ISSN 1320 8632

T H IS IS S U EUnemployment is stuck at well over 8 per cent, and Australian governments can do little other than counsel patience while the benefits of their policies translate into economic growth and thus into jobs. But are we doing enough to ensure that sustained growth will take place and generate the jobs we need? Fiona Macdonald sums up three reports to the Brotherhood of St Laurence by well- known economists on this issue.

Brotherhood research and analysis of policy aims to ensure that decisions taken by government or community respond to the situation of people living on low incomes. In this light, as Executive Director Bishop Michael Challen explains, the 1997 Commonwealth budget was a further step in the wrong direction.

Will economic growthjobs?Fiona Macdonald reports on the latest publication from the Brotherhood’s Future of Work Project.

‘The wealthy countries, even when they become more productive, even when they grow, are having trouble

The persistence of unemployment

In the first of the reports, Ian Manning of the National Institute of Economic and

The costs of schooling have become more difficult for lower-income Victorians over recent years. Janet Taylor and Paula Grogan report recent data from two surveys of parents, while Don Siemon examines changes to the Education Maintenance Allowance.

creating new jobs.We need to ask new questions and we need to find new answers. ’

(US President Clinton quoted in Botsman, 1993, p2)

Industry Research reviews the various explanations for the growth and persistence of unemployment experienced in dev­eloped countries over the last twenty years. Drawing on international experience. Man­ning evaluates policy responses formulated on the basis of these interpretations.

The announcement that under-18-year- olds will only receive income support if they are in full-time schooling or training raises many questions about those whom schools do not suit. Don Siemon outlines the good and bad of the new Youth Allowance proposal, while Helen Mac­Donald introduces a new Brotherhood project to improve the transitions from school to work for early school- leavers.

Finally, Alison McClelland reflects on social policy changes in southeast Asia.

Also in this issue are news of other projects of the Brotherhood’s Social Action and Research division, including forthcoming publications.

Brotherhood Comment depends on your subscriptions for its mailing costs—we appreciate your support.

Econom ic growth has been seen by successive Australian and other national governments as the key to increasing em ploym ent and decreasing unem ­ployment. But can Australia achieve the levels of economic growth required to generate sustainable employment growth? Is the relationship between economic and employment growth sufficiently strong that it will overome Australia’s current unemployment problem?

The Brotherhood’s Future of Work Project commissioned three reports by well-known economists to consider the relationship between em ploym ent and economic growth in Australia and to investigate how the potential for economic growth can generate sustainable employment over the next ten to fifteen years.

Manning asserts that unemployment has been neglected or even purposefully kept high in attempts to achieve such other economic goals as controlling inflation and. more recently, increasing compet­itiveness. He is pessimistic about the employment outcomes of recent compet­ition policies which have concentrated on deregulation, profitability and privat­isation. Manning notes that, as advocates of competition policies are concerned with overall economic performance rather than unemployment, they have underestimated the number of jobs which are destroyed by such policies.

While Manning points to some of the more successful aspects of policies that have been implemented, his review of the successes and failures of the various policy

BROTHERHOOD OF ST LAURENCE, 67 BRUNSWICK STREET, FITZROY, VIC 3065. TEL: (03) 9419 7055 FAX: (03) 9417 2691

2

responses leads him to conclude that current policies offer little or no hope of reductions in unemployment.

Labour market changes

Peter Sheehan, Director of the Centre for Strategic Economic Studies at the Victoria University of Technology, provides a comprehensive overview of the labour market changes that have taken place in Australia and other developed countries over the last two decades before briefly reviewing the explanations of these changes in both the A ustralian and international literature. While responses to the historically low growth in incomes experienced since the 1970s have resulted in distinct outcomes in different nations, all the OECD countries have, to some degree, experienced sustained high unemployment levels and/or increasing inequality.

The central thesis of Sheehan’s argument is that, while Australia’s approach to labour market issues has focused on problems of the developed economies we are in fact in a position ‘to address the issues of real wage growth, the nature and distribution of work and rising unemployment in the context of the rapid growth associated with a developing country’.

Export potentialChanges in Australia’s export structure have seen a revival of export growth and the emergence of a new and increased export capacity, particularly in areas such as manufactured products and services. The fact that this increase in real exports has, to date, not been accompanied by a revival in overall economic growth is largely due to the failure of tariff and industry policies which have left the economy exposed to greater import competition. Sustained export growth opens the possibility of Australia returning to high growth rates but this growth will not be generated automatically; policies to stimulate growth and investment will still be necessary.

John Burgess and Roy Green of the Em ployment Studies Centre at the University of Newcastle also look to Australia’s export capacity to generate the growth necessary to tackle Australia's unemployment problem. The achievement of strong export growth will require active

intervention in the form of investment in the rapidly growing global markets for ‘high value-added, knowledge-intensive products and services’. Looking to the factors behind the strong growth in the East Asian nations, Burgess and Green point to a recent study by Rodrik (1995) which suggests that high levels of investment delivered the export growth seen in South Korea and Taiwan rather than the reverse.

Measures to develop Australia’s export and import-replacing capabilities can generate the conditions for a demand-led growth in the economy through their effect on the balance of payments. While not directly creating many new jobs in manufacturing this approach will increase the ‘speed limit’ to which the economy can grow and within which an expansionary fiscal policy can play an important role.

