throwing shade: a qualitative study of …journal of student success and retention vol. 5, no. 1,...

Journal of Student Success and Retention Vol. 5, No. 1, October 2018

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THROWINGSHADE:AQUALITATIVESTUDYOFMICROINEQUITIESANDLEARNINGENGAGEMENTWITHINHIGHEREDUCATION

JosieL.AndrewsUniversityofTennessee,Knoxville

[email protected]

Abstract

Basedoninterviewdatafromaqualitativestudy,thisarticlehighlightstheperspectivesof

fivestudentsfromanAmericaninstitutionofhighereducationtogetabetter

understandingofthewaysinwhichmicroinequitiesinfluencelearningengagement.Three

majorthemesemergedfromtheinterviewdata:(1)feelingofdisconnection,(2)surface

learning,and(3)student‐teacherrelationship.Usingasocialconstructivismframework,I

argueforagreaterunderstandingofmicroinequitiesinthesocialandsituationalcontextin

whichtheyoccur,specificallywithineducationalclimates.Implicationsforeducatorswill

bediscussed,includinghowtocreateinclusive,supportive,anddemocraticlearning

climatesforalllearners.

Keywords:students,biascommunication,highereducation,learningclimates,learning

engagement,microinequities

Introduction

Microinequitiesoccurineverydaylives(Brennan,2016;Nadal,2017;Rowe,2008,

Schnellmann&Gibbons,1984),includingthelivesofstudentswhoattendcollegesand

universitiesintheUnitedStates.Rowe(2008)coinedthetermmicroinequitywhile

conductinga1973studyoninclusionwithintheworkplaceattheMassachusettsInstitute

ofTechnology.Rowewritesthatmicroinequitiesare“apparentlysmalleventswhichare

oftenephemeralandhard‐to‐prove,eventswhicharecovert,oftenunintentional,


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frequentlyunrecognizedbytheperpetrator,whichoccurwhereverpeopleareperceivedto

bedifferent”(p.1).SandlerandHall(1986)refertomicroinequitiesas“waysinwhich

individualsareeithersingledout,oroverlooked,ignored,orotherwisediscountedonthe

basisofunchangeablecharacteristicssuchassex,race,orage.”(p.3;emphasisinoriginal).

Sueetal.(2007)describemicroinequitiesas“thepatternofbeingoverlooked,

underrespected,anddevaluedbecauseofone’sraceorgender”(p.273).

Literatureshowsthatcontemporaryscholars(e.g.,Brennan,2016;Hutchison&

Jenkins,2013;Nadal,2017;Saporu&Herbers,2015)refertoRowe’sdefinitionintheir

scholarshiponmicroinequitiesintheworkplace.Unfortunately,thereisnoprecise

definitionofmicroinequitiesastheyrelatetolearningclimatesineducationalinstitutions.

Forthisstudy,theoriginaldefinitionwillsuffice.Furthermore,contemporaryterminology

(e.g.biascommunication,unconsciousbias,hiddenbias)willbeusedinterchangeablywith

thetermmicroinequity.

Basedoninterviewanalysesfromaqualitativeapproach,thisstudyhighlights

perceptionsofmicroinequitiestogetabetterunderstandingofwaysinwhichthese

unconsciousbiasescouldinfluencelearningengagementintheclassroom.Usingasocial

constructivismframework,Iargueforagreaterunderstandingofmicroinequitiesinthe

socialandsituationalcontextinwhichtheyoccur,specificallywithinclassroomclimates.I

alsoargueforfutureareasoftheory,research,andpracticetopotentiallyfindwaysto

minimizetheeffectsofmicroinequitiesineducationalandvocationallearningspaces.

Implicationswillbeprovidedforeducatorswhoarestrivingtocreateinclusive,supportive,

anddemocraticlearningclimates,aswellasincreaseretentionineducationallearning

spaces.


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ResearchProblem

Rowe(2008)positsthatmicroinequitiesdonotrequireactiveintentiononthepart

oftheperpetrator;however,theaccumulationofunconsciousbiasesandprejudicescan

resultinexclusion,impairworkplaceorclassroomperformance,anddiminishself‐esteem

(SaporuandHerbers,2015).Muchoftheexistingliteratureonthecumulativeeffectsof

microinequitiespresentsindividuals’experienceswithinworkplacelearningspacesand

focusesprimarilyongenderandraceschemas(Brennan,2016;Hutchinson&Jenkins,

2013;Nadal,2017;Rowe2008;Sandler&Hall,1986;Saporu&Herbers,2015;Young

2006)andispredominantlyquantitativeinnature.Withrespecttoacademiclearning

spaces,therelativelysmallerandmostlydatedliteratureonmicroinequitiesandtheir

impactsonlearningengagementfocusesexclusivelyongender,race,andsexualorientation

schemas(Beagan,2001;Cranston1989;Sandler&Hall,1986;Schnellmann&Gibbons,

1984).Theliteraturealsoencompassespsychologicalorientations(Cranston&Leonard,

1990;Meadors&Murray,2014).Whencomparedtotheresearchonmicroinequities

withintheworkplacelearningclimates,researchwithinacademiclearningclimatesisalso

predominatelyquantitativeinnature.Fromaqualitativeapproach,weknowrelatively

littleabout(1)howmicroinequitiesinfluencelearningengagementintheclassroomand

(2)howstudentlearnerscopewiththeirexperiencesofmicroinequities.

