDC concept This method uses the third conductor alter-natively as a positive or negative pole which exploits the long thermal constants of conductors Thecapacity increase of around 37 is achieved (over bipole configuration) using lines and the RMSvalues of current in the conductors (over 10 minutes) are equal to the conductor rating An additionalbidirectional converter is required

17 Ultra-High Voltage HVDC

The standard DC voltage for HVDC is 500 kV and the Itaipu 3150MW plusmn600 kV HVDC has used thehighest DC voltage for a long period However the emerging requirements for bulk power transmission

R S

+

0

+

ndash

+

+

+ndash ndash+

TAC

DC monopole with ground return

DC bipole with metalic return

DC tripole with metalic return

Figure 19 Options for conversion of three-phase AC lines into DC

10 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

over long distances of 5ndash10 GW in Asia Africa and South America in late 1990s have resulted in theprogressive development of UHVDC (ultra-high voltage direct current)

XiangjiabandashShanghai 6400MW plusmn800 kV UHVDC implemented in 2010 was the first commercialUHVDC and four other plusmn800 kV systems have been implemented in 2011ndash2013 while studies areunderway for 1100 kV DC voltages The progress towards UHVDC has demanded a lot of researchand development effort and the main challenges are summarized below

bull improving insulation in particular in polluted areasbull transformer development including bushingsbull developing ultra-high voltage (UHV) test centres

It is important to appreciate that all the equipment including auxiliaries that connect to DC linesmust be changed to UHV In practice this translates to longer units ndash bushings arresters VT (voltagetransducers) CT (current transducers) and so forth ndash with more series-connected basic elementsFrequently the main challenge is the need for mechanical strength in the face of increased forces fromseismic requirements wind and other factors

The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes a standard method of increasinginsulation levels although developing UHV insulators and bushings remains challenging

The UHV valve design is not considered to be a significant obstacle

11Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

bull Electrodes Some old HVDC systems normally operate with seaground return but most grid oper-ators no longer allow permanent ground currents for environmental reasons Electrodes demandongoing maintenance costs Many new bipolar systems are allowed to operate with ground returnat half power for a short time (10ndash20 minutes) in case of loss of an HVDC pole This implies thatelectrodes are designed for full current but carry no current in normal operation

bull Control and communication system Each terminal will have a control system consisting of severalhierarchical layers A dedicated communication link between terminals is needed but speed is notcritical An HVDC link can operate in the event of a loss of a communication link

13 DC Cables and Overhead Lines

131 Introduction

Line-commutated converter HVDC has been implemented using overhead lines and undergroundsubsea DC cables Overhead lines are vulnerable to lightning strikes which are essentially DC faultsNevertheless DC faults only cause transient disturbances and they are readily managed by LCCHVDCOn the other hand with voltage source converter (VSC) HVDC as will be discussed later DC faultscause much more serious disturbances

The most common cable technologies that have been developed so far include

bull mass-impregnated (MI) cablesbull low-pressure oil-filled (LPOF) cablesbull extruded cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables

The above cable types have same conductors and their construction is similar but the insulationmaterial is substantially different The cable voltage rating depends on the capability of the insulation(dielectric) material and there are two main types of dielectrics namely lapped and extruded

132 Mass-impregnated (MI) Cables

Since 1895 MI cables have been used in power transmission In MI cables the dielectric is lappedpaper insulation which is impregnated with high-viscosity fluid For bulk power transmission massimpregnated cables still prove to be the most suitable solution because of their capacity to work upto 500 kV DC These cables also tolerate fast DC voltage polarity reversal making them suitablefor LCC HVDC The MI cables have a long record of field operation at voltages of 500 kV and trans-mission capacity of over 800 MW (16 kA) for monopole HVDC but 600 kV and 1000 MW ratingshave been announced An HVDCwith a bipolar connection is therefore able to transmit up to 2000MWwith MI cables These cables can be installed at depths to 1000 m under the sea level and with nearlyunlimited transmission length The capacity of this system is limited by the conductor temperaturewhich can reduce overload capabilities The 580 km-long 700MW 450 kV cable link between Norwayand the Netherlands represents the greatest power and length for this cable type At present over 90 ofsubmarine cables are of the MI type

133 Low-pressure Oil-filled Cables

Low-pressure oil-filled cables are similar in construction to MI cables but the cables are insulated withpaper impregnated with low viscosity oil under an overpressure of a few bars The technology availabletoday ensures voltages up to 500 kV and powers up to 2800MW for underground installation It can beused for bothACandDC transmission applicationsAs oil flow is required along the cable cable length islimited to around 80 km The risk of oil leakage must be taken into account for environmental reasons

6 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

134 Extruded Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE) Cables

Extruded cross-linked polyethylene cables cannot withstand fast polarity reversal and they are not nor-mally used with LCC HVDC (unless it is a unidirectional system) They will be discussed further withVSC HVDC