Growth: more than a mantra needed

There is agreement among the authors that while economic growth may be necessary to begin the task of tackling unemployment and inequality it is not in itself sufficient. While agreeing Australia has the capacity to generate growth which can create the conditions for reducing unemployment, each of these papers outlines a number of strategies which must be implemented if this is to be achieved.

Burgess and Green put forward a strong argument for macro-economic policies to stimulate demand as the key to maximising jobs growth, but they also stress that an integrated approach to policy is necessary to address the complex task of achieving high productivity, competitiveness and em ploym ent growth sim ultaneously. Sustainable jobs growth will require an interventionist strategy which has as its main component sector and region-based industry strategies along with labour market programs and industrial relations reforms aimed at creating a h igh-skill, high productivity economy.

Similarly both Sheehan and Manning point to the need for continuing action through initiatives including those which:

• give priority to skills and training issues;• address geographic disadvantage through

the development of regional economic initiatives;

• assist the growth of small innovative firms; and

• improve the interface between the wages and welfare systems.

All three papers are pessimistic about the potential of the Government’s current econom ic strategy for achieving an acceptable solution to what is clearly the critical issue facing A ustralia as we approach the 21st century. The authors all agree that the Coalition’s preoccupation with reducing the government deficit and its reliance on labour market reform to achieve economic growth and a reduction in unemployment may exacerbate our current problems.

D irect reductions in public sector employment, reductions in private sector em ploym ent through cuts to export assistance program s, greater im port competition as a result of tariff reductions w ithout broader industrial plans and damage to the job prospects of long-term unemployed and disadvantaged groups through cuts to labour market programs will directly worsen the situation, as well as having multiplier effects in the rest of the economy.

Botsman, P 1993 Creating jobs in Europe: strategies and lessons fo r Australia: a report on the first European Jobs Summit, October 19-21, Evatt Foundation. SyHnm'—------

Brotherhood of St Laurence 1997, Economic growth and employment, Brotherhood of St Laurence, Melbourne.

Rodrik, D 1995, ‘Getting interventions right: how South Korea and Taiwan grew rich'. Economic Policy, April.

Economic growth and employment is available from

the Brotherhood of St Laurence Publications. $20.00 plus $2.50 postage. Contact Sarah Lappin

on (03) 9483-1383.

References

Federal Budget Update:

Low income households suffer unfair cuts... againBishop Michael Challen summarises the effects of this year’s Federal Budget on people on low incomes.

Many people saw M ay’s Commonwealth budget as a ‘do nothing’ budget. Certainly it contained no good news on Australia’s major social and economic problem, unemployment.

Neither the tax relief on savings nor the Federation Fund — Canberra’s equivalent to Melbourne’s Agenda 21 slate of large projects — will do much to end this colossal waste of human talent and economic potential.

Like last year’s, this budget is likely to add to hardship in the community. The 1996 budget took a harsh toll on the incom es and opportunities of lower-income Australians, with dam aging cuts to social security, A boriginal organisations, subsidies to medicines and programs which helped long­term unemployed people back into work.

importance. Making patients responsible for the prescribing habits of their doctors seems a poor way to tackle the growth in costs to the Government.

However, there is also some good news. People caring for aged or disabled relatives are eligible for more help. There will be better assistance to married women who are seeking to rejoin the paid work force.

The commitment of the Government to lift pensions in line with Average Weekly Earnings is also very welcome (though this should be granted to unemployed people and sole parents, not just age pensioners). By contrast, the move to pay all pensions and allowances in arrears is a peculiar way of saving money, as is the pension deferral scheme.

“Services affecting the living standards or opportunities of sole parents and older or unemployed Australians will be cut by at least $250m in a full year — again an unfair share of the burden

This year’s announcements did nothing to offset these cuts. Indeed, they repeated that injustice, although in a very much smaller way. Services affecting the living standards or opportunities of sole parents and older or unemployed Australians will be cut by at least $250m in a full year — again an unfair share of the burden of spending cuts.

• Programs to help unemployed people to obtain work will be reduced even further, on top of the drastic cuts in the last budget.Yet we now have more people - 240,000 - who have been out of work for over a year.

The cuts to the Commonwealth’s contribution to publ ic housing are of most concern. A quarter of a million families are waiting for a chance to rent in the public system. And here we have a total cut of nearly $100m, enough to spell the end of any serious government commitment to affordable and secure housing for low income people. In addition, given that the Commonwealth-State Housing Agreement (CSHA) is based upon matching funds from the states on the basis of one state dollar for every two Commonwealth dollars, the effective impact on this vital area of support could be significantly higher.

of spending cuts.”

“I remain concerned about this budget’s long-term commitment to constraining growth in the public

• Social security is once again tightened, with some people on low incomes who share public housing facing higher rents.

• Funds for public housing will be cut, on top of a similar cut announced last year.

• Increased charges for some pharm ­aceuticals will save the Government money because at least some consumers — particularly older people — will pay more of the costs of more expensive drugs or those not seen as of high medical

There is very little for Australians living in country towns or regional centres, despite the hard times experienced by many outside the major cities.

services that help the living standards of us all,

I remain concerned about this budget’s long­term commitment to constraining growth in the public services that help the living standards of us all, particularly the less affluent. Revenue and spending are both to fall markedly as a share of GDP — unlike the Treasurer — I am not sure that this is something about which we should be proud.

particularly the less affluent...”