ResearchPurpose

Thepurposeofthisstudywastoqualitativelyexplorestudents’experiencesof

microinequitiestogetabetterunderstandingofthewaysinwhichmicroinequities


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influencelearningengagement.Twooverarchingresearchquestionsguidedthe

investigation:

1.Howdostudents’experiencesofmicroinequitiesinfluencelearningengagement

inhighereducation?

2.Inwhatwaysdostudentscopewiththeexperiencesofmicroinequitiesinhigher

education?

LiteratureReview

Thefollowingsectionsintroduceanddiscussthethreespecificareas:learning

engagementinlearningspaces,perception,andcommunication,astheyrelatetothe

understandingofmicroinequitiesintheclassroom.

LearningEngagement

Democracyandinclusionpromotesafelearningclimateswithinadultandhigher

educationalinstitutions(Andrews&Misawa,2017;Williams,Woodson,&Wallace,2016).

Williamsetal.(2016)assertthatlearningspacesthatpromotesafelearningclimateshave

thepotentialtofosterengagementandexplorationofcreativity.Engagement,operationally

speaking,isdifficulttodefine;however,itisobviousbothwhenpresentandwhenmissing

(Saeed&Zyngier,2012).Engagement,Kuh(2009)states,isthequalityofeffortand

participationwhichlearnersemployinrealisticlearningactivities.Schlechty(2002,as

citedinSaeed&Zyngier,2012)adds:

Engagementisactive.Itrequiresthestudentstobeattentiveaswellasinattendance;

itrequiresthestudentstobecommittedtothetaskandfindsomeinherentvaluein

what he or she is being asked to do. The engaged student not only does the task

assignedbutalsodoesthetaskwithenthusiasmanddiligence.(p.255)


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Unfortunately,whensubtleeffectsofmicroinequitiesimpedeengagementwithina

learningsetting,alearnercouldfeelasenseofisolation,marginalization,andexclusion

(Brennan,2016;Nadal,2017).Theaccumulationofdisparagingcomments,unintentional

acts,orinvalidationswithinlearningspacescreatesexclusion,impairsworkplaceor

classroomperformance,anddiminishesself‐esteem(Saporu&Herbers,2015).When

consideringlearninginanysetting,theaccumulationsofbiascommunicationcanhave

psychologicalandphysicaleffects,includingsadness,lossofcreativityandengagement,

andlowworkperformance(Nadal,2017).Nadaladdsthattheeffectsofunconsciousbias

canalsoleadtohighturnover,lowmorale,anddecreasedproductivitywithinthe

workplace.

Kahu(2013)believesthatunderstandingthemagnitudeofengagementandits

impactonacademicsinhighereducationrequiresapsychologicalapproach.Shesuggests

thatateachercanframelearners’engagementbyconsideringbehavior,cognition,and

emotionaldimensionsoflearning.Kahu’spsychologicalperspectiveonlearningisnota

newconcept;however,itcorroboratesForgas’(2000)philosophythatfeelingandthinking

areinterconnecteddomainsandcannotbeseparatefromthelearningprocess.Kahu’s

psychologicalapproachtoengagementalsosupportsIlleris’(2002)viewpointthatthe

learningencompassesthecognitive,affective,andsocialdimensions.Itshouldbenoted

thatinlaterworksIllerischangedthesetermstocontent,incentive,andenvironment.

However,hisoriginaltermshavebeenmaintainedinthissectionbecausetheyaresimple

andrelevanttothecontentofthisarticle.Despitethechangeofterminology,Illeris(2017)

maintains,inhissecondeditionofHowWeLearn:LearningandNon‐FormalinSchooland


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Beyond,that“alllearninginvolvesthesethreedimensions,whichmustalwaysbe

consideredifanunderstandingoranalysisofalearningsituationistobeadequate”(p.24).

Perception

Microinequitieslieintheeyesofthebeholder;therefore,theperceptionsof

microinequitiesmakeithardtorecognizeorprove,especiallywhenthereareother

reasonableexplanations(Chun&Evan,2015;Rowe,2008).Becauseoftheconstructionof

reality,ChunandEvan(2015)claimthatperceptionsofmicroinequitiesallowthe

individualtobecometheexpertonwhatconstitutesamicroinequity.Individualswho

experienced,orperceivedthattheyhaveexperienced,microinequitiesinlearningspaces

describedanambiguoussenseofdisrespect,insult,orslight(Brennan,2016;Hutchinson&

Jenkins,2013).

