threat assessment and threat management in the schools threat assessment workgroup national...

Threat Assessment and Threat Assessment and Threat Management Threat Management

in the Schools in the Schools

Threat Assessment WorkgroupThreat Assessment Workgroup

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National Association of School National Association of School PsychologistsPsychologists

Annual Convention 2006Annual Convention 2006Anaheim, CAAnaheim, CA

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Introduction of SpeakersIntroduction of Speakers

Jill D. Sharkey, PhD, NCSPJill D. Sharkey, PhD, NCSPUniversity of California, Santa BarbaraUniversity of California, Santa Barbara

Linda M. Kanan, PhD, NCSPLinda M. Kanan, PhD, NCSPCherry Creek School DistrictCherry Creek School District

Kathy S. Sievering, MA, MA, NCSPKathy S. Sievering, MA, MA, NCSPJefferson County School DistrictJefferson County School District

Gina Hurley, EdD, NCSPGina Hurley, EdD, NCSPBarnstable School DistrictBarnstable School District

How Much Violence How Much Violence Occurs Occurs

in U.S. Schools?in U.S. Schools?

High profile cases of school shootings have High profile cases of school shootings have skewed public perceptions of the level of skewed public perceptions of the level of violence in schools.violence in schools.

School violence is declining, not increasing.School violence is declining, not increasing.

Over a ten-year period (1992-93 to 2001-Over a ten-year period (1992-93 to 2001-02) there were 93 student homicides, or 9.3 02) there were 93 student homicides, or 9.3 per year.per year.

27

362

378

4,459

6,203

11,863

0 3000 6000 9000 12000

School homicide

Flu/Pneumonia

HIV

Suicide

Other homicides

Motor Vehicle Accident

Source: National Vital Statistics Report, 1998 and National School Safety Center

Causes of Death in Young PersonsAges 5 to 24

3522

2019

1810

54

214

0 10 20 30 40

Physical fights or attacks

Threats or intimidation

Illegal drugs or alcohol

Weapon poss. (nonfirearm)

Insubordination

Distribution illegal drugs

Use of weapon (nonfirearm)

Possession firearm/explosive

Use of firearm/explosive

Other infractions

Percent of schools

“Serious” means expulsion, transfer or suspension of 5 or more days

Source: National Center for Education Statistics (2004) Data for 1999-2000 school year

Serious Discipline Violations in U.S. Schools

Student-Perpetrated Homicides in U.S. Student-Perpetrated Homicides in U.S. Schools:Schools:

1992-93 to 2002-031992-93 to 2002-03

42 42

17

29

23

35

25

9 8

24

0

10

20

30

40

50

92-93

-94 -95 -96 -97 -98 -99 99-00

00-01

01-02

02-03

Cases on school grounds during school day recorded by National School Safety Center.

Understanding Student Violence

Targetedschool

shootersStudentswho engage in general violence

Troubledstudents

(Kanan, L. & Sievering, K.)

The EThe Expansion xpansion of Zero of Zero ToleranceTolerance

No Drugs

No Guns

No Knives

No Threats

No Toy Guns

No Nail clippers

No Plastic utensils

No Finger-pointing

No Jokes

No Drawings

No Rubber band shooting

No Accidental violations

What is Threat Assessment?What is Threat Assessment?

Threat assessment is a process of evaluating Threat assessment is a process of evaluating the risk of violence posed by someone who the risk of violence posed by someone who has communicated an intent to harm has communicated an intent to harm someone. someone.

Threat assessment considers the context Threat assessment considers the context and circumstances surrounding a threat in and circumstances surrounding a threat in order to uncover any evidence that indicates order to uncover any evidence that indicates the threat is likely to be carried out. the threat is likely to be carried out.

Threat assessment includes interventions Threat assessment includes interventions designed to manage and reduce the risk of designed to manage and reduce the risk of violence.violence.

How Does Threat How Does Threat Assessment Differ From Zero Assessment Differ From Zero

Tolerance?Tolerance?•Threat assessment considers the context and meaning of a student’s behavior, not just the behavior itself.

•Threat assessment is designed to determine the seriousness or danger of a student’s behavior, and to respond accordingly.

•Threat assessment permits flexibility in how schools respond and does not require the same severe consequence for all infractions

What are the Purposes of What are the Purposes of Threat Assessment?Threat Assessment?

1.1. Reduce the risk of violence.Reduce the risk of violence.

2.2. Identify educational needs and Identify educational needs and support services for students who support services for students who have made a threat.have made a threat.

3.3. Reduce legal liability by following Reduce legal liability by following reasonable and accepted reasonable and accepted practices for violence prevention.practices for violence prevention.

Threat Assessment Process Threat Assessment Process as a Continuumas a Continuum

Threat assessment Threat assessment inquiryinquiry is carried is carried out by a school teamout by a school team

Threat assessment Threat assessment investigationinvestigation is is carried out by a law enforcement agencycarried out by a law enforcement agency

There may be several “right” ways to There may be several “right” ways to conduct a threat assessmentconduct a threat assessment

Not all threat assessments will be Not all threat assessments will be referred to law enforcementreferred to law enforcement

U.S. Secret Service, Threat Assessment in U.S. Secret Service, Threat Assessment in Schools, p. 44Schools, p. 44

When Should a Threat Assessment be Conducted?