4

Starting schoolJanet Taylor gives us some insight into the most recent stage

of the Brotherhood’s longitudinal Life Chances Study.

SCHOOLS FEATURE

Children under pressureDescribing one child’s situation illus­trates pressures ranging from family stress and housing instability to lack of school resources.

Sue is the daughter of Cantonese-speaking

parents who have limited English, are

currently both unemployed and have recently

separated. She started school in 1995 (aged 4

years and 10 months) in an outer suburb of

Melbourne where her parents were buying a

house. Her mother commented at that time,

7 send her to school so that teachers can help

me to discipline her'. However, her mother

was concerned that Sue was being bullied at

school, ‘ I told the teacher once, but not any

more because I cannot speak English well.

The teacher may not like me to complain

again and again’.

By the end of 1996 Sue was in Grade 1 at

school in an inner suburb, having changed

schools and home three times following her

parents’ separation. Her mother is quite

worried about Sue. ‘She is too short and thin.

I am worried that she cannot cope with study.

She is forgetful and cannot concentrate.' The

mother can communicate better with Sue’s

current teacher who is of Chinese origin. Sue

has improved somewhat since the parent-

teacher inten/iew. Sue’s mother tries to help

her at home, 7 spend two hours with her,

teaching her homework, but the effect is not

good. But I cannot afford private tuition...

I become irritable, trying to

get her to study is a big effort. ’

Sue speaks Cantonese and English at home

and learns Mandarin at school and for three

hours on Sunday. While her mother does not

identify school costs as a problem she adds

that she cannot afford dancing lessons that

Sue would like. She also cannot afford

medication for Sue’s severe eczema, which

stops her sleeping at night. The mother helps

the school by buying raffle tickets and cooking

sausages to sell in the canteen. She says 7 hope the Government will provide more

money to the school so that more books can

be bought for the library.

Presently the books are very old’.

The most recent stage of the Brotherhood’s longitudinal Life Chances Study involved re-contacting the families at the end of 1996 to see how the children, now six-year-olds, were getting on at school.

At the end of 1996 interviews with families of 148 of the original 167 children who had been born in inner Melbourne in 1990 were conducted, although only 26 per cent of the children are still living in the original study area. Many families had moved within M elbourne, but a few were in country Victoria, ten were interstate and 12 were overseas during 1996. Most of the children were completing their first year of school while 20 per cent were in their second year.

School experiencesThe children’s early school experiences have already been very diverse, ranging from being in a class of 40 children in a government school in Hong Kong to being in a class of 11 in an Anglo-American school in Russia. While there is less diversity of school experiences for the children living in Victoria, there are still considerable differences derived not only from the type of school but also from the child’s family background and their own development. For example, the children in Victoria were in classes with an average of 24 pupils but varying in size from eight in a special development school to ‘30 to 40’ in a Catholic school.

Analysis of the findings are still at an early stage. While many parents report that their children are thriving at school, the preliminary findings point to a range of pressures being experienced by some of the children as they start school.

Schooling costsThe impact of school costs is one of the issues the study will examine further. Almost one third of the children (32 per cent) were living in families on low incomes (defined as below 120 per cent of the Henderson Poverty Line) and the experiences of some of their families mirrors those of the parents

using the Brotherhood’s Frankston Material Aid Service (see p.5). Uniforms were the most frequent school cost mentioned as difficult to meet by the parents, followed by excursions. School costs were particularly difficult for families with a number of children at school. A lthough parents generally felt schools were helpful about costs (‘school gives you time to pay’), some of the children were already missing out on activities in their first year of school.

Wide-ranging concernsEarly analysis of the data points to a range of issues with implications for the promotion of positive early educational experiences for children. These include:

• differing cultural expectations about child rearing and about the role of teachers;

• the importance of parent-teacher comm­unication;

• the impact of parental separation on children’s stability of schooling;

• the impact of parental stress on children’s learning;

• family educational resources in terms of language skills and assistance with school work;

• m aintenance of first languages and bilingual education;

• adequacy of basic school resources and parents’ role in providing school resources;

• the costs of ‘extra’ activiries Tor yourqf children; and

• the cost of medication and impact of health on children’s learning.

Future analysis will explore the children’s fam ily context and their educational developm ent, school experiences and opportunities and will use the longitudinal data from the study to examine issues such as the impact of low family income on children over time.

This stage of the Life Chances Study is being funded by a Health and Family Service Research and Development Grant from the Commonwealth Department of Health and Family Services.

SCHOOLS FEATURE

Paula Grogan reports on

a December 1996 survey

conducted with families using

the Brotherhood’s Material Aid Service in Frankston about the

cost of their children’s education.

The Frankston Material Aid service provides clothing and furniture to low- income families from a large area of the south-eastern suburbs. All users hold a health care concession card. This survey analysed what costs parents found most difficult to meet and in what ways these expenses have affected families and their relationships with schools.

Of the 628 families surveyed, 594 families had at least one child in primary school and 228 families had at least one child in secondary school. The total number of children was 1,371. Over 93 per cent of children attended Government schools. As users of the Material Aid Service, all the families were on low incomes.