Althoughresearchindicatesthatperceptionisnotanaccuratereflectionofreality,

SchnellmannandGibbons(1984)disagree.In1984,theseresearchersconducteda

quantitativestudytodeterminewhetherwomenandotherminoritystudentsperceiveda

lessencouragingclassroomclimatethantheirwhitemalecounterparts.Schnellmannand

Gibbons’findingsindicatethatanindividual’sperceptionofrealityinformshisorher

beliefsandbehaviors.Kiraly(2014)addsthatindividualsperceiveandunderstandtheir

realitythroughtheirownpositionalitywithinthesocialcontext.Thesestatements

emphasize(1)thatrealityisconstructedthroughsocialinteractionwithone’s

environment,and(2)theexperienceoflearninghasanemotionalaspect.Unintentional

exclusionarypractices,suchasmicroinequities,canemotionallyinfluencelearners’

attitudesandbehaviors(Chun&Evan,2015)towardlearning,includingloweringacademic

aspirationsandachievements,decreasingself‐efficacy,anddecreasingmotivation.


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Communication

Communication,bothverbalandnon‐verbal,issalienttoanyenvironmentwhere

learningexperiencesoccur(e.g.,Churches,2010;Knapp,Hall,&Horgan,2014).Literature

oncommunicationoftencitesearlierresearchfromAlfredMehrabian(1968),who

maintainsthatcommunicationiscomprisedof93%non‐verbaland7%verbal.Verbal

communicationtendstoplaceemphasisonthecognitivefacetsofinterpersonal

interactions(McCroskey,Richmond,&Bennett,2006;Meadors&Murray,2014;).

Unlikeverbalcommunication,non‐verbalcommunicationplaysamoreemotionalor

affectiveroleinsendingandreceivingmessages(Knappetal.,2014;McCroskeyetal.,

2006;Meadors&Murray,2014).Churches(2010)positsthattheemotionalclimateofthe

learningspaceinfluenceslearnersjustasmuchastheeffectivenessofthecurriculum.

Morreale,Spitzberg,andBarge(2007)definenon‐verbalcommunicationasanyhuman

behaviors,objectsorcharacteristicsthatconveyamessage–otherthanwords.Non‐verbal

communicationincludesfacialexpression,eyecontact,bodyposition,gesture,pitchand

toneofvoice,personaldistance,attentivesilence,andtouch(Bambaeeroo&Shokrpour,

2017;Baron,2009).

Non‐verbalelementsofcommunicationcanemphasize,distractfrom,orcontradict

averbalmessage(DeLamater&Myers,2011;Meadors&Murray,2014).Whenthereisa

discrepancybetweenverbalandnon‐verbalcommunication,individualswillrespondmore

frequentlytothenon‐verbalcommunication(Churches,2010;DeLamater&Myers,2011;

Meadors&Murray,2014;Mehrabian,2009).Okon(2011)contendsiftheincongruityisnot

resolved,itcouldpossiblysetthetonefortheescalationofconflict.Lincoln(2002)


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describeshowconflictcouldoccurwhenanindividualperceivesthattheverbalmessage

thatisbeingdeliveredisnotgenuineorcontradictthenon‐verbalbehaviors.

Quantitativefindingsimplythattherearecorrelationsbetweenteachers’verbaland

non‐verbalbehaviorsaswellasstudents’achievementandgoodbehaviorandstudents’

learningandmotivation(Bambaeeroo&Shokrpour,2017).In1982,HallandSandler

noted:

[N]onverbalbehaviorscansignalinclusionorexclusionofgroupmembers;indicate

interestandattentionortheopposite;communicateexpectationsofstudentsuccess

orfailure;andfosterorimpedestudents’confidenceintheirownabilitiestolearn

specifictasksandprocedures.(p.6)

Over35yearslater,thisstatementcontinuestoconveytheimportanceofunderstanding

non‐verbalcommunicationandaddscredibilitytotheconceptthatifthenon‐verbal

communicationisperceivedtobeahiddenbias,thenitcouldpossiblyhaveanadverse

effectonastudent’sengagementwithinlearningclimates.

SocialConstructivismFramework

JohnDewey(1916),perhapsoneoftheprominenteducationalscholarsof

thetwentiethcentury,believedthateducationisnotabouttellingbutaboutdoing.Dewey

andmanyothersocialconstructivistshaveresearched,theorized,andpracticedthe

conceptthatlearningisconstructedthroughsocialinteractionandconcludedthatdoing

andknowingcannotbetreatedseparately(Bandura,1977,Beck&Kosnik,2006;Bruner

1986;Burr,2015;Vygotsky,2012;Piaget,2013).Socialconstructivismparadigmwas

chosenbecauseofitsepistemologicalassumptionsaboutthenatureofknowledgeandhow

individualswithinaspecificsocialcontextcanconstructvariousrealities.