The above three types of cables are used for both underground and submarine cables and their basicproperties are shown in Table 11 The difference between the underground and submarine cables is inthe conductor material and the armour layer Armour strengthening is used in submarine cables to with-stand the axial mechanical tension during laying and operation

Cables with copper conductors are used for submarine applications whereas aluminium conductorsare generally preferred for underground Copper has high electrical conductivity and mechanical prop-erties It is also simpler to implement strong joints using copper However it is heavy and more expen-sive and for these reasons it is used when the mechanical properties are mandatory as in submarinecables Aluminium has low conductivity and low mechanical properties Splicing is more difficultIt is lighter and less expensive than copper

14 LCC HVDC Topologies

High-voltage direct-current systems are divided into transmission systems and back-to-back HVDCHigh-voltage direct-current transmission can be bipolar or monopolar

Monopolar HVDC is typically used for smaller systems and the topology is shown in Figure 14Typically positive DC voltage is adopted because of less corona issues The return current can runthrough ground or a dedicated cable can be employed If a return cable is used (metallic return) it will

Table 11 DC cables types for underground and submarine application

Type Mass impregnated Oil filled XLPE

Conductor CuAl CuAl CuAlInsulation Paper and mass Paper and fluid Cross-linked PEVoltage (kV) 600 500 320 (525 kV is available)Capacity per cable (MW) 1000 2800 1000Converter type LCC or VSC LCC or VSC VSC or unidirectional LCCDistance Unlimited Limited because of oil Unlimited

Y Y

Y ΔYΔ

YY

V1gV2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

V1dcp V2dcp

DC cable (p)I1dc I2dc

α1α2

Figure 14 Twelve-pulse monopolar HVDC with ground return

7Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

be at ground potential with low insulation level (typically around 10 kV) and costs are therefore lowerthan positive-pole DC cable A 12-pulse topology is shown with two six-pulse converters in series

Figure 15 shows a bipolar HVDC Bipolar HVDC has two independent poles and it can operate athalf power if one DC cable or pole is out of service Normally the poles are balanced and there is noground current but ground return would be used if one pole is out of service In modern grid codesground current would not be allowed because of environmental concerns In some national standardsground currents are allowed only for short periods of time in emergency situations (eg secondaryreserve startup for 10ndash20 minutes) Instead of ground return a third cable or DC cable from the faultedpole can sometimes be used

Figure 16 shows a back-to-back HVDC which is frequently monopolar In this topology bothconverter terminals are located in a single station and DC cables are very short The main purposeof back-to-back HVDC is to provide controllable power transfer between two asynchronous AC

α1

α1

α2

α2

Y Δ Δ

Y Y

Y Δ

Y Y

Y

Y

Δ Y

Y

Y

Y

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

Negative

pole

Negative

pole

Positive

polePositive

pole

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

Terminal 1

Bridge

Bridge

Bridge Bridge

Bridge

Bridge

Electrodes Electrodes

Bridge

Bridge

Terminal 2

DC cable (p)

DC cable (n)

V1dcp

V1dcn

V2dcp

V2dcn

I1dc I2dc

V1g V2g

Figure 15 Bipolar HVDC (12-pulse) with ground return

Y ΔΔ

Y Y

Y

YY

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2

V1gV2g

α1α2

V1dcp

I1dc

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

Figure 16 Back-to-back HVDC topology

8 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

systems or AC systems with different frequency As DC cables are very short and therefore transmis-sion losses are low back-to-back HVDC are designed at low voltage (as high current as possible) inorder to reduce costs (costs are proportional to insulation level) The smoothing reactors are very smallor not required because there is a low probability of DC line faults Back-to-back HVDC allows foroperation with variable DC voltage and this facilitates some limited reactive power control capability

15 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems

The losses in HVDC systems will include converter station losses and DC cable losses Figure 17shows the main components of typical HVDC station losses The total LCC HVDC station losses willdepend on the size of HVDC station the voltage level configuration and typically may amount to05ndash1 of the power transfer

At partial loading the percentage losses will generally increase Figure 18 shows the load depen-dence of major loss components As an example magnetizing current in converter transformers willbe constant irrespective of loading and at 10 loading the transformer losses are 20

3

25

8

2

5

1

56

Auxiliaries

Converter valves

AC harmonic filters

Valve cooling plant

DC smoothing reactors

HF filter

Converter transformer

Figure 17 Breakdown of typical LCC HVDC station losses at 1 pu power

100

Loss c

om

ponent (

)

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Converted valves

Converted transformer

AC harmonic filters

DC smoothing reactor

DC power ()

Figure 18 Variation of HVDC station losses with the DC power shown relative to 1 pu losses

9Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

16 Conversion of AC Lines to DC

There have been many studies worldwide on converting existing AC lines into DC This mainly resultsfrom the desire to increase AC line capacity or to remove stability constraints These issues usuallyrequire costly line upgradesreconductoring series compensation or installing a device from the flexibleAC transmission systems (FACTS) family In such cases conversion to HVDC can usually offer thehighest capacity increase and a range of other benefits Typically towers and conductors will not bechanged but insulators may need to be upgraded to operate with DC lines