When information about a student’s When information about a student’s behavior and communications behavior and communications passes an agreed upon threshold of passes an agreed upon threshold of concern…concern…

U.S. Secret Service Threat Assessment in U.S. Secret Service Threat Assessment in Schools Guide, p. 48Schools Guide, p. 48

Who Conducts Threat Who Conducts Threat Assessment?Assessment?

A A multidisciplinary teammultidisciplinary team consisting of consisting of respected members of the school faculty respected members of the school faculty or administration.or administration.

School resource officer assigned to the School resource officer assigned to the school (if available)school (if available)

A mental health professional- School A mental health professional- School psychologist, social worker, guidance psychologist, social worker, guidance counselorcounselor

Other professional-teacher, nurse, etc.Other professional-teacher, nurse, etc. Consider using your pre-existing teamConsider using your pre-existing team U.S. Secret Service, Threat Assessment in U.S. Secret Service, Threat Assessment in

Schools, p. 37Schools, p. 37

What is Involved in a What is Involved in a School School

Threat Assessment Threat Assessment Process?Process?1.1. IdentificationIdentification of threats made by students. of threats made by students.

2.2. EvaluationEvaluation of seriousness of threat and of seriousness of threat and danger it poses to others, recognizing that danger it poses to others, recognizing that all threats are not the same (e.g., toy guns all threats are not the same (e.g., toy guns are not dangerous).are not dangerous).

3.3. InterventionIntervention to reduce risk of violence. to reduce risk of violence.

4.4. Follow-upFollow-up to assess intervention results. to assess intervention results.

What is a Threat?What is a Threat?

A threat is an expression of intent A threat is an expression of intent to harm someone.to harm someone.

• Threats may be verbal, written, artistic or gestured.

• Threats may be direct or indirect, and need not be communicated to the intended victim or victims. (“I’m going to get him.”)

• Weapon possession is presumed to be a threat unless circumstances clearly indicate otherwise. (“I forgot my knife was in my backpack.”)

• When in doubt, assume it is a threat.

What is a Threat?What is a Threat?

Direct ThreatDirect Threat -statement of clear, explicit intent to -statement of clear, explicit intent to

harmharm

Third PartyThird Party- violence of intent to harm another- violence of intent to harm another

Indirect ThreatIndirect Threat-violence is implied-threat is phrased -violence is implied-threat is phrased

tentativelytentatively

Conditional ThreatConditional Threat -made contingent on set of -made contingent on set of

circumstancescircumstances

Veiled ThreatVeiled Threat -vague & subject to interpretation-vague & subject to interpretationReport Threats VerbatimReport Threats Verbatim

Examples of Verbal Examples of Verbal ThreatsThreats

DirectDirect ““I’m going to shoot you with my 9mm Glock after I’m going to shoot you with my 9mm Glock after

school”school”

Third PartyThird Party ““I am going to get him, wait and see.”I am going to get him, wait and see.”

Indirect:Indirect: ““If I wanted to, I could kill everyone at this If I wanted to, I could kill everyone at this

school.”school.”

ConditionalConditional ““If you don’t give me an “A” on my report card, I If you don’t give me an “A” on my report card, I

will shoot you”will shoot you”

VeiledVeiled ““It’s understandable why Columbine happened”It’s understandable why Columbine happened”

THREAT THREAT ASSESSMENTASSESSMENTLITERATURELITERATURE

Two Government Studies Two Government Studies Recommend School-Based Threat Recommend School-Based Threat

AssessmentAssessment

FBI report (2000)Available at www.fbi.gov

Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education report (2002) Available at www.edpubs.org/webstore

FBI Report Discourages Profiling of School Shooters

“…trying to draw up a catalogue or “checklist” of warning signs to detect a potential school shooter can be shortsighted, even dangerous.

Such lists, publicized by the media, can end up unfairly labeling many nonviolent students as potentially dangerous or even lethal.

In fact, a great many adolescents who will never commit violent acts will show some of the behaviors or personality traits included on the list.”

(FBI report p 2-3)

Profiling Does Not WorkProfiling Does Not Work

School shootings are too rare.School shootings are too rare. Profiles make false predictions.Profiles make false predictions. Profiles generate stereotypes.Profiles generate stereotypes. Profiles don’t solve problems.Profiles don’t solve problems. Be careful that “warning signs” are Be careful that “warning signs” are

not used to profile studentsnot used to profile students..

FBI Recommends Threat Assessment Approach

“Although the risk of an actual shooting incident at any one school is very low, threats of violence are potentially a problem at any school. Once a threat is made, having a fair, rational, and standardized method of evaluating and responding to threats is critically important.”

(FBI report p. 1)

Lessons Learned: Lessons Learned: Final Report & Findings of the Final Report & Findings of the

Safe School Initiative, 2002Safe School Initiative, 20021.1. Incidents of violence were Incidents of violence were

rarely sudden, impulsive acts rarely sudden, impulsive acts 2.2. Other people knew about the Other people knew about the

attacker’s idea & plan to attacker’s idea & plan to attackattack

3.3. Most did not threaten their Most did not threaten their target directly before attacktarget directly before attack

4.4. There is no accurate or There is no accurate or useful profile of students useful profile of students who engage in targeted who engage in targeted school violenceschool violence

5.5. Most attackers engaged in Most attackers engaged in some behavior that caused some behavior that caused others concern or indicated a others concern or indicated a need for helpneed for help

6.6. Most attackers had difficulty Most attackers had difficulty coping with significant losses coping with significant losses or personal failureor personal failure

7.7. Many attackers felt bullied, Many attackers felt bullied, persecuted or injured by persecuted or injured by othersothers

8.8. Most had access to and had Most had access to and had used weapons before the used weapons before the attackattack

9.9. In many cases, students were In many cases, students were involved in some capacityinvolved in some capacity

10.10. Most attacks were stopped Most attacks were stopped by means other than law by means other than law enforcementenforcement

• Create a planning team to develop a threat assessment process.