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Socialconstructivistsacknowledgethatlearningprocessesoccurinternallyinan

individual;however,theyconsideritminusculebecausethenatureandcontentoflearning

processesaredeterminedbysocialcontext,inwhichindividualsunderstandandinterpret

theirexperiencesintheworld(Burr,2015;Illeris,2017).Perhapsonecanconcludethat

vastinterpretationsofexperiencesbegetmultiplerealities.Reality,asitrelatestosocial

constructivism,hasmultiplerealitiesdependingone’ssocialandsocietalpositionsinthe

world(Jonassen,Myers,&McKillop,1996).Multiplerealties,basedoncultureandsocial

facets,areperhapsamongthemostsalientattributesofconstructivists’paradigm(Kiraly,

2014).

ResearcherReflection

AsanAfrican‐Americanfemalegraduatestudentinhighereducation,Ihave

experiencedorperceivedthatIhadexperiencedsomeformsofmicroinequitieswithinthe

classroom.Therefore,myknowledgeofexistingmicroinequitiesliteratureinformedmy

preconceptions.Attheinceptionofthisqualitativeinvestigation,Ibelievedthat(a)subtle

formsofbiascommunicationexistedinthecultureofhighereducation(b)adultlearners

interpretedtheirperceptionsofmicroinequitiesindiverseways,and(c)perceptionsof

microinequitiescouldcontributetonegativedevelopmental,psychological,andsocial

outcomes.IacknowledgethattheseperspectiveslikelyinfluencedthemethodsthatIused

andmyinterpretationofthecollecteddata.Consideringmysubjectivityasitrelatestothis

researchtopic,Ihopethatmyparticipationinthisconversationwilladdavoiceto

understandingandcombatingmicroinequitiesinlearningspaces.


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ResearchDesign

Toexploretheconceptofmicroinequitiesastheyrelatetostudents’learning

engagement,aqualitativeapproachwasusedtoexploretheexperiencesoffivestudents

withinanAmericaninstitutionofhighereducation.BogdanandBiklen(2012)suggestthat

aqualitativeapproachtoresearchprovidesresearcherswiththeopportunityto

understandwaysinwhichpeoplemakesenseoftheirlives.Theauthorsalsonotethat

qualitativeresearchers“seektograsptheprocessbywhichpeopleconstructmeaningand

todescribewhatthosemeaningsare”(p.48).

ParticipantsandDataCollection

ParticipantswererecruitedfromtheCollegeofEducationwithintheUniversityof

PNY(pseudonym),apublicuniversitylocatedintheSoutheasternregionoftheUnited

States.Thesampleforthisstudyconsistedoffiveparticipants:Amy,Henry,Stacy,Luke,

andNancy.Thecriteriaforthestudyparticipantsincluded(a)be19yearsofageorolder,

(b)beanactivestudentwithintheCollegeofEducation,and(c)demonstratethe

willingnessandavailabilitytoparticipate.

DataCollectionandAnalysis

Ingeneral,interviewsareconsideredoneofthemostcommonresearchtoolsin

qualitativeresearchthatbuildsaholisticsnapshot,analyzeswords,andreportsdetailed

viewsofinformants(Edward&Hollands,2013).Spradley(2016)pointsoutthat

interviewsareconsideredaseriesoffriendlyconversations.Inordertosetsome

parametersforthesefriendlyconversations,asemi‐structuredinterviewguidewasusedto

maximizeflexibilityduringtheinterviewprocess.Eachparticipantvoluntaryparticipated


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inaface‐to‐faceaudio‐recordedinterviewsessionthatlasted45‐70minutesinlengthand

consistedofopen‐endedquestions.

Priortothebeginningoftheaudio‐recordedinterviewsession,eachparticipantwas

providedaninformedconsentformthatprovidedthestudyobjectives,procedures,

duration,risks,benefits,confidentialityofrecords,contactinformationforanyquestions

regardingtheresearchstudy.Aftertheparticipantssignedandconsentedtoparticipatein

theresearchstudy,theywereensuredofcompleteanonymityandconfidentiality.Inan

efforttoprovideanonymityandconfidentiality,allidentifyingmarkerswereremovedfrom

thedatacollectionandnoinformationwasquotedinawaythatwouldleadtothe

participants’identification.Inanattempttoavoidinaccuraciesormisrepresentationsof

data,aface‐to‐facemeetingwasheldwitheachparticipanttogivehimorheran

opportunitytomembercheckhisorhertranscribednarrative.

Aftertranscribingtheinterviewsverbatim,Iusedathematicanalysistechniqueto

code,categorize,andthemepatternsthatwerecommontoallparticipants(Guest,

MacQueen,&Namey,2012).Initially,opencodingwasusetoreadandre‐readparticipants’

wordstogeneratecodesofinformation.Opencodingprovidedmetheopportunityto

organizethedatainto“chunks”(Rossman&Rallis,2016).Next,thecodeswereorganized

intosimilarcategories.Finally,therelatedcategorieswereusedtocreatethemes,which

wereusedtoprovidedescriptionsofthestudents’experiencesofmicroinequitiesand

copingstrategies.

Findings

Threemajorthemeswereidentifiedusingthethematicanalysisprocessdescribed

intheprevioussection:(1)feelingofdisconnection,(2)surfacelearning,and(3)student‐


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teacherrelationship.Eachmajorthemeisdefinedandexplainedinthefollowingsections,

alongwithquotestodemonstratethemeaningandsignificanceofthefindings.