The main advantages of converting existing AC line to HVDC are

bull an increase in capacitybull fewer corona issues and a generally higher operating voltagebull better control of active and reactive power and other system-level benefitsbull better stability limits and active stabilization of the gridbull lower transmission losses

Some of the disadvantages of conversion to HVDC include

bull more pollution is attracted to insulators energized with DC ndash insulator upgrade is recommendedbull converter station costs

Figure 19 shows some common options for converting a single-circuit three-phase AC transmissioninto DC which include

bull The first option employs all three conductors for a single DC pole while the ground is used for returnThis method will significantly increase current carrying capacity but ground return will not beallowed in many modern systems

bull The second option adopts DC bipole with metallic return The neutral conductor can be used formonopolar operation

bull The third option is based on the tripole HVDC concept This method uses the third conductor alter-natively as a positive or negative pole which exploits the long thermal constants of conductors Thecapacity increase of around 37 is achieved (over bipole configuration) using lines and the RMSvalues of current in the conductors (over 10 minutes) are equal to the conductor rating An additionalbidirectional converter is required

17 Ultra-High Voltage HVDC

The standard DC voltage for HVDC is 500 kV and the Itaipu 3150MW plusmn600 kV HVDC has used thehighest DC voltage for a long period However the emerging requirements for bulk power transmission

R S

+

0

+

ndash

+

+

+ndash ndash+

TAC

DC monopole with ground return

DC bipole with metalic return

DC tripole with metalic return

Figure 19 Options for conversion of three-phase AC lines into DC

10 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

over long distances of 5ndash10 GW in Asia Africa and South America in late 1990s have resulted in theprogressive development of UHVDC (ultra-high voltage direct current)

XiangjiabandashShanghai 6400MW plusmn800 kV UHVDC implemented in 2010 was the first commercialUHVDC and four other plusmn800 kV systems have been implemented in 2011ndash2013 while studies areunderway for 1100 kV DC voltages The progress towards UHVDC has demanded a lot of researchand development effort and the main challenges are summarized below

bull improving insulation in particular in polluted areasbull transformer development including bushingsbull developing ultra-high voltage (UHV) test centres

It is important to appreciate that all the equipment including auxiliaries that connect to DC linesmust be changed to UHV In practice this translates to longer units ndash bushings arresters VT (voltagetransducers) CT (current transducers) and so forth ndash with more series-connected basic elementsFrequently the main challenge is the need for mechanical strength in the face of increased forces fromseismic requirements wind and other factors

The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes a standard method of increasinginsulation levels although developing UHV insulators and bushings remains challenging

The UHV valve design is not considered to be a significant obstacle

11Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

134 Extruded Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE) Cables

Extruded cross-linked polyethylene cables cannot withstand fast polarity reversal and they are not nor-mally used with LCC HVDC (unless it is a unidirectional system) They will be discussed further withVSC HVDC

The above three types of cables are used for both underground and submarine cables and their basicproperties are shown in Table 11 The difference between the underground and submarine cables is inthe conductor material and the armour layer Armour strengthening is used in submarine cables to with-stand the axial mechanical tension during laying and operation

Cables with copper conductors are used for submarine applications whereas aluminium conductorsare generally preferred for underground Copper has high electrical conductivity and mechanical prop-erties It is also simpler to implement strong joints using copper However it is heavy and more expen-sive and for these reasons it is used when the mechanical properties are mandatory as in submarinecables Aluminium has low conductivity and low mechanical properties Splicing is more difficultIt is lighter and less expensive than copper

14 LCC HVDC Topologies

High-voltage direct-current systems are divided into transmission systems and back-to-back HVDCHigh-voltage direct-current transmission can be bipolar or monopolar

Monopolar HVDC is typically used for smaller systems and the topology is shown in Figure 14Typically positive DC voltage is adopted because of less corona issues The return current can runthrough ground or a dedicated cable can be employed If a return cable is used (metallic return) it will

Table 11 DC cables types for underground and submarine application

Type Mass impregnated Oil filled XLPE

Conductor CuAl CuAl CuAlInsulation Paper and mass Paper and fluid Cross-linked PEVoltage (kV) 600 500 320 (525 kV is available)Capacity per cable (MW) 1000 2800 1000Converter type LCC or VSC LCC or VSC VSC or unidirectional LCCDistance Unlimited Limited because of oil Unlimited

Y Y

Y ΔYΔ

YY

V1gV2g

AC system 13 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

V1dcp V2dcp

DC cable (p)I1dc I2dc

α1α2

Figure 14 Twelve-pulse monopolar HVDC with ground return

7Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

be at ground potential with low insulation level (typically around 10 kV) and costs are therefore lowerthan positive-pole DC cable A 12-pulse topology is shown with two six-pulse converters in series