Most of the families surveyed (91 per cent) received the Victorian Gov­ernment funded Education Mainten­ance Allowance (EMA). A few families were also assisted by Austudy (7 per cent), State Schools Relief (10 per cent) and emergency relief (10 per cent).

The cost of educationDespite Government assistance, manyfamilies experienced difficulty in meeting the costs involved with their child’s education. As one parent stated, [the EMA] ‘is not enough money to cover the cost of my children to go to school’. Another commented that [the EMA] ‘used to be for clothing the children and where things were needed but now it must go towards fees and contributions’. The cost of uniforms, books, fees and excursions worried many parents.

Uniforms and books

Most parents (94 per cent) said that uniform costs were the most difficult to meet. One parent said that ‘school uniforms should not be so expensive

SCHOOLINGCOSTS:

just because of their logo’. Sixty per cent of parents said that their children missed out on uniforms because of the costs involved. One parent explained that ‘I don't think wearing a uniform makes any difference to their schooling’.

Many parents (89 per cent) also found it difficult to buy new books for their children each year and some children (38 per cent) missed out on having books because of cost.

Several parents complained that books and uniforms were changed too often which meant that they could not be passed down to younger siblings.

Camps and excursions

Most fam ilies (88 per cent) had difficulty paying for school camps and excursions and over 50 per cent of children often missed out on some of these activities because of the extra costs involved. These excursions may not be given priority because, as one parent said, they are ‘not directly helpful with education’. Almost a third (30 per cent) of children sometimes missed out on school altogether when their parents could not afford transport costs or on days when there were extra activities at school which meant extra fees had to be paid. One parent stated ‘there is no longer anything called free education’.

The impact on the familyThe struggle to meet education costs had several effects on the families surveyed. Many parents (87 per cent) indicated that they suffered increased stress because of the extra costs of education. Many parents also indicated that they could not afford outings or entertainment that may help to relieve this stress.

Eighty-four per cent of parents found it d ifficult to meet the costs of household bills. Several parents (38 per cent) said that they missed meals or that their family ate cheaper quality food because of lack of money. Many parents (81 per cent) also felt embarrassed because of their difficulty in meeting education costs. One parent remarked that ‘it’s not the parent’s fault if they can’t pay but it’s embarrassing and degrading to be constantly reminded of it’. Other parents felt guilty at not being able to meet all their children's needs. ‘Having to say no, no, no to your child breaks a m other’s heart’.

One parent commented that she could not afford ‘special treats’ for her child. Another simply stated that ‘my children wouldn’t know what having something new is’. Parents also felt guilty that their children were treated differently because of the family’s lack of money. One parent said her children ‘feel that they are less than human because of our hardship’.

The relationship between families and schoolsMany parents indicated that their relationship with their child’s school had been adversely affected because of the difficulty in meeting education costs. Almost half of the parents (45 per cent) said that they spoke to teachers less often and 54 per cent did not attend school meetings.

Voluntary fees seemed to cause the most tension between families and schools. Some parents said that they had experienced a ‘very negative attitude’ from teachers when they were unable to pay or were late in paying these voluntary fees. One parent said that

the impact on low

-income fam

ilies

6

SCHOOLS FEATURE

‘this year I received phone calls to hurry me up so my children had to go without necessities just so the school could bring their books up to date’. One parent indicated that children can ‘get a bit of attitude from teachers if fees are not paid'. Often children could not take part in activities such as swimming or computer skills if the extra fees were not paid. As one parent remarked, ‘the voluntary fee is not voluntary as if it is not paid, kids are penalised’.

‘It’s hard explaining to teachers that meeting these expenses is hard’ seems to sum up a lot of parents’ concerns. Many parents felt embarrassed that they could not afford fees and so they stayed away from the school. One parent had been treated like a ‘difficult parent’ when she tried to discuss the problem with the school principal. However, another said that by being ‘brutally honest’ and explaining the d ifficulties, she now felt less embarrassed as the school was aware of the fam ily’s problems. Overall, parents reported negative consequences as a result of school fees. As one parent said, ‘we shouldn’t be victimised or m arginalised because w e’re low income’.

The results of this survey indicate that many low income fam ilies are experiencing difficulties in meeting the costs involved with their children’s education. As a consequence children are missing out on school activities, parents are staying away from schools and parents fear their children will be stigmatised—all factors which could have long-term effects on the children’s education.

Findings from this survey were reported to the Senate

Inquiry into Private and Commercial Funding of Government Schools in

March 1997.

Paula Grogan is a volunteer working with Social Action and Research. Contacts: Janet Taylor (03) 9483 1376 or Wendy Rose (03) 9781 4877.

as big,twice as complex

The Education Maintenance Allowance (EMA), paid by the Department of Education to parents holding a concession card, has until this year been a cash payment to parents to assist them with the ‘hidden’ costs of schooling such as uniforms and books not provided by the school.

It was provided so that children from low-income families would be less likely to be excluded from the normal range of school activities and to reduce the chances of vulnerable children dropping out of school. In this sense, the EMA was a complement to Austudy for secondary students (EMA cuts out at 16 years, when Austudy starts).

New guidelines for the EMA announced at the start of this school year have effectively halved the payment to parents, allowing schools to keep the other half— with the proviso that this be offset directly against school costs.