• Identify roles for school personnel.

• Clarify role of law enforcement.

• Conduct threat assessments of students who make threats of violence.

US Secret Service/US Department of Education

Recommendations for Threat Assessment

Key Points About Threat Key Points About Threat AssessmentAssessment

• Threat assessment stresses the examination Threat assessment stresses the examination of specific behaviors directly linked to of specific behaviors directly linked to committing a violent actcommitting a violent act

• Threat assessment aims to determine how Threat assessment aims to determine how serious the threat is and then what should serious the threat is and then what should be done about it.be done about it.

• Threat assessment is ultimately concerned Threat assessment is ultimately concerned with whether the student with whether the student posesposes a threat, a threat, not whether the student made a threatnot whether the student made a threat

• When in doubt as to whether the student’s When in doubt as to whether the student’s actions constitute a threat, investigate the actions constitute a threat, investigate the behavior as a threatbehavior as a threat

1. Targeted violence is the result of an understandable process, not a random or spontaneous act.

2. Consider the interaction of person, situation, setting, & target.

3. Maintain an investigative, skeptical mindset.

4. Focus on facts and behaviors, not traits.

5. Use information from all possible sources.

6. Making a threat is not the same as posing a threat. Ask “Is this student on a path toward an attack?”

6 Principles of Threat Assessment

Secret Service Threat Secret Service Threat Assessment InquiryAssessment Inquiry

1. Gather facts about the student, the 1. Gather facts about the student, the situation, and possibly the targetssituation, and possibly the targets

2. Obtain information about the student2. Obtain information about the student Background & present situationBackground & present situation Behaviors, motives, target selectionBehaviors, motives, target selection

School informationSchool information Collateral School InterviewsCollateral School Interviews Parent/Guardian InterviewsParent/Guardian Interviews Interview with Student of ConcernInterview with Student of Concern

11 Key Questions11 Key Questions

1. What are the student’s motives or goals?

2. Any communications of intent to attack?

3. Any inappropriate interest in other attacks, weapons, or mass violence?

4. Any attack-related behaviors? Making a plan, acquiring weapons, casing sites, etc.

5. Does student have capacity to attack?

11 Key Questions11 Key Questions (cont.) (cont.)

6. Is there hopelessness or despair?

7. Any trusting relationship with an adult?

8. Is violence regarded as way to solve a problem? Any peer influences?

9. Are student’s words consistent with actions?

10. Are others concerned about student?

11. What circumstances might trigger violence?

No Magic Formula or Crystal No Magic Formula or Crystal BallBall

There is no formula, prescription, or checklist that will predict or prevent all violent acts. School authorities must make reasoned judgments based on the facts of each individual situation, and monitor situations over time.

Will Threat Assessment Will Threat Assessment Work?Work?

Many schools have developed their own Many schools have developed their own threat assessment guidelines and procedures threat assessment guidelines and procedures following the recommendations from the US following the recommendations from the US Department of Education and the US Secret Department of Education and the US Secret Service. Service.

One study has developed and field-tested One study has developed and field-tested guidelines for schools to use in responding guidelines for schools to use in responding to student threats of violence. This study was to student threats of violence. This study was conducted by the Virginia Youth Violence conducted by the Virginia Youth Violence Project of the University of Virginia. Project of the University of Virginia.

http://youthviolence.edschool.virginia.edu 434-924-8929

Virginia Study DesignVirginia Study Design

Researchers and group of school personnel Researchers and group of school personnel (administrators, support staff, and law (administrators, support staff, and law enforcement) developed a set of threat enforcement) developed a set of threat assessment guidelines.assessment guidelines.

Threat assessment teams in two school Threat assessment teams in two school divisions (approx. 16,000 students) were divisions (approx. 16,000 students) were trained using a standard manual. Participants trained using a standard manual. Participants were from 35 schools K-12.were from 35 schools K-12.

Cornell, D. & Sheras, P. (2006). Guidelines forResponding to student threats of violence.

Longmont, CO: Sopris.

SCHOOL THREAT SCHOOL THREAT ASSESSMENTASSESSMENT

PROCESSPROCESS

Team roles in Virginia Model

Principal or Assistant Principal

Leads team, conducts Step 1.

School Resource OfficerAdvises team, responds to illegal actions and emergencies.

School PsychologistTeam member, conducts mental health assessments.

School CounselorTeam member, lead role in follow-up interventions.

Teachers, aides, other staffReport threats, provide input to team. No additional workload.

Schools may further specify team roles and include other staff to meet local needs.

(Cornell, D. & Sheras, P. 2006)

How Does Threat Assessment How Does Threat Assessment Begin?Begin?

• All school staff should be trained and prepared to identify and report threats to the school principal or designee.

• Threat assessments are usually initiated by the principal or assistant principal as part of the disciplinary process.