Figure 15 shows a bipolar HVDC Bipolar HVDC has two independent poles and it can operate athalf power if one DC cable or pole is out of service Normally the poles are balanced and there is noground current but ground return would be used if one pole is out of service In modern grid codesground current would not be allowed because of environmental concerns In some national standardsground currents are allowed only for short periods of time in emergency situations (eg secondaryreserve startup for 10ndash20 minutes) Instead of ground return a third cable or DC cable from the faultedpole can sometimes be used

Figure 16 shows a back-to-back HVDC which is frequently monopolar In this topology bothconverter terminals are located in a single station and DC cables are very short The main purposeof back-to-back HVDC is to provide controllable power transfer between two asynchronous AC

α1

α1

α2

α2

Y Δ Δ

Y Y

Y Δ

Y Y

Y

Y

Δ Y

Y

Y

Y

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

Negative

pole

Negative

pole

Positive

polePositive

pole

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

Terminal 1

Bridge

Bridge

Bridge Bridge

Bridge

Bridge

Electrodes Electrodes

Bridge

Bridge

Terminal 2

DC cable (p)

DC cable (n)

V1dcp

V1dcn

V2dcp

V2dcn

I1dc I2dc

V1g V2g

Figure 15 Bipolar HVDC (12-pulse) with ground return

Y ΔΔ

Y Y

Y

YY

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2

V1gV2g

α1α2

V1dcp

I1dc

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

Figure 16 Back-to-back HVDC topology

8 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

systems or AC systems with different frequency As DC cables are very short and therefore transmis-sion losses are low back-to-back HVDC are designed at low voltage (as high current as possible) inorder to reduce costs (costs are proportional to insulation level) The smoothing reactors are very smallor not required because there is a low probability of DC line faults Back-to-back HVDC allows foroperation with variable DC voltage and this facilitates some limited reactive power control capability

15 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems

The losses in HVDC systems will include converter station losses and DC cable losses Figure 17shows the main components of typical HVDC station losses The total LCC HVDC station losses willdepend on the size of HVDC station the voltage level configuration and typically may amount to05ndash1 of the power transfer

At partial loading the percentage losses will generally increase Figure 18 shows the load depen-dence of major loss components As an example magnetizing current in converter transformers willbe constant irrespective of loading and at 10 loading the transformer losses are 20

3

25

8

2

5

1

56

Auxiliaries

Converter valves

AC harmonic filters

Valve cooling plant

DC smoothing reactors

HF filter

Converter transformer

Figure 17 Breakdown of typical LCC HVDC station losses at 1 pu power

100

Loss c

om

ponent (

)

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Converted valves

Converted transformer

AC harmonic filters

DC smoothing reactor

DC power ()

Figure 18 Variation of HVDC station losses with the DC power shown relative to 1 pu losses

9Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

16 Conversion of AC Lines to DC

There have been many studies worldwide on converting existing AC lines into DC This mainly resultsfrom the desire to increase AC line capacity or to remove stability constraints These issues usuallyrequire costly line upgradesreconductoring series compensation or installing a device from the flexibleAC transmission systems (FACTS) family In such cases conversion to HVDC can usually offer thehighest capacity increase and a range of other benefits Typically towers and conductors will not bechanged but insulators may need to be upgraded to operate with DC lines

The main advantages of converting existing AC line to HVDC are

bull an increase in capacitybull fewer corona issues and a generally higher operating voltagebull better control of active and reactive power and other system-level benefitsbull better stability limits and active stabilization of the gridbull lower transmission losses

Some of the disadvantages of conversion to HVDC include

bull more pollution is attracted to insulators energized with DC ndash insulator upgrade is recommendedbull converter station costs

Figure 19 shows some common options for converting a single-circuit three-phase AC transmissioninto DC which include

bull The first option employs all three conductors for a single DC pole while the ground is used for returnThis method will significantly increase current carrying capacity but ground return will not beallowed in many modern systems

bull The second option adopts DC bipole with metallic return The neutral conductor can be used formonopolar operation

bull The third option is based on the tripole HVDC concept This method uses the third conductor alter-natively as a positive or negative pole which exploits the long thermal constants of conductors Thecapacity increase of around 37 is achieved (over bipole configuration) using lines and the RMSvalues of current in the conductors (over 10 minutes) are equal to the conductor rating An additionalbidirectional converter is required

17 Ultra-High Voltage HVDC

The standard DC voltage for HVDC is 500 kV and the Itaipu 3150MW plusmn600 kV HVDC has used thehighest DC voltage for a long period However the emerging requirements for bulk power transmission

R S

+

0

+

ndash

+

+

+ndash ndash+

TAC

DC monopole with ground return

DC bipole with metalic return

DC tripole with metalic return

Figure 19 Options for conversion of three-phase AC lines into DC

10 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

over long distances of 5ndash10 GW in Asia Africa and South America in late 1990s have resulted in theprogressive development of UHVDC (ultra-high voltage direct current)