For several years, emergency relief caseworkers have reported anecdotes of schools seeking to divert this money towards the payment of various charges, including voluntary levies, and parents experiencing pressure to this effect. Brotherhood research has produced further reports of this (Brotherhood of St Laurence 1996).

At a time when secondary schools in particular are now imposing an array of charges which most parents feel compelled to meet, some school administrations have felt that low-income parents should be forced to devote the EMA to meet these charges.

It appears that this change is also designed to compensate schools as a whole for continuing pressure on recurrent budgets. However, the effect is to reduce the ability of the least well-off families to juggle their spending. In some cases it will reduce the family income sufficiently to lead to them having to seek emergency relief, and indeed an examination of this year’s Victorian emergency relief statistics has showed that the numbers seeking help with schooling costs nearly trebled at the start of 1997 compared with previous years.

The total amount of the EMA ($254 a year for a secondary student, half that for primary children) is small compared with the costs faced by the families surveyed at Frankston Material Aid. The median costs associated with secondary schooling were around $800 a year; the EMA typically would not cover even the costs of uniforms.

The new arrangements are also expensive and time-consuming for schools to administer within the spirit of the Departmental instructions, for they essentially require the school to offset the half of the EMA in their control against a number of often quite small amounts, accounting for each.

In short, the 1997 changes to the EMA are poorly thought out and should be reconsidered.

Don Siemon

ReferenceBrotherhood of St Laurence 1996, ‘State schools: costs and dilemmas’. Changing Pressures Bulletin, no. 2, November.

V

SCHOOLS FEATURE

Helping early school leaversThe Transition Project has arisen out of the B rotherhood’s concern about the long-term disadvantage experienced by young people who leave school early, particularly those who do not complete Year 11 or gain post-school educational or training qualifications.

Most teenagers now complete school. However, the prospects of those who do not are clouded by few full-time jobs and very high levels of youth unemployment — unemployment which in many cases persists for months or years.

In May 1997, there were 143,400 unemployed teenagers looking for full-time or part-time work. The unemployment rate was 20 per cent — more than twice that for adults. Some 78,600 were attending neither school nor a tertiary institution (ABS 1997). Persistent unemployment is a likely prospect for those young people who are unemployed and not engaged in training.

While youth unemployment in part is a by-product of high levels of unemployment in the community as a whole, it remains very politically sensitive and has provoked a range of particular government responses, most notably the ‘work for the dole’ proposal and the recent Youth Allowance decisions. Less attention has been given to ways to avoid the negative effects of youth unemployment before they become a reality for the young person for whom school is no longer appropriate, although there are some welcome initiatives by the Federal Government including school to work training initiatives.

What the project will doThe Transition Project is a partnership between the Brotherhood and Brunswick Secondary College aimed at improving the transition of early school leavers into post-school training and employment. This first stage of the project started early this year and will be extended to a second school in the Westernport region in late 1997.

Two Brotherhood of St Laurence project officers, one at each school site, will work closely with a small group of students planning to leave school before completing Year 11 and their teachers to assist the students to:• make inform ed choices about vocational

pathways while still at school;• access relevant information about the available

options for education, training and personal support when they actually decide to leave;

• maintain ongoing contact with the project officers

after they leave school to when they enter a training program or employment; and

• access structured training options, such as an apprenticeship or traineeship, or other programs.

Underpinning the project is the belief that the pathways from school education to post-school training are unclear and disjointed for many students and this precludes many early school leavers from further advancement. In vocational education reform, the Senate Standing Committee on Employ­ment, Education and Training (1992) has asserted ‘the importance of establishing clear pathways from secondary education into further education, training and employment can hardly be overemphasised'.

Helen MacDonald

reports on a new

program suited to the

times: how to better

help early school

leavers onto a path to

a secure job.

In the Transition project, the project officers will establish contact with students while they are still at school and assist them to identify an appropriate vocational pathway before leaving. This will in­volve working with the school and family, where appropriate, and providing information on commun­ity services and resources at the time the young person leaves school. An intensive case management approach is envisaged. This will involve maintain­ing an ongoing relationship during the period between leaving school and beginning training or employment, and providing mentor support during the initial stages of participation in the labour market.

Working within

schools with groups

of students planning

or at risk of leaving,

the Transition

Project will assemble

links not only to

Evaluation of the projectThe Transition project has been designed in the context of changing employment and training opportunities for young people who leave school early.While project workers will be working closely with some young people who decide to leave school, in order to link them into appropriate training, employment and community support, a researcher from the Brotherhood will also document the progress of the project from the perspective of the participants so as to:• inform the Brotherhood and the participating

schools on the usefulness of the pilot project in facilitating school to post-school employment, education and training activities for young people who leave school early; and

• contribute to the development of policy and programs for young people who leave school early by making the results of the project available to a broader audience.

It is anticipated that this pilot project will contribute to our understanding of the factors which assist young people to complete satisfactory transitions from secondary school to further labour market opportunities.

training and job

assistance services

but to other forms

of support.

Further information

about the

Transition Project

is available from

John Forster and

Helen MacDonald,

tel.(03) 9419 7055.

8

SCHOOLS FEATURE

Who leaves school early?The situation of those young people who leave school early is of concern because of the subsequent personal and labour market disadvantages they may exp­erience if they become unemployed, are not engaged in structured training opportunities, or are otherwise marg­inalised in the community.