• The principal consults with other team members.

• Team members become involved depending on the complexity of the case.

(Adapted from Cornell, D. & Sheras, P. 2006)

Virginia Model-Threat Reported to Principal

Step 1. Evaluate Threat.

Step 2. Decide if threat is clearly transient or substantive.

Step 3. Respond to transient threat. Step 4. Decide if the substantive threat is serious or very serious.

Step 5. Respond to serious substantive threat. Step 6. Conduct Safety Evaluation.

Threat is serious.

Threat is clearly transient.

Threat is substantive.

Threat is very serious.

Step 7. Follow up on action plan.

(Cornell, D. & Sheras, P., 2006)

Virginia Study ModelVirginia Study Model Step 1.Step 1.

Evaluate the threat.Evaluate the threat.• Obtain an account of the threat and the

context from the student and witnesses.

• Write down the exact threat.

• Obtain student’s explanation of the threat’s meaning and his/her intentions.

• Obtain witness perceptions of the threat’s meaning.


Types of ThreatsTypes of ThreatsTransient v. Transient v.

SubstantiveSubstantive Often are rhetorical remarks, Often are rhetorical remarks,

not genuine expressions of not genuine expressions of intent to harm.intent to harm.

At worst, express temporary At worst, express temporary feelings of anger or feelings of anger or frustration. frustration.

Usually can be resolved on Usually can be resolved on the scene or in the office. the scene or in the office.

After resolution, the threat After resolution, the threat no longer exists.no longer exists.

Usually end with an apology Usually end with an apology or clarification.or clarification.

Express intent to physically Express intent to physically injure someone beyond the injure someone beyond the immediate situation.immediate situation.

There is at least some risk the There is at least some risk the student will carry out the student will carry out the threat.threat.

Require that you take Require that you take protective action, including protective action, including warning intended victims and warning intended victims and parents.parents.

May be legal violations and May be legal violations and require police consultation.require police consultation.

When in doubt, treat threats When in doubt, treat threats as substantiveas substantive..


Virginia Study ModelVirginia Study Model

Step 2.Step 2. Transient or Substantive?Transient or Substantive?

• Determine whether the threat is transient or substantive.

• The critical issue is not what the student threatened to do, but whether the student intends to carry out the threat.

• When in doubt, proceed as if threat is substantive.


Transient Versus Substantive ThreatsIn Virginia Study

TransientThreats 70%

SubstantiveThreats 30%


Substantive Threats:Substantive Threats:Factors to ConsiderFactors to Consider

• Credibility of student and willingness to acknowledge his or her behavior

• Credibility of witness accounts

• Age of student, consider developmental factors

• Capability of student to carry out the threat

• Student’s discipline history

• When in doubt, treat threats as substantive.


Presumptive Indicators of Presumptive Indicators of Substantive ThreatsSubstantive Threats

• Specific, plausible details. (“I am going to blast Mr. Johnson with my pistol.”)

• Threat has been repeated over time. (“He’s been telling everyone he is going to get you.”)

• Threat reported as a plan or evidence of planning (“Wait until you see what happens next Tuesday in the library.”)

• Accomplices or recruitment of accomplices.

• Physical evidence of intent (written plans, lists of victims, bomb materials, etc.)


Virginia Study ModelVirginia Study Model

Step 3.Step 3. Responses to a Transient Responses to a Transient

Threat.Threat.• No need to take safety precautions.

• See that threat is resolved through explanation, apology, making amends.

• Provide counseling and skills education where appropriate.

• Administer discipline if appropriate.


Threat Assessment is Threat Assessment is Distinct From DisciplineDistinct From Discipline

• Threat assessment is concerned with future danger to others, discipline is concerned with consequences for behavior.

• A threat may pose little danger, yet merit serious disciplinary consequences.

• A threat may pose danger, yet disciplinary consequences would be inappropriate and exacerbate the problem

Who Made Transient Who Made Transient Threats?Threats?

56 6

2422

108

1513

97 7

00

5

10

15

20

25

30

K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 .

Nu

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ent

thre

ats


Virginia Study ModelVirginia Study ModelStep 4.Step 4.

Serious or Very Serious Serious or Very Serious Substantive Threat?Substantive Threat?

• Substantive assault threats are classified serious. (“I’m gonna beat him up.”)

• Substantive threats to kill, rape, or inflict very serious injury are classified very serious. (“I’m gonna break his arm.”)

• Substantive threats involving a weapon are classified very serious.


Who Made Substantive Who Made Substantive Threats?Threats?

10 0

3

54

2

13

1011

3

1

3

0

5

10

15

20

K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 .

Nu

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anti

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Respond to Serious Substantive Respond to Serious Substantive Threat.Threat.

• Take precautions to protect potential victims. May consult with law enforcement.

• Notify intended victim and victim’s parents.

• Notify student’s parents.

• Discipline student for threat.

• Determine appropriate intervention for student, such as counseling or dispute mediation.

• Follow-up to verify that threat has been resolved and interventions in progress.


Immediate Responses to a Immediate Responses to a Very Serious Substantive ThreatVery Serious Substantive Threat

• Take precautions to protect potential victims (in addition to those below).

• Consult with law enforcement promptly.

• Notify intended victim and victim’s parents.

• Notify student’s parents.

• Begin Mental Health Assessment.

• Determine safety during suspension.