FeelingofDisconnection

Inthisstudy,thefeelingofdisconnectionisdepictedasawayinwhichparticipants

viewedtheirconnectionwithbothhisorherinstructorandlearningprocess.Afeelingof

disconnectionhindersaperson’sabilitytoactivelyengageinactivities,suchasthose

withinaclassroom.Theinabilitytobeactivelyengagedinactivitiesisrelatedtointrinsic

motivation(Niemiec&Ryan,2009).Theseauthorsassertthatwhenindividualsare

intrinsicallymotivatedtheyexploreandengageinacademicactivities.However,under

certainconditions(e.g.theexperiencesofmicroinequities),theintrinsicmotivationof

activeparticipationandengagementinaneducationalclimatecanbereplacedwiththe

experienceofisolationandalienation(Niemiec&Ryan,2009).

Henrydescribedhisfeelingofdisconnectionasthelackofacknowledgmentinthe

classroom.Heexpressed:

Ifeelit’simportantthattheteacherknowsthatpersoninhisorherclassroom,itshowscareorconcernthatyou’reintheirclassroom.Apersonfeelsmoreobligatedtolearniftheyfeel‘okay,she’sgoingtocallonme,she’sgoingtocallmyname.’Iftheyshoweyecontact,knowalloftheirstudents’names,callonalltheirstudentseveryonceandawhile,itshowsthatpossiblyhecares,orshecares.Itshowsarelationshipmoresothanwe’rejustanumbersittingoverthere…justanotherpartofthatfurnituresittingintheclassroom.

Henrycontinuedtoexplainthathiseducator’sverbalandnon‐verbalcommunication

createdanatmospherethatmadehimfeelnotonlyadisconnectionbutasenseof

ambiguity.Hestated:

Andyouwerealwaysunsureaboutwhatthisparticularprofessormeant.Theattitudeinwhichsherespondedtome.It[attitude]madeitveryhardtopayattentionortolistenandIwasalwayswondering‘okay’isitme.


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Scarlett(2015)statesthatstudentswhofeeladisconnectionbecomeisolatedfrom

thelearningprocess.Theauthorcontinuestopointoutthatthefeelingofisolation

becomesachallengebecauseitinhibitsmanythings(e.g.,participation,collaboration,

motivation)thataresalientforsuccessinalearningsetting,includingactivelearning

engagement.Thefeelingofisolationcanalsocreatealessencouragingclassroomclimate

duetodifferentialtreatment(Scarlett,2015;Schnellmann&Gibbons,1984).Luke’sfeeling

ofdisconnectionwasrelatedtohisperceivedexperienceofdifferentialtreatment.He

responded:

She[theinstructor]engagedmorewithacertaingroupintheclass.Shefocusedallherattentiononthemtothepointtowhereitcausedtherestoftheclasstodisengagetoacertaindegreeortoalotofdegree.Peoplewilldisengageiftheyfeelthattheirpresenceisnotwarranted.IhavedisengagedtoacertaindegreeandwhenIdid,itshowedinmywork.

Unfortunately,thosestudentswhoexperiencedasenseofdisconnectionfeltisolatedand

alienatedfromthefaculty,staff,institution,andpeers(Kahu&Nelson,2018;Strayhorn,

2012).Disconnectioncanbecomeproblematicforstudentsbecauseitalsoencourages

disengagementandinhibitsacademicsuccess.

Thefeelingofdisconnectiondemonstratestheparticipants’desiretohaveapositive

interpersonalconnection,specificallywiththeinstructor.Literatureimpliesthatapositive

interpersonalconnectionbuildsasenseofbelonging(Baumeister&Leary,1995;Kahu&

Nelson,2018).Theneedforbelongingisabasichumanneed(Kahu&Nelson,2018;

Maslow,1943;Strayhorn,2012).Withinanacademicclimate,theneedofbelongingisthe

learner’sconnectednesstotheinstitution,facultyandstaff,aswellashisorherpeers

(Baumeister&Leary,1995;Kahu&Nelson,2018).Belonging,Strayhorn(2012)notes,isan


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essentialfactorthatcontributestowhathedescribesas“realconsequences”likeacademic

successandstudentattrition(p.x;emphasisinoriginal).

In2017,theNationalSurveyofStudentEngagementconductedastudyand

revealedthatstudentswhoparticipateinaclassroomthatpracticesinclusivityhavea

greateropportunityto(1)enhancetheirhigher‐orderthinking,(2)engageininteractive

learning,(3)andhavepositiveperceptionsofsupport(e.g.,faculty,staff,peers).Empirical

andtheoreticalstudiesgivecredibilitytotheideologiesthatasenseofbelongingwithinan

inclusivelearningenvironmentincreasesacademicself‐efficacy,improvesparticipationin

thelearningprocess,andincreasesintrinsicmotivation(Freeman,Anderman,&Jensen,

2010).