Young people who do not complete secondary school are now a minority, although their numbers are on the rise again. Year 12 retention rates in Victoria were reported as 85.9 per cent in 1993 but declining to 76.3 per cent in 1997 (Age 6 June 1997). In the northern metro­politan region, the location of one of the Transition project's schools, retention

rates over the same period had declined 10.9 percent-age points to 75.8 per cent in 1997.

The reasons for leaving school early are diverse. While ‘there is no typical early school leaver’, different types of ‘at risk’ and early leavers have been characterised by Dwyer et al (1990 p54, cited in Batten and Russell 1995) as:• ‘leavers who make a positive choice

to take up an alternative career path;• opportune leavers, those who have

found a job;• would-be leavers, whose preference is

to have a job but who are subject to forced retention because they would otherwise be unemployed;

• circumstantial leavers, forced out of school for non-educational reasons;

• discouraged leavers, whose experience of schooling has not been rewarding;

• alienated leavers, those who have found the school environment to be highly negative.’

Early school leavers in the last three categories are of particular concern in the Transition project. It is these young people who are at risk of leaving school and becoming marginalised in the labour market due to the collapse of full-time employment opportunities for them over the last 25 years and the associated decline of opportunities for structured training.

Trends for young people in structured trainingThe changing fortunes for young people in apprenticeships and traineeships have been driven by the broader changes in the youth labour market. While full-time employment opportunities for teenagers have declined dramatically over the last 25 years, employment in apprenticeships has grown for young men as a proportion of full-time employment. Total teenage male full-time employment made up of apprenticeships has increased from less than 30 per cent in the early 1970s to about 70 per cent in the early 1990s (NBEET 1996). Young women have not benefited to the extent of young men in apprenticeships because of the gender- based segmentation of that system.

At the same time, Sweet (1996) shows that ‘in June 1995 the number of apprentices and trainees, as a per cent of total employment, was the lowest it has ever been’. This suggests that while apprenticeships may have increased as a proportion of full-time employment for young people, structured training opp­

ortunities as a whole have also declined as overall employment opportunities for young people have diminished. Sweet’s (1996) analysis of this poor record includes a decline in full-tim e employment opportunities which are likely to include apprenticeship training arrangements, and the growth of part- time and casual employment in the service sector which militates against expansion of structured training.

In the last two years greater importance has been afforded to school-industry based programs. With adequate resourc­ing, careers education, work experience programs and greater links with industry and employers will all be positive steps in assistance for young people at the school level. The current Government is committed to expanding vocational education training opportunities for students in senior secondary schools. This, together with programs such as the Jobs Pathway Program to im prove student’s transition from school to work.

expansion of apprenticeship and train­eeship opportunities, and other integrated assistance such as the Job Placement, Em ploym ent and Training scheme provide useful opportunities offered by the Government to enhance the labour market outcomes for young people.

But much more than this is needed to assist young people to make successful transitions from secondary school to structured training and employment and to prevent their marginalisation in the labour market and the community more broadly. In its inquiry into the em­ployment situation of young people, the Senate Standing Committee on Employ­ment. Education and Training! 1992) found that ‘resources devoted to case management and support of individual young people at risk will reap enormous benefits both to the young people themselves and to the community in terms of substantial cost savings in subsequent health, welfare, legal and other costs’.

References'Fewer stay at school in bush: survey’. The Age, 6 June 1997, p5.

Austen, S 1995, The growth in part-time employment: implications fo r training policy, Discussion Paper 96/ 2, The Centre for Labour Market Research. Curtin University of Technology, Perth.

Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 1997, Labour force Australia, cat no. 6203.0, May.

Dwyer, P, Wilson, B, Wyn, J & Stewart, F 1990, ‘Early school leavers. Research Report No. 4 '. cited in Batten, M & Russell, J 1995. Students at risk: a review o f Australian literature 1980—1994, ACER Research Monograph No. 46, Australian Council for Educational Research, Melbourne.

Flatau, P & Simpson. M 1996, Part-time youth em­ployment and training: evidence from the Austral­ian Youth Survey, Working paper series No. 137, Na­tional Institute of Labour Studies Inc, Flinders

University of South Australia, Adelaide.

National Board of Employment Education and Train­ing 1996, The good, the bad and everything in-be­tween: the quality and relevance o f Working Nation training, AGPS, Canberra.

Senate Standing Committee on Employment, Educa­tion and Training 1992, Wanted: our future. Report into the implications o f sustained high levels o f unemploy­ment among young people (15-24 years old), Com­monwealth of Australia, Canberra. CliSF

/ ^ u ^ 9

Changing prospects for employment

The disappearance of full-tim e employment opportunities for young people over the last decade has only partially been offset by the growth in part-tim e jobs (Wooden 1996). Furthermore, in their analysis of the Australian Youth Survey, Flatau and Simpson (1996) indicate that 60 to 75 per cent of all part-time jobs for non­students were casual and were therefore less secure and carried fewer benefits. These part-time workers had the lowest incidence of formal training, and any training they did receive was likely to be on-the-job. Part-time and casual work is concentrated among young and female workers in the retail and wholesale trade sectors (Austen 1995).

The implications for young people who leave school early and who gain at best part-time and casual employment are that lower training outcomes will reduce their wages com pared to full-tim e permanent workers, and fewer training opportunities will limit their chances of accessing better paid full-tim e or permanent employment (Austen 1995). In the Australian Youth Survey, over 60 per cent of those who were employed part-time did not obtain full-time work over a three-year time period despite wanting to work longer hours, according to Flatau & Simpson (1996).

Sweet, R 1996, ‘How well do our entry level training models fit the labour market of the 1990s?’ paper pre­sented to the Tasmanian Education Consortium Na­tional Conference on Rethinking work— Re-inventing education. October 10-12, Hobart.

Wooden, M 1996, ‘The youth labour market: charac­teristics and trends', Australian Bulletin o f Labour, vol. 22, no. 2, June, pp 137-160.

SCHOOLS FEATURE

What difference will a Youth Allowance make?In the 1996 budget, the Government announced its wish to combine Austudy with other non-education income support payments into a single payment, a Youth Allowance. Details of the Allowance, announced in June 1997, suggest that there will be considerably more supervision of younger people who are not at school or in full-time training. Don Siemon examines the proposed changes.

The designers of the Youth Allowance were told that their proposals were to cost no more than the current two youth income systems (ie. those to students and to unemployed young people). Any more generous treatment of one group of young people would have to be at the cost to others. In the event, the major redistribution in this package is from unemployed people to students. It removes the right of unemployed 18 to 20-year-olds to receive support irrespective of their parents’ circumstances and uses these funds to extend Rent Assistance to those students who need to live away from home.

Importantly, the Government did not seek to use the restructuring to save money. Indeed, the proposed package is slightly more expensive, particularly because the younger recipients—notably unsupported students and unemployed—will receive the same rate as those older. Brotherhood research has consistently pointed to a need for higher payments for this group, and the effective 10 per cent increase is long overdue and welcome.

Positive featuresAs well as providing the higher rates for younger recipients and Rent Assistance to students, the Youth Allowance contains other sensible and positive aspects. Young people who cease seeking work to under­take study will no longer have to wait for some time without any income, for exam­ple. Applications will be simpler, entitle­ments and rates of payment will be more uniform, understandable and consistent with the rest of the social security system.

The Pharmaceutical Allowance will be paid (currently this is only paid to pensioners) and the family income test is slightly more generous than that applying to Austudy. So some students dependent on lower-paid parents may receive more.

Negative featuresThe most disappointing feature of the Allowance is that dependence on parents is presumed until young people reach 21 (25 for full-time students). In practice, unemployed people who lose income will mainly be from m iddle-incom e and wealthier families, although this provision will add pressures on a wider group of families who will now face additional means testing. Young people who seek to establish their independent entitlement to income support will face quite restrictive tests of independence (such as having supported themselves through work for 18 months in the past 24).

Well-intentioned but even more coercive are the provisions for those younger than 18 years. Receipt of the Allowance is contingent on them undertaking full-time study or training, effectively making 12 years of schooling/training compulsory, although negotiations with state education departments are yet to happen, and no significant increase in training provision has been announced.

Im plications for early schoo l-leaversThere are important exemptions to this rule, but it is hard to predict how restrictive these will be for young people who leave school. For example, what will ‘full-time training’ mean in practice? Or the safeguard of entitlement due to ‘inability to secure an appropriate education place’? It appears young people not at school or in a traineeship will require quite intensive case work support if they are to gain income support.

The impact of these new conditions of the Youth Allowance upon young people at risk of leaving school will depend on its implementation and how well schools and training providers are resourced.

1 0 / p M M *

SO C IA L P o l i c y CHANGES in ASIA

Alison McClelland,Director o f Social

Action and Research, visited several

Southeast Asian countries in 1996.

She reports on what she learnt about

emerging issues o f inequity in the context

o f rapid economic growth.

Globalisation has been posed as one reason for the increase in inequality in market incomes in Australia and elsewhere (Gottschalk and Joyce, 1992). Its potential to further increase poverty and inequality is reinforced by an acceptance of the following assumptions:• globalisation reduces national sovereignty

and national governments have much less capacity to act on critical areas such as unemployment;

• international competitiveness requires further wage deregulation and a lowering of real wage levels for people with little education and skills;

• international com petitiveness requires competitive taxation regimes thus limiting national governm ent’s revenue raising spending capacity.

The Brotherhood has contested the validity of these assumptions (BSL 1996) but is also aware of their power in current debates. They cannot be dismissed but need to be analysed in some detail.

Australia’s focus on the importance of growing economic trade links with Asia is a particularly pertinent aspect of globalisation given the low wages and low levels of taxation in much of the Asian region. Social policy analysts need to have a fuller understanding of what is happening in Asia.

To help the Brotherhood begin to understandsome of the issues involved in developments in Asia the Myer Foundation funded a study tour in Southeast Asia. The tour involved visits to Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines, with attendance also at the international conference of the International Council of Social Welfare in Hong Kong. The study tour also aimed to develop links with people working in Asia. A number of issues were identified as potentially relevant to an understanding of developments in Asia and their relationships to Australia.

The first was the sustainability of the very high levels of economic growth achieved in many Asian countries. Factors which could limit this in the future include strains on infrastructure, a concern by some about low rates of private

saving and current account deficits, and low levels of workforce skills and education.