XiangjiabandashShanghai 6400MW plusmn800 kV UHVDC implemented in 2010 was the first commercialUHVDC and four other plusmn800 kV systems have been implemented in 2011ndash2013 while studies areunderway for 1100 kV DC voltages The progress towards UHVDC has demanded a lot of researchand development effort and the main challenges are summarized below

bull improving insulation in particular in polluted areasbull transformer development including bushingsbull developing ultra-high voltage (UHV) test centres

It is important to appreciate that all the equipment including auxiliaries that connect to DC linesmust be changed to UHV In practice this translates to longer units ndash bushings arresters VT (voltagetransducers) CT (current transducers) and so forth ndash with more series-connected basic elementsFrequently the main challenge is the need for mechanical strength in the face of increased forces fromseismic requirements wind and other factors

The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes a standard method of increasinginsulation levels although developing UHV insulators and bushings remains challenging

The UHV valve design is not considered to be a significant obstacle

11Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

be at ground potential with low insulation level (typically around 10 kV) and costs are therefore lowerthan positive-pole DC cable A 12-pulse topology is shown with two six-pulse converters in series

Figure 15 shows a bipolar HVDC Bipolar HVDC has two independent poles and it can operate athalf power if one DC cable or pole is out of service Normally the poles are balanced and there is noground current but ground return would be used if one pole is out of service In modern grid codesground current would not be allowed because of environmental concerns In some national standardsground currents are allowed only for short periods of time in emergency situations (eg secondaryreserve startup for 10ndash20 minutes) Instead of ground return a third cable or DC cable from the faultedpole can sometimes be used

Figure 16 shows a back-to-back HVDC which is frequently monopolar In this topology bothconverter terminals are located in a single station and DC cables are very short The main purposeof back-to-back HVDC is to provide controllable power transfer between two asynchronous AC

α1

α1

α2

α2

Y Δ Δ

Y Y

Y Δ

Y Y

Y

Y

Δ Y

Y

Y

Y

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

Negative

pole

Negative

pole

Positive

polePositive

pole

P1g Q1g P2g Q2g

Terminal 1

Bridge

Bridge

Bridge Bridge

Bridge

Bridge

Electrodes Electrodes

Bridge

Bridge

Terminal 2

DC cable (p)

DC cable (n)

V1dcp

V1dcn

V2dcp

V2dcn

I1dc I2dc

V1g V2g

Figure 15 Bipolar HVDC (12-pulse) with ground return

Y ΔΔ

Y Y

Y

YY

AC system 1

3 phase V1g f1

P1g Q1g

Terminal 1 Terminal 2

V1gV2g

α1α2

V1dcp

I1dc

AC system 2

3 phase V2g f2

P2g Q2g

Figure 16 Back-to-back HVDC topology

8 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

systems or AC systems with different frequency As DC cables are very short and therefore transmis-sion losses are low back-to-back HVDC are designed at low voltage (as high current as possible) inorder to reduce costs (costs are proportional to insulation level) The smoothing reactors are very smallor not required because there is a low probability of DC line faults Back-to-back HVDC allows foroperation with variable DC voltage and this facilitates some limited reactive power control capability

15 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems

The losses in HVDC systems will include converter station losses and DC cable losses Figure 17shows the main components of typical HVDC station losses The total LCC HVDC station losses willdepend on the size of HVDC station the voltage level configuration and typically may amount to05ndash1 of the power transfer

At partial loading the percentage losses will generally increase Figure 18 shows the load depen-dence of major loss components As an example magnetizing current in converter transformers willbe constant irrespective of loading and at 10 loading the transformer losses are 20

3

25

8

2

5

1

56

Auxiliaries

Converter valves

AC harmonic filters

Valve cooling plant

DC smoothing reactors

HF filter

Converter transformer

Figure 17 Breakdown of typical LCC HVDC station losses at 1 pu power

100

Loss c

om

ponent (

)

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Converted valves

Converted transformer

AC harmonic filters

DC smoothing reactor

DC power ()

Figure 18 Variation of HVDC station losses with the DC power shown relative to 1 pu losses

9Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

16 Conversion of AC Lines to DC

There have been many studies worldwide on converting existing AC lines into DC This mainly resultsfrom the desire to increase AC line capacity or to remove stability constraints These issues usuallyrequire costly line upgradesreconductoring series compensation or installing a device from the flexibleAC transmission systems (FACTS) family In such cases conversion to HVDC can usually offer thehighest capacity increase and a range of other benefits Typically towers and conductors will not bechanged but insulators may need to be upgraded to operate with DC lines

The main advantages of converting existing AC line to HVDC are

bull an increase in capacitybull fewer corona issues and a generally higher operating voltagebull better control of active and reactive power and other system-level benefitsbull better stability limits and active stabilization of the gridbull lower transmission losses

Some of the disadvantages of conversion to HVDC include

bull more pollution is attracted to insulators energized with DC ndash insulator upgrade is recommendedbull converter station costs