Very Serious Cases Were Relatively Rare in Virginia Study

TransientThreats

131 (70%)

SubstantiveThreats

Very Serious

15 (8%)

Serious

42 (22%)

(Cornell, D. & Sheras, P. 2006)N=188

Threat Reported to Principal

Step 1. Evaluate Threat.

Step 2. Decide if threat is clearly transient or substantive.

Step 3. Respond to transient threat. Step 4. Decide if the substantive threat is serious or very serious.

Step 5. Respond to serious substantive threat. Step 6. Conduct Safety Evaluation.

Threat is serious.

Threat is substantive.

Threat is very serious.

Step 7. Follow up on action plan.

Threat is clearly transient.

Very Serious Substantive Threats



Conduct a “Safety Evaluation” for a Conduct a “Safety Evaluation” for a Very Serious Substantive Threat.Very Serious Substantive Threat.

• “Safety Evaluation” is conducted by a team and led by Principal or designee.

• School psychologist or other mental health professional conducts Mental Health Assessment

• Consult with school resource officer

• School psychologist/counselor leads intervention planning.


Virginia Study ModelMental Health Assessment

MHA- part of the safety evaluation, not a prediction of student violence.

Help identify any mental health needs (e.g., suicidal).

Help determine reasons why the threat was made.

Propose strategies for reducing risk.


Sources of Information for Sources of Information for Mental Health AssessmentMental Health Assessment

Mental health professional should interview:

• Student

• Intended victim/witnesses

• Student’s parent

• School staff who know student (including SRO, guidance counselor, teachers)

• Outside professionals who know student

• Be sure to remain skeptical and inquisitive


Mental Health Assessment FAQ’s Parental Permission? – not required

in emergency, but otherwise necessary

Additional Testing? – use if clinically indicated, to supplement interviews

External Evaluations? – Not a substitute for evaluation by trained school staff

(Cornell, D. & Sheras, P. 2006

Primary Purpose of a Primary Purpose of a Student InterviewStudent Interview

Interview tone should be professional, Interview tone should be professional, neutral, and non-confrontational.neutral, and non-confrontational.

Interview may have these effects:Interview may have these effects:• send the message that the student’s send the message that the student’s

behavior has been noticed and caused behavior has been noticed and caused concernconcern

• gives student chance to tell their gives student chance to tell their personal story and be heardpersonal story and be heard

• provides opportunity to reassess and provides opportunity to reassess and redirect their behaviorredirect their behavior (Cornell, D. & Sheras, P. 2006)

Student InterviewStudent Interview• Review threat and relationship with victim

• Determine stress, situational factors, and family support

• Screen for mental health symptoms (depression, psychosis, severe anxiety, or suicidality)

• Ask about access to and/or interest in firearms

• Investigate previous aggressive, delinquent behavior and exposure to violence

• Evaluate peer relations and social adjustment

• Identify coping skills, weaknesses and strengths

• Question bullying and victimization experiences


Parent InterviewParent Interview• Question parent’s knowledge of the threat

• Determine current stressors, family relationships, and childhood history

• Ask about recent behavior, mental health, school adjustment, peer relations and bullying

• Gather history of aggressive/ delinquent behavior and exposure to violence

• Ask about access to and/or interest in weapons

• Determine parent’s willingness to assist in a safety plan and obtain needed releases

• Observe parent attitude toward school and Law enforcement


Virginia Study ModelVirginia Study ModelStep 7. Step 7.

Follow up With Action Plan.Follow up With Action Plan.• Determine action plan to reduce risk of violence

• Identify appropriate school, family and community interventions for student

• Schedule follow-up contact with student to assess current risk and update plan

• Document plan in “Safety Evaluation Report”

• Monitor and review effectiveness of plan


Assessing WrittenAssessing Writtenor Artistic Materialor Artistic Material

Understand the Understand the context of the writing context of the writing or drawingor drawing

Ask in detail about the Ask in detail about the materialmaterial

Express concernExpress concern Think of written and Think of written and

artistic material as artistic material as attempts to practice attempts to practice violenceviolence

Look for themesLook for themes Monitor past & future Monitor past & future

materialsmaterials

Be persistent and Be persistent and specific with questionsspecific with questions

Assess access to or Assess access to or knowledge of weaponsknowledge of weapons

Chart triggers, Chart triggers, responses, and trees responses, and trees over timeover time

Pool the dataPool the data Triangulate dataTriangulate data Watch for non-verbal Watch for non-verbal

cuescues

(Kanan, L. & Lee, R., 2003)(Kanan, L. & Lee, R., 2003)

Case Examples:Case Examples:Written and Artistic ThreatsWritten and Artistic Threats

Reasons to Monitor and Reasons to Monitor and to Work With Parentsto Work With Parents

Items found in Eric Items found in Eric Harris’s car Harris’s car

Similar items were Similar items were found in Dylan found in Dylan Klebold’s carKlebold’s car

(Sievering, K. 2004)(Sievering, K. 2004)

Fireworks Found in Columbine Fireworks Found in Columbine Shooter’s HomeShooter’s Home

(Sievering, K. 2004)

Cherry Creek Schools, Colorado: Cherry Creek Schools, Colorado: Danger Assessment ProcessDanger Assessment Process

1. Incident triggers the concern2. Assemble the team3. Review the incident of concern4. Gather information about the threat and the

student from a variety of sources5. Evaluate the information6. Determine the level of concern using the FBI