A second issue was the relationship between economic growth, poverty and inequality. With the exception of the Philippines, the message given from people in the countries visited was that while high economic growth had been accompanied by a reduction in absolute poverty (with substantial poverty remaining) there had been a growth in inequality. Several aspects are worth noting.• an increase in inequality which was

accompanied by an improvement in the position of the well off and the growth of an affluent middle class. Of particular interest to public policy was the increased reliance by such groups on private health and education facilities and the impact of that on the growth of public infrastructure in Asian countries.

• a growth in regional disparities in income opportunities, especially between people in urban and rural areas, and disparities between men and women with concerns about the adverse impact of structural change on traditional women’s livelihood.

Broader analysis indicates that the relationship between economic growth and poverty and inequality differs for different Asian countries. Some, for example Korea and Malaysia, have been cited as examples of a ‘virtuous circle’ with investment in education and health contributing to economic development which in turn provides further opportunities for social development and a significant reduction in poverty (UNDP 1996).

A highly related third issue was the situation in relation to unemployment, wages and labour mobility. Common issues appeared to be problems of under-employment rather than just officially measured unemployment, a high degree of labour migration within the Asian region, a strong and growing imbalance between the skills of the population and economic development needs, a concern about child labour in some, and the importance of the informal economy and self- employment. Conditions of work were expressed by many organisations as continuing to be a major problem.

A number of other broader issues were identified including limited approaches to social security and welfare, the important role of cooperatives, a strong community development approach in many areas, the interest in participatory democracy in countries such as the Philippines, and taxation structures and compliance.

These are preliminary, tentative observ­ations only, but lead to the need for further work including in the following areas:• the approach of d ifferent Asian

countries to health and education funding and delivery;

• a study of different approaches to regional development in Asia and Australia;

• the different experiences of individual countries in terms of its success in reducing poverty and inequality alongside economic growth;

• the future of em ploym ent, under­employment and waged poverty;

• the impact of labour migration on m igrants and on host and parent countries;

• the development of social security policies in Asian countries and its implications for Australia; and

• the level, structure and direction oftaxation in Asian countries and the indication for com parisons with Australia’s taxation system.

Referencesf Brotherhood of St Laurence 1996, Written

submission to the National Wage Case, Brotherhood of St Laurence, Melbourne.

~ Gottschalk P, Joyce M 1992, The impact o ftechnological change, deindustrialization and internationalization o f trade on earnings inequality - an international perspective, LIS - CEPS Working Paper no.85, Luxembourg Income Study, Luxembourg.

UNDP 1996, Human Development Report 1996, published for the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Oxford University Press, York. Oxford, UK.

Recent submissionsThe Brotherhood puts forward its views when it believes that it can make a considered contribution to a better understanding of the needs of low-income Australians based on its research or policy analysis or its experience in providing services.

Significant submissions or statements released over 1996-97 include:

■ The Workplace Relations and Associated Legislation Bill (Senate Economics Committee)

■ Factors influencing the employment of young people (House of Representatives Standing Committee on Employment, Education and Training)

a Concession card availability and eligibility for concessions (House of Representatives Standing Committee on Family and Community Affairs)

a Employment assistance to meet the needs of jobseekers (Department of Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs)

a Future child care provision in Australia (Economic Planning Advisory Commission)

a National needs and tax reform (National Tax Reform Summit)

a Written submission to the National Wage Case (Australian Industrial Relations Commission)

a Social Security Legislation Amendment Bill 1996 (Senate Community Affairs Legislation Committee)

a A refocused Commonwealth: the contribution of the 1997 budget and associated restructuring to a fair Australia (Commonwealth Treasury)

a Submission to the Review of the Audit Act 1995 (Government of Victoria)

a Submission to Senate Inquiry into the Funding of Aged Care Institutions (Senate Community Affairs References Committee)

a Social Security Legislation Amendment (Work for the Dole) Bill 1997 (Senate Community Affairs Legislation Committee)

a Senate Inquiry into Housing Assistance (Senate Community Affairs References Committee).

All these submissions, some o f which are published as Social Policy and Research Papers (which also include research reports, speeches and commentary) and others which remain unpublished, are available for the cost o f copying and mailing, usually $9. Please contact the Brotherhood library on (03) 9483 1388.

12

Don’t miss out!

The Sambell Oration is on Thursday, 14 August,

at theState Film Centre,Melbourne.

Dr Trevor Hogan from the School of Sociology,

Politics and Anthropology, LaTrobe University,

will speak on:

“Welfare after the Welfare State”

For further information, contact Sarah Lappin, tel.(03) 9483 1383

New PublicationAlternatives to Globalisation:

An Asia-Pacific PerspectiveEdited by John Wiseman

Published by Community Aid Abroad in

association with the Brotherhood of St

Laurence; Dept of Social Science and Social work, RMIT; Centre for Urban and

Social Research, Swinburne University.

A collection of papers exploring the implications of globalisation at local, national and international levels, arguing that we must develop more progressive and creative responses to globalisation. While examples focus on Australia and the Asia-Pacific region most are highly relevant to other parts of the world.

$17.95 available throughCommunity Aid Abroad

03 9289 9444

Work progress...Families

and the marketOver the past two years, the implications of reforms to human services has been a focus of some work at the Brotherhood, particularly given the rapid adoption of tendering as a prescribed method of financing service provision at all levels of government.

Past work