Figure 19 shows some common options for converting a single-circuit three-phase AC transmissioninto DC which include

bull The first option employs all three conductors for a single DC pole while the ground is used for returnThis method will significantly increase current carrying capacity but ground return will not beallowed in many modern systems

bull The second option adopts DC bipole with metallic return The neutral conductor can be used formonopolar operation

bull The third option is based on the tripole HVDC concept This method uses the third conductor alter-natively as a positive or negative pole which exploits the long thermal constants of conductors Thecapacity increase of around 37 is achieved (over bipole configuration) using lines and the RMSvalues of current in the conductors (over 10 minutes) are equal to the conductor rating An additionalbidirectional converter is required

17 Ultra-High Voltage HVDC

The standard DC voltage for HVDC is 500 kV and the Itaipu 3150MW plusmn600 kV HVDC has used thehighest DC voltage for a long period However the emerging requirements for bulk power transmission

R S

+

0

+

ndash

+

+

+ndash ndash+

TAC

DC monopole with ground return

DC bipole with metalic return

DC tripole with metalic return

Figure 19 Options for conversion of three-phase AC lines into DC

10 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

over long distances of 5ndash10 GW in Asia Africa and South America in late 1990s have resulted in theprogressive development of UHVDC (ultra-high voltage direct current)

XiangjiabandashShanghai 6400MW plusmn800 kV UHVDC implemented in 2010 was the first commercialUHVDC and four other plusmn800 kV systems have been implemented in 2011ndash2013 while studies areunderway for 1100 kV DC voltages The progress towards UHVDC has demanded a lot of researchand development effort and the main challenges are summarized below

bull improving insulation in particular in polluted areasbull transformer development including bushingsbull developing ultra-high voltage (UHV) test centres

It is important to appreciate that all the equipment including auxiliaries that connect to DC linesmust be changed to UHV In practice this translates to longer units ndash bushings arresters VT (voltagetransducers) CT (current transducers) and so forth ndash with more series-connected basic elementsFrequently the main challenge is the need for mechanical strength in the face of increased forces fromseismic requirements wind and other factors

The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes a standard method of increasinginsulation levels although developing UHV insulators and bushings remains challenging

The UHV valve design is not considered to be a significant obstacle

11Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

systems or AC systems with different frequency As DC cables are very short and therefore transmis-sion losses are low back-to-back HVDC are designed at low voltage (as high current as possible) inorder to reduce costs (costs are proportional to insulation level) The smoothing reactors are very smallor not required because there is a low probability of DC line faults Back-to-back HVDC allows foroperation with variable DC voltage and this facilitates some limited reactive power control capability

15 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems

The losses in HVDC systems will include converter station losses and DC cable losses Figure 17shows the main components of typical HVDC station losses The total LCC HVDC station losses willdepend on the size of HVDC station the voltage level configuration and typically may amount to05ndash1 of the power transfer

At partial loading the percentage losses will generally increase Figure 18 shows the load depen-dence of major loss components As an example magnetizing current in converter transformers willbe constant irrespective of loading and at 10 loading the transformer losses are 20

3

25

8

2

5

1

56

Auxiliaries

Converter valves

AC harmonic filters

Valve cooling plant

DC smoothing reactors

HF filter

Converter transformer

Figure 17 Breakdown of typical LCC HVDC station losses at 1 pu power

100

Loss c

om

ponent (

)

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Converted valves

Converted transformer

AC harmonic filters

DC smoothing reactor

DC power ()

Figure 18 Variation of HVDC station losses with the DC power shown relative to 1 pu losses

9Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

16 Conversion of AC Lines to DC

There have been many studies worldwide on converting existing AC lines into DC This mainly resultsfrom the desire to increase AC line capacity or to remove stability constraints These issues usuallyrequire costly line upgradesreconductoring series compensation or installing a device from the flexibleAC transmission systems (FACTS) family In such cases conversion to HVDC can usually offer thehighest capacity increase and a range of other benefits Typically towers and conductors will not bechanged but insulators may need to be upgraded to operate with DC lines

The main advantages of converting existing AC line to HVDC are

bull an increase in capacitybull fewer corona issues and a generally higher operating voltagebull better control of active and reactive power and other system-level benefitsbull better stability limits and active stabilization of the gridbull lower transmission losses

Some of the disadvantages of conversion to HVDC include

bull more pollution is attracted to insulators energized with DC ndash insulator upgrade is recommendedbull converter station costs

Figure 19 shows some common options for converting a single-circuit three-phase AC transmissioninto DC which include

bull The first option employs all three conductors for a single DC pole while the ground is used for returnThis method will significantly increase current carrying capacity but ground return will not beallowed in many modern systems

bull The second option adopts DC bipole with metallic return The neutral conductor can be used formonopolar operation

bull The third option is based on the tripole HVDC concept This method uses the third conductor alter-natively as a positive or negative pole which exploits the long thermal constants of conductors Thecapacity increase of around 37 is achieved (over bipole configuration) using lines and the RMSvalues of current in the conductors (over 10 minutes) are equal to the conductor rating An additionalbidirectional converter is required