Risk Categories7. Develop an action and supervision plan

(Cherry Creek Schools, Kanan, L. & Lee, R., 2003)

Cherry Creek Schools, Cherry Creek Schools, Colorado:Colorado:

Sources of Information Before Sources of Information Before Determining RiskDetermining Risk

Past and present school recordsPast and present school records Internet, written, and artistic materialsInternet, written, and artistic materials Law enforcement recordsLaw enforcement records Search of student, locker, and carSearch of student, locker, and car Search of room or homeSearch of room or home Student interviewStudent interview Parent interviewParent interview Interview with staff, witnesses, and peersInterview with staff, witnesses, and peers Interview with targeted individual(s)Interview with targeted individual(s) Contact with community agenciesContact with community agencies


Cherry Creek Schools, Cherry Creek Schools, Colorado:Colorado:

Evaluate the InformationEvaluate the Information1.1. Consider warning signsConsider warning signs

The threat, target, plan, weapon, ability, history, The threat, target, plan, weapon, ability, history, motive, and practicing behavior. Use the Secret Service motive, and practicing behavior. Use the Secret Service 11 key questions. 11 key questions.

2.2. Consider risk factorsConsider risk factors Special needs, past discipline, suicide or depression, Special needs, past discipline, suicide or depression,

legal concerns, family issues, unusual interests, legal concerns, family issues, unusual interests, victimization, coping stylevictimization, coping style

3.3. Consider protective factorsConsider protective factors Seeks help, people monitor, peer/adult support, Seeks help, people monitor, peer/adult support,

self-monitor/self-regulation abilities, previousself-monitor/self-regulation abilities, previousinterventions (trees) that were successfulinterventions (trees) that were successful


FBI Risk ContinuumFBI Risk Continuum

Low Level Medium Level High LevelMinimal risk to target(s), students,

staff, & school

Threat os violence is possible, but not entirely realistic

Threat & situation pose an imminent & serious danger to others.

Threat is vague and indirect

Threat is more plausible & concrete with some thought to time and place.

Threat is specific & plausible with identified target & capacity to act.

Available information suggests that the person is unlikely to carry out the threat

Moderate or lingering concerns about a student’s potential for violence.

Information suggests a strong concern about the student’s potential to act violently.

O’Toole, M.E. (August, 2000). The school shooter: A threat assessment perspective. Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Department of Justice. Available: www.fbi.gov

http://www.fbi.gov/

Cherry Creek Schools, ColoradoCherry Creek Schools, ColoradoDanger Assessments by Level of Danger Assessments by Level of

ConcernConcern Over Two School YearsOver Two School Years

37

63

14

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3 36

9

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40

50

60

70

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Low Low/Med Med Med/High High

Level of Concern

'03-'04'04-'05

Designing Action Plans & Designing Action Plans & InterventionsInterventions

ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF SUPPORTIVE BEHAVIOR PLANS:SUPPORTIVE BEHAVIOR PLANS:

Description of the behavior of concernDescription of the behavior of concern Behavioral goalsBehavioral goals A plan for teaching and supporting the A plan for teaching and supporting the

new behaviornew behavior Description of successDescription of success Plan for implementationPlan for implementation Timeline for reviewTimeline for review

Interventions in SummaryInterventions in Summary

Threat Intervention Continuum:Threat Intervention Continuum:Solutions Equal to the Level of ConcernSolutions Equal to the Level of Concern

Build the plan as a teamBuild the plan as a team Trees, Treatment, Monitoring, ProtectionTrees, Treatment, Monitoring, Protection Give consequences, but also build skills and Give consequences, but also build skills and

supportsupport Document your planDocument your plan Monitor, monitor, monitorMonitor, monitor, monitor

(Kanan, L. & Lee, R., (Kanan, L. & Lee, R., 2003)2003)

REFER

MONITOR

ASSESS

SUPPORT

Interventions: Handle with CareA.R.M.S.

What Must the School Do?What Must the School Do?

Follow recognized standardsFollow recognized standards Remember:Remember: ARMSARMS

AssessAssess-with care, to the depth -with care, to the depth necessary, using multiple necessary, using multiple

informants—student, informants—student, teachers, peers, parentsteachers, peers, parents

ReferRefer-- to counselors, mental to counselors, mental health, health, others as appropriate others as appropriate to provide to provide needed interventionsneeded interventions

MonitorMonitor- establish specific staff to - establish specific staff to continuously monitor status of continuously monitor status of interventions and supportsinterventions and supports

SupportSupport--establish adult mentors, establish adult mentors, behavior support plans, behavior support plans,

supportive staff interactions to reduce supportive staff interactions to reduce riskrisk

Some CautionsSome Cautions

Faulty reasoning:Faulty reasoning: expulsion alone solves the problemexpulsion alone solves the problem

Truth:Truth: expulsion may escalate violence if expulsion may escalate violence if necessary supports are not providednecessary supports are not provided

Error:Error: focusing solely on how to disciplinefocusing solely on how to discipline

What Else Have We What Else Have We Learned?Learned?

•Virginia Threat Assessment Study

•Cherry Creek School District, Colorado Data

Virginia Study:Virginia Study:Grade Levels for 188 Student Grade Levels for 188 Student

Threats of ViolenceThreats of Violence

6 6 6

27 27

14

10

28

2320

108

3

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 .