SurfaceLearning

Thesecondthemetoemergefromthestudywassurfacelearning.Inthispresent

research,participantsperceivedthatthenegativeeffectsofbiascommunicationof

microinequitiescreatedsurfacelearning,whichisasuperficialapproachtolearningthat

impliesthatastudentmemorizesfactsandlearnsjustenoughtopassthecourse(Biggs,

2001;Everaert,Opdecam,&Maussen,2017;Howie&Bagnall,2013;Lucas,2001).A

surfacelearningapproachisanattemptinwhichastudentputsforthminimumeffortto

avoidacademicfailure,whichoftenleadstoloweracademicperformance.Furthermore,

Everaertetal.(2017).conductedastudyandconcludedthatthereisacorrelationbetween

surfacelearningapproachandnegativeacademicperformance.Thestudyalsorevealeda

relationbetweendeeplearningapproachandpositiveacademicperformance.

Choosingthesurfacelearningapproachisnotalearner’scharacteristicbuta

responsetohowalearnerperceivesthelearningclimate(Everaertetal.,2017;Lucas,


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2001).GarrisonandCleveland‐Innes(2005)addthatsomestudentsengageinthesurface

learningapproachbecauseofthesocialandsituationalcontextofthelearning

environment.Inthiscurrentstudy,Lukedescribedhisexperiencesofmicroinequitiesand

howthesesubtlebiasesimpactedhisperceptionofinstructorsandapproachtolearning.

Lukestated:

IwenttoaprivatehighschoolandImadegoodgradesbecauseteachersputinalotofeffortwiththeirpupilsatthetime.Hereat[UniversityofPNY],theteachersdonotvaluestudents’success.Istartedmissingclass.Ifeltlikemypresencewasnotmissed.So,Iwouldshowupandjustuh‘wingit.’Ishowupforjustenoughsessionstopasstheclasswith,youknow,withthebareminimal.Aspreviouslymentioned,astudent’sperceptionofthelearningenvironment(e.g.

socialinteraction,communication,senseofbelonging)playsasignificantroleinhisorher

approachtolearning(DeLotell,Millam,&Reinhardt,2010;Garrison&Cleveland‐Innes,

2005;Lucas,2001).Infact,DeLotelletal.(2010)implythattheeducatorisatthecenterof

thestudent’slearningexperience;therefore,theeducatorisinthepositiontofostera

positiveornegativeperceptionofthelearningclimate.Anexampleofhowaneducatorcan

influenceastudent’sperceptionisdemonstratedthroughNancy’slearningexperience.She

explained:

AlthoughIhaveanAintheclass,herbehaviorandnonchalantattitudeaffectsmebecauseIstilldon’tunderstandhalfofthethings.So,I’maffectedbythewayshejustbrushesitoffandIstillhavetogettutoringontheside.Sheisnotgoingtostayafterclassandhelpwiththematerial,sometimesshemightbutitdependsonher…dependingonwhatdayitis.Despitethelackofencouragementandsupportfromtheeducator,Nancy

demonstratedacommitmenttoheracademicsuccesswithintheclassroombyseeking

assistanceforatutor.Inthisinstance,thestudent’sperceptionofthelearningenvironment

didnotlowerheracademicperformancebutperhapscreatedanegativeandunsupportive


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relationshipwiththeeducator,whichgivesweighttopriorresearchthatimplieslearningis

influencedbysocialinteraction(Garrison&Cleveland‐Innes,2005;Illeris,2017).

Student‐TeacherRelationship

Thethoughtthatsocialandsituationalcontextofthelearningenvironment

influencescertainaspectsoflearningencompassesthelasttheme:student‐teacher

relationship.Inthispresentresearch,student‐teacherrelationshipisdefined“asthe

generalizedinterpersonalmeaningstudentsandteachersattachtotheirinteractionswith

eachother”(Wubbelsetal.,2014,p.364).Empiricalandtheoreticalresearchindicatethat

thequalityofteacher‐studentrelationshipshasamajorimpactonlearningacquisitionand

collegecompletion(Hoffman,2014),aswellasengagement,studentachievement,and

studentsatisfaction(hook,2003;Rowan&Grootenboer,2017.)Scholars(e.g.,hook;Rowan

&Grootenboer)pointoutthatthefundamentalresponsibilitiesofaneducatoraretocreate

alearningclimatethatfostersmutualrespectandtoencouragetheco‐constructionof

knowledgebetweenthestudentandtheeducator.Infact,aclassroomshouldbe“aplace

thatislife‐sustainingandmind‐expanding,aplaceofliberatingmutualitywhereteacher

andstudenttogetherworkinpartnership”(hook,2003,p.xv).

Despitetheimplicationsofpositiveoutcomesofthesestudent‐teacher

relationships,negativestudent‐teacherrelationshipshavebecomemorefrequentinhigher

education,particularlywheneducatorsengageinharmfulbehaviors(Hoffman,2014).

Wheneducatorsdisplaymicroinequitieswithinthelearningspace,anegativestudent‐

teacherrelationshipcouldensuecausingthestudenttobecomepassiveandlesslikelyto

activelyparticipateinthelearningprocess(Wentzel&Ramani,2016).Anegative


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relationshipcanalsocausethestudenttosufferpsychologicaldilemmas,developdistrust,

andexperiencealossofself‐esteem(Sueetal.,2007).Inthiscurrentstudy,Amycandidly

spokeabouthernegativestudent‐teacherrelationshipbetweenherandherprofessor.She

indicatedthatherprofessor“throwsalotofshade.”“Throwingshade”isacolloquial

expressionusedtoverballyinsultorexpresscontemptforsomeone(Huba&Kronberg,

2016).Sheexplained:

He“throwsalotofshade.”[and]youjustdon’twanttobeinteractivewithhim.Idon’tfeelcomfortableaskinghimanythingaboutthecourseworkbecausehelaughsandmakesjokes.He’sjokingaroundandlaughing“girlgoneon,”“you’llgetit”youknowsomethinglikethat.He’soneofthose,youjustwriteitdownandjustgohead,youknow.

Thesocialandsituationalcontextsinwhichstudent‐teacherinteractionsoccurhave

anoteworthyinfluenceonthetypeofrelationshipsthatdevelopsbetweenthetwoparties

(Hoffman,2014).Hoffman(2014)suggeststhatnegativerelationshipsbetweenstudents

andteachers,asdemonstratedabove,aredetrimentaltoacademicsuccessbecausethey

diminishself‐esteem,causedisengagementfromclassroomactivity,andcontributetothe

failureofnotfinishingthecourse.Despitethesedisadvantageouseffectsofnegative

interpersonalrelationships,thevastliteratureonstudent‐teacherconnectionsshowsthat

positiveinteractionsbetweenstudentsandteacherscanincreasestudentmotivationand

academicsuccess,aswellasencouragecollegepersistence(Hoffman,2014;Rowan&

Grootenboer,2017;Wubbelsetal.,2014).

Limitations

Therearesomelimitationstothiscurrentstudy.Theresearchinquiryfocused

primarilyonmicroinequitiesanditsimpactsonlearningengagementinface‐to‐face

educationalinstitutions.Duetothislimitation,otherlearningspaces,suchasworkplace


18

andonlinelearning,wereexcluded.Theresearchalsofocusedspecificallyonstudents

withintheCollegeofEducationofaninstitutionofhigherlearningintheUnitedStates.

Althoughthestudents’experiencesinthiscurrentstudycannotbegeneralizedtoother

CollegesofEducation,theiruniquepositionsgiveanaturalisticgeneralization(Chenail,

2010;Stake,2005).

Discussion

Thispresentstudywasdesignedtogetabetterunderstandingofthewaysinwhich

biascommunicationcouldinfluencelearningengagementintheclassroom.Areviewofthe

literatureonmicroinequitiesfoundthattheaccumulationoftheseinvalidationsmaycreate

alearningclimate,wherethestudentmayfeel“humiliationandsocialrejection”(Nadal,

2017,p.681).Inaddition,areviewoftheliteratureindicatesthatmicroinequitiescould

impedeastudent’slearningengagementintheclassroom(Brennan,2016),perceptionof

realityisconstructedthroughanindividual’spositionalityintheirsocialcontext(Kiraly,

2014),andnegativecommunicationcouldhaveanadverseimpactonthelearner’sfeeling

ofbelonging,confidence,andachievementinthelearningspace(Bambaeeroo&

Shokrpour,2017).

Thepurposeofthisstudywastoqualitativelyexplorestudents’experiencesof

microinequitiestogetabetterunderstandingofthewaysinwhichmicroinequities

influencelearningengagement.Thisstudyrevealedthat(1)afeelingofdisconnection,(2)

surfaceapproachtolearning,and(3)anegativestudent‐to‐teacherrelationshipareways

inwhichmicroinequitiesinfluencelearningengagementinhighereducation.These

findingsalsosupporttheideologieswithintheliteraturethattheaccumulationof

microinequitiescancreateexclusion,impairperformanceinlearningclimates,increasethe


19

feelingofdiscouragement,andperpetuateasenseofdisrespect,insult,orslight(Brennan,

2016;Sandler&Hall,1986).

Understandingmicroinequitiesandtheirimpactonstudents’learningengagement

showedthatstudentsusedavoidancetocopewiththeexperiencesofmicroinequities.In

thisstudy,eachparticipantusedavoidanceasacopingstrategy.Scholars(e.g.,Brennan,

2016;Hutchinson&Jenkins,2013)pointoutthattargetsofmicroinequitiesdolittlewhen

facedwiththebehaviorsofmicroinequitiesbecauseofthefearofretaliation,thelackof

institutionalsupport,andattributionalambiguity.Withrespecttothelatter,Sue(2010)

describesattributionalambiguityasa“motivationaluncertaintyinthatthemotivesand

meaningofaperson’sactionsareunclearandhazy”(p.17).Theperceptionsof

microinequitiesmakeithardtorecognizeorprove,especiallywhenthereareother

reasonableexplanations,whichoftenleadstheindividualtodismisstheexperienceorself‐

blame(Chun&Evan,2015;Rowe,2008).