17 Ultra-High Voltage HVDC

The standard DC voltage for HVDC is 500 kV and the Itaipu 3150MW plusmn600 kV HVDC has used thehighest DC voltage for a long period However the emerging requirements for bulk power transmission

R S

+

0

+

ndash

+

+

+ndash ndash+

TAC

DC monopole with ground return

DC bipole with metalic return

DC tripole with metalic return

Figure 19 Options for conversion of three-phase AC lines into DC

10 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

over long distances of 5ndash10 GW in Asia Africa and South America in late 1990s have resulted in theprogressive development of UHVDC (ultra-high voltage direct current)

XiangjiabandashShanghai 6400MW plusmn800 kV UHVDC implemented in 2010 was the first commercialUHVDC and four other plusmn800 kV systems have been implemented in 2011ndash2013 while studies areunderway for 1100 kV DC voltages The progress towards UHVDC has demanded a lot of researchand development effort and the main challenges are summarized below

bull improving insulation in particular in polluted areasbull transformer development including bushingsbull developing ultra-high voltage (UHV) test centres

It is important to appreciate that all the equipment including auxiliaries that connect to DC linesmust be changed to UHV In practice this translates to longer units ndash bushings arresters VT (voltagetransducers) CT (current transducers) and so forth ndash with more series-connected basic elementsFrequently the main challenge is the need for mechanical strength in the face of increased forces fromseismic requirements wind and other factors

The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes a standard method of increasinginsulation levels although developing UHV insulators and bushings remains challenging

The UHV valve design is not considered to be a significant obstacle

11Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

16 Conversion of AC Lines to DC

There have been many studies worldwide on converting existing AC lines into DC This mainly resultsfrom the desire to increase AC line capacity or to remove stability constraints These issues usuallyrequire costly line upgradesreconductoring series compensation or installing a device from the flexibleAC transmission systems (FACTS) family In such cases conversion to HVDC can usually offer thehighest capacity increase and a range of other benefits Typically towers and conductors will not bechanged but insulators may need to be upgraded to operate with DC lines

The main advantages of converting existing AC line to HVDC are

bull an increase in capacitybull fewer corona issues and a generally higher operating voltagebull better control of active and reactive power and other system-level benefitsbull better stability limits and active stabilization of the gridbull lower transmission losses

Some of the disadvantages of conversion to HVDC include

bull more pollution is attracted to insulators energized with DC ndash insulator upgrade is recommendedbull converter station costs

Figure 19 shows some common options for converting a single-circuit three-phase AC transmissioninto DC which include

bull The first option employs all three conductors for a single DC pole while the ground is used for returnThis method will significantly increase current carrying capacity but ground return will not beallowed in many modern systems

bull The second option adopts DC bipole with metallic return The neutral conductor can be used formonopolar operation

bull The third option is based on the tripole HVDC concept This method uses the third conductor alter-natively as a positive or negative pole which exploits the long thermal constants of conductors Thecapacity increase of around 37 is achieved (over bipole configuration) using lines and the RMSvalues of current in the conductors (over 10 minutes) are equal to the conductor rating An additionalbidirectional converter is required

17 Ultra-High Voltage HVDC

The standard DC voltage for HVDC is 500 kV and the Itaipu 3150MW plusmn600 kV HVDC has used thehighest DC voltage for a long period However the emerging requirements for bulk power transmission

R S

+

0

+

ndash

+

+

+ndash ndash+

TAC

DC monopole with ground return

DC bipole with metalic return

DC tripole with metalic return

Figure 19 Options for conversion of three-phase AC lines into DC

10 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

over long distances of 5ndash10 GW in Asia Africa and South America in late 1990s have resulted in theprogressive development of UHVDC (ultra-high voltage direct current)

XiangjiabandashShanghai 6400MW plusmn800 kV UHVDC implemented in 2010 was the first commercialUHVDC and four other plusmn800 kV systems have been implemented in 2011ndash2013 while studies areunderway for 1100 kV DC voltages The progress towards UHVDC has demanded a lot of researchand development effort and the main challenges are summarized below

bull improving insulation in particular in polluted areasbull transformer development including bushingsbull developing ultra-high voltage (UHV) test centres

It is important to appreciate that all the equipment including auxiliaries that connect to DC linesmust be changed to UHV In practice this translates to longer units ndash bushings arresters VT (voltagetransducers) CT (current transducers) and so forth ndash with more series-connected basic elementsFrequently the main challenge is the need for mechanical strength in the face of increased forces fromseismic requirements wind and other factors

The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes a standard method of increasinginsulation levels although developing UHV insulators and bushings remains challenging

The UHV valve design is not considered to be a significant obstacle

11Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

over long distances of 5ndash10 GW in Asia Africa and South America in late 1990s have resulted in theprogressive development of UHVDC (ultra-high voltage direct current)