Nu

mb

er o

f th

reat

s

Cherry Creek SchoolsCherry Creek SchoolsDanger Assessments Danger Assessments

2003-04/2004-05 Comparison2003-04/2004-05 Comparison

0 01

5

1

7

13

9

17

12

86

11

20 0

3

89

15 15

22

16

12

3

7

K 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th

Grades

Inci

den

ts

2003-2004 2004-2005 Total=111TotalTotal=90=90

Virginia Study:Virginia Study:Student and Victim GenderStudent and Victim Gender

MaleVictim

FemaleVictim

Boy MadeThreat 51% 27%

Girl MadeThreat

10% 13%

78%

23%

(Cornell, D. et al., 2004)

Cherry Creek SchoolsCherry Creek SchoolsDanger Assessments by GenderDanger Assessments by GenderElementary, Middle, and High Elementary, Middle, and High

SchoolsSchools2003-20052003-2005

Elementary

100%

BoyGirl

Middle School

18%

82%

BoyGirl

8%

92%

16%

84%

5%

95%

‘03-’04:

High School

10%

90%

BoyGirl

‘04-’05:

Virginia Study:Virginia Study:Student and Victim Special Ed Student and Victim Special Ed

StatusStatus

Not Spec EdVictim

Spec EdVictim

Regular EdThreat

52% 3%

Spec EdThreat

32% 13%

N = 155.

55%

45%

(Cornell, D. & Sheras, P., 2006)

Cherry Creek Schools:Cherry Creek Schools:Percentage of Danger Assessments Percentage of Danger Assessments

that Involved Special Education that Involved Special Education StudentsStudents

2003-04: Elementary 47% (n=7)

Middle 45% (n=17) High 51% (n=19)

2004-05: Elementary 45% (n=10)

Middle 39% (n=20) High 53% (n=20)

Special Special Education Education

ConsiderationsConsiderations

Special Education Special Education Considerations In The Threat Considerations In The Threat

Inquiry ProcessInquiry Process At any point, the team may uncover At any point, the team may uncover

evidence or suspicion of a “suspected evidence or suspicion of a “suspected disability”disability”

Assessment plan is necessary when Assessment plan is necessary when determination of disability is examineddetermination of disability is examined

If new or additional disability becomes If new or additional disability becomes suspect, assess in ALL areas of suspected suspect, assess in ALL areas of suspected disability disability

Suspending Special Education Suspending Special Education StudentsStudents

If you suspend the student in the threat inquiry If you suspend the student in the threat inquiry process, and it will result in more than 10 days this process, and it will result in more than 10 days this school year school year Conduct an FBA of the threat behavior to Conduct an FBA of the threat behavior to

determine the function of the threat for this studentdetermine the function of the threat for this student Review of records, interviews and student Review of records, interviews and student

observationobservation FBA data can also be collected outside of an IEP FBA data can also be collected outside of an IEP

meeting: direct observation of the student and meeting: direct observation of the student and observation of the environment in which threat observation of the environment in which threat occurred and interviews with key informants who occurred and interviews with key informants who have information on the threathave information on the threat

If suspension does not reach 11th day cumulative—If suspension does not reach 11th day cumulative—there are no special education requirementsthere are no special education requirements

Some “Threat” IntentionsSome “Threat” Intentions (functional hypotheses for FBA)(functional hypotheses for FBA)

To get attention from peers or adultsTo get attention from peers or adults To protest something, to express anger To protest something, to express anger

or frustrationor frustration To get status from others, or to frighten To get status from others, or to frighten

or coerce peersor coerce peers To joke, “playing around”To joke, “playing around” To communicate an intent to attackTo communicate an intent to attack

LEGAL LEGAL CONSIDERATIONSCONSIDERATIONS

• Follow recognized standards when possible.

• Courts do not expect school psychologists and other team members to predict or prevent all violence.

• Make reasonable decisions. Maintain adequate documentation.

What Should School Psychologists Do to Protect Themselves from Liability?

Confidentiality has Limits

• The Family Education Records Privacy Act (FERPA) applies to educational records, not all information about a student.

• Even information covered by FERPA can be disclosed in a health or safety emergency situation:

“An educational agency or institution may disclose personally identifiable information from a school record to appropriate parties in connection with an emergency if knowledge of the information is necessary to protect the health or safety of the student or other individuals.”

Sec 99.36 (a)

Confidentiality has Limits

• Information covered by FERPA can be disclosed to other school staff. For example, disciplinary action taken against a student for conduct that posed a significant risk to the safety or well-being of that student or others CAN be disclosed to school staff who have legitimate interests in the behavior of that student.

Sec 99.36(b)2

• Such information can be disclosed to staff of another school who have legitimate educational interests in the behavior of that student.

Sec 99.36 (b)3

Standard of Care: Standard of Care: Can You Prove It?Can You Prove It?

School districts meet the required School districts meet the required standard of care when they conduct standard of care when they conduct

reasonablereasonable threat inquiries threat inquiries

Do you have a pre-established process?Do you have a pre-established process? Have you adopted safe school plan with an Have you adopted safe school plan with an

explicit threat assessment protocol?explicit threat assessment protocol? Have you trained your staff?Have you trained your staff? Is there a written summary of threat inquiry Is there a written summary of threat inquiry

process, conclusions, and recommendations?process, conclusions, and recommendations? Is your process consistent with best practices Is your process consistent with best practices

and US Department of Education (Secret and US Department of Education (Secret Service) Guidelines?Service) Guidelines?

What is “reasonable care?”What is “reasonable care?”

That degree of care which a That degree of care which a reasonable person in similar reasonable person in similar

circumstances would exercisecircumstances would exercise

Dailey v. Los Angeles Unified School District (1970) 2 Cal.3d 741Dailey v. Los Angeles Unified School District (1970) 2 Cal.3d 741

Duty to WarnDuty to Warn

Psychologists, psychiatrists and Psychologists, psychiatrists and physicians have a duty to warnphysicians have a duty to warn

Therapist knew his patient intended to kill a Therapist knew his patient intended to kill a woman. Patient killed woman and the woman. Patient killed woman and the parents of the victim successfully sued the parents of the victim successfully sued the therapist.therapist.

When patient presents a serious danger of When patient presents a serious danger of violence to another, a therapist must use violence to another, a therapist must use reasonable care to protect the intended reasonable care to protect the intended victim against such danger.victim against such danger.

Tarasoff v. Regents of University of CaliforniaTarasoff v. Regents of University of California (1976) 17 Cal.3d 425 (1976) 17 Cal.3d 425

Access to Records/ Access to Records/ Duty to Warn: ConclusionsDuty to Warn: Conclusions

School districts have a duty to warn if School districts have a duty to warn if threats are specific and substantivethreats are specific and substantive

School psychologists/counselors and School psychologists/counselors and others have a duty to breach patient others have a duty to breach patient confidentiality and warn if threat is confidentiality and warn if threat is specific and substantivespecific and substantive

School districts may release confidential School districts may release confidential pupil records (general and special pupil records (general and special education records) to protect the safety education records) to protect the safety of othersof others

THREAT PREVENTION THREAT PREVENTION AND INTERVENTIONAND INTERVENTION

Threat prevention &Threat prevention &

management should drawmanagement should draw

upon effective violence upon effective violence prevention programsprevention programs

available in the school.available in the school.

Threat Assessment is Only Part of a Comprehensive Approach to

School Safety

Effective Threat Assessment Can Effective Threat Assessment Can Only Occur in a Larger Context Only Occur in a Larger Context

of School Safetyof School Safety Schools in which students, teachers and Schools in which students, teachers and

administrators pay attention to student’s administrators pay attention to student’s social and emotional needs, as well as their social and emotional needs, as well as their academic needs, will have fewer situations academic needs, will have fewer situations that require formal threat assessments.that require formal threat assessments.

In such a climate, adults and students In such a climate, adults and students respect each other. Diversity and difference respect each other. Diversity and difference are respected.are respected.

Students develop the capacity to talk and Students develop the capacity to talk and openly share concerns. Conflict is managed openly share concerns. Conflict is managed and mediated constructively.and mediated constructively.

Kanan, L. & Lee, R., 2005

Effective Threat Assessment Effective Threat Assessment Can Only Occur in a Larger Can Only Occur in a Larger

Context Context of School Safetyof School Safety

Students try to help fellow students who Students try to help fellow students who are in distress.are in distress.

Problems are raised and addressed before Problems are raised and addressed before they become serious.they become serious.

Positive connections are created between Positive connections are created between adults and students.adults and students.

Students are willing to break the Students are willing to break the “code of “code of silence”.silence”.

Kanan, L. & Lee, R., 2005

Components and Tasks for Components and Tasks for Creating a Safe/Connected Creating a Safe/Connected

School ClimateSchool Climate Assessment of the school’s emotional climate.Assessment of the school’s emotional climate. Emphasis on the importance of listening in schools.Emphasis on the importance of listening in schools. Adoption of a strong, but caring stance against the Adoption of a strong, but caring stance against the

““code of silence”.code of silence”. Prevention and intervention in bullying.Prevention and intervention in bullying. Involvement of the school community in planning, Involvement of the school community in planning,

creating, and sustaining a culture of safety and creating, and sustaining a culture of safety and respect.respect.

Development of trusting relationships between each Development of trusting relationships between each student and at least one adult at school.student and at least one adult at school.

Creation of mechanisms for developing and Creation of mechanisms for developing and sustaining safe school climates.sustaining safe school climates.

(Kanan, L. & Lee, R., 2005)

NASP Threat Assessment NASP Threat Assessment Workgroup Members:Workgroup Members:

Dewey Cornell, Ph.D.; Professor; University of VirginiaSally Dorman, Psy.D.; School Psychologist; Charles County Public Schools, MDGina Hurley, Ed.D.; Director of Student Service; Barnstable Public Schools, MALinda M. Kanan, Ph.D.; District Intervention Specialist; Cherry Creek School District, COJill Sharkey, Ph.D.; Assistant Researcher/School Psychologist; UC Santa BarbaraKathy Sievering; MA, MA; School Psychologist; Jefferson County Schl District, COMelinda K. Susan, M.A.; School Psychologist; Sonoma Co. Office of Education, CAPaul G. Webb, Ed.D; Threat Assessment and Crisis Management Psychologist; Clark County School District, NVDiana Browning Wright, M.S.; Statewide PENT Director; California Department of Education-Diagnostic Center-South

threat assessment and threat management in the schools threat assessment workgroup national...

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