Implications

Theminutenatureofmicroinequitiescreatesachallengeforeducatorswhoteachat

institutionsofhigherlearning(Nadal,2017;Saporu&Herbers,2015)becausethese

behaviorsaresubtle,hard‐to‐prove,unintentional,andoftenhavevaguemeanings.So,the

questionishowdoeducatorsandacademicinstitutionsmoveforwardinorderto

minimizemicroinequitieswhilecreatingmoreinclusive,supportive,anddemocratic

learningclimatesthatsupportacademicsuccess?Thefollowingsectionshighlight

participatingindirectcommunication,implementingorganizationpoliciesandprocedures,

andattending/conductingcivilitytrainingandworkshops,andbuildingstudent‐teacher


20

relationshipsaspragmaticstrategiestocreatesafer,moredemocratic,andinclusive

learningenvironments.

DirectCommunication

Directcommunicationisperhapsthemosteffectivewaytoaddressmicroinequities

intheclassroom(Rowe,2008;Sueetal.,2007;Nadal,2017).Sueetal.mention,makethe

invisiblevisibleandprovideopportunityforeducatorstocreateasafeenvironmentwhere

alllearnerscanfeelsafewithouthavingthefearofbeingexcludedfromthelearning

process.Toraiseawarenessaboutmicroinequities,facultycancommunicateappropriate

socialandinterpersonalbehavioralexpectationsduringface‐to‐faceconversationsaswell

asintheirsyllabus(Morrissette,2001).Tofurtherreducemicroinequitieswithinthe

academy,theinstitutioncanraiseawarenessofmicroinequitiesbydevelopingand

executingacampuscivilitystatementandcivilityinitiatives(Freedman&Vreven,2017).

Implementationofclass‐levelororganizationpolicy/procedures

Itissalientthatinstitutionsofhigherlearningdeveloporreviseprogramsand

policiestoreduceandultimatelyeliminateuncivilbehaviors,suchasmicroinequities(Reio

&Ghosh,2009).Theauthorsrecommendthatthedevelopmentandimplementationof

class‐levelandorganization‐levelpoliciesstateandoutlineaclearandpreciseprotocolfor

confidentialreportingofuncivilbehaviors,andperhapsestablishmildtoseverepenalties

fortheperpetrators.

CivilityTraining

Anotherstrategytoraiseawarenessofuncivilbehaviors,suchasmicroinequities,

onAmericancollegeanduniversitiescampusesiscivilitytraining.Tobeeffective,civility

trainingshouldaddressdefiningcivilityandwhyitisimportant(Freedman&Vreven,


21

2017).Theauthorsaddthatcivilitytrainingshouldalsoaddresspoliteness,diversity

awareness,andculturalsensitivity(Wright&Hill,2015).WrightandHillconcludethat

civilitytrainingreinforcesorganizationalpoliciesonuncivilbehaviorsinacademic

classroomsanditsconsequencesforfaculty,students,andadministrators.

BuildingStudent‐TeacherRelationship

Inthiscurrentstudy,students’experiencesdemonstratehowbiascommunication,

verbalandnon‐verbal,affectsinterpersonalinteractionsandthelearner’sengagement.

Researchindicatesthatactsofmicroinequities(e.g.,ridicule,exclusion)exhibitedby

educatorstowardcertainstudentscanleadtoafeelingofincompetence,adecreasein

intrinsicmotivation(Brennan,2016;Nadal,2017),andfeelingofdisconnection(Strayhorn,

2012).Perhapsonewayofenhancingthestudent’sacademicsuccessisfosteringstudent

connectednessthroughbuildingapositivestudent‐teacherrelationship.In2017,Brown

andStarrettconductedanempiricalstudyonstudents’perceptionofconnectednessandits

impactoftheiracademicsuccess.Thestudyrevealedthreereasonswhyconnectednessis

salienttoacademicperformance:(1)increasesmotivation,(2)improvesretention,and(3)

fostersself‐efficacy.Mostimportantly,theresultsrevealedthat94%ofstudentsperceived

thatconnectednessorasenseofbelongingimprovedtheireducationalperformance.

Conclusion

Microinequitiesaresmall,subtle,unintentional,andhard‐to‐proveinsultsorslights

(Rowe,2008)withdevastatingimplicationsforastudent’slearningengagementand

academicsuccessinAmericanhighereducation,includingfeelingofdisconnected,

participatinginsurfacelearning,anddealingwithnegativestudent‐teacherrelationships.

Learningtoeffectivelycommunicatewithstudents,implementingclass‐levelcivility


22

policies,attendingcivilitytraining,anddevelopingpositivestudent‐teacherrelationships

willhelpeducatorstopromoteacivilityculturethatisinclusive,supportive,and

democraticforalllearners.


23

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