XiangjiabandashShanghai 6400MW plusmn800 kV UHVDC implemented in 2010 was the first commercialUHVDC and four other plusmn800 kV systems have been implemented in 2011ndash2013 while studies areunderway for 1100 kV DC voltages The progress towards UHVDC has demanded a lot of researchand development effort and the main challenges are summarized below

bull improving insulation in particular in polluted areasbull transformer development including bushingsbull developing ultra-high voltage (UHV) test centres

It is important to appreciate that all the equipment including auxiliaries that connect to DC linesmust be changed to UHV In practice this translates to longer units ndash bushings arresters VT (voltagetransducers) CT (current transducers) and so forth ndash with more series-connected basic elementsFrequently the main challenge is the need for mechanical strength in the face of increased forces fromseismic requirements wind and other factors

The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes a standard method of increasinginsulation levels although developing UHV insulators and bushings remains challenging

The UHV valve design is not considered to be a significant obstacle

11Introduction to Line-Commutated HVDC

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

2Thyristors

21 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) valves and it is still one ofthe most common devices used in power-switching applications in all industries This is attributed to itshigh power ratings robustness and high efficiency Single devices have up to 8500V 4500A capabilitythey are built on single wafers of up to 150 mm in diameter and have been in existence since the 1950s

The thyristor is a four-layer three-terminal device as shown in Figure 21 The three connections areA-anode K-cathode and G-gate When gate current is applied the layer between J2 and J3 becomesnegative (N) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar to a diode also shown in Figure 21 Func-tionally it is similar to a diode but the start of conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit

A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode as shown in operating curves in Figure 22With no gate current ig = 0 it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) both in forward and reversedirections A forward voltage across the device (A positive with respect to K) results in junctionsJ1 and J3 being forward biased whereas J2 is reverse biased and therefore only a small leakage currentflows If VAK is increased to a critical limit the device switches suddenly to a conducting state as theresult of breakdown or breakover of J2 If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of VAK neededfor breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode The level of ig required issmall compared to the main power current The current Il is called the latching current which is theanode current required to ensure thyristor switches to the ON state Once the anode current reachesIl the gate current can be removed The gate current is therefore a short pulse of 10ndash50 μs Theoret-ically gate pulse is required once per half cycle but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple timesper half cycle to ensure firing under all operating conditions

Once the device is conducting ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON state When thedevice is in conduction its state is determined solely by the anode current If the anode current IA fallsbelow some critical value the holding current Ih (typically few milliamperes) the device switches offreverting to the blocking OFF state

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission Converters Systems and DC Grids First EditionDragan Jovcic and Khaled Ahmedcopy 2015 John Wiley amp Sons Ltd Published 2015 by John Wiley amp Sons Ltd

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative VAK) J1 and J3 become reverse biasedonly J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows If negative VAK is increasedsufficiently then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs across J1 and J3 resulting in damage to thedevice unless steps are taken to limit the current The reverse breakdown may not be destructive Theforward and reverse blocking capability are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperaturestability for typical operating temperatures below 125 C However forward-blocking capability deteri-orates very fast with temperatures above 125 C

Figure 23 illustrates the design of high-power press-pack thyristors

22 Switching Characteristic

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in Figure 24 The topgraph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows the anode current and VAK voltageIf a device is forward biased (VAK positive) and a gate-current pulse is applied the device switches on

A (anode)A (anode)

K (cathode)

K (cathode)

K

G (gate)

P

N

G

K

AA

P

N

P

N

J3

J2

J1

(a) (b)

Figure 21 Structure and symbol for (a) diode and (b) thyristor

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardblocking

Reverseblocking

Forwardbreakdown voltage

Reversebreakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

0 Vak (V)

I (A)

Forwardconduction

Reverseblocking

Forwardvoltage drop

Reverse

breakdown voltage

Reverse

leakage current

Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state

Values of Vak whenIg switched in

Ig1 Ig2 Ig3

Ig1ltIg2ltIg3

IhIl

Figure 22 Thyristor operating curves

13Thyristors

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

Once a thyristor is in conduction the gate has no control over the device The device conducts evenif the gate pulse is now turned off There is a delay while the device switches on which is termed theon time ton During the time ton which is in the order of few microseconds the voltage across thyristorreduces and the current increases The rate of current rise at turn on should be limited (to around

Figure 23 High-power thyristors of press-pack design Reproduced with permission from ABB

20ndash200 mA

10ndash50 μs

Thyristor conduction

Thyristor turn on

Tq (gt10ndash1000 μs)

Thyristor turn off

05ndash25 VVAK

VAK

Ton (lt10 μs) IRMlt500 A

IAK

dIAKdt

(lt100 A μs)dVAKdt

(lt1000 V μs)

Gate

curr

ent

Anode-c

ath

ode

Curr

entvo

ltage

Figure 24 Thyristor switching characteristic

14 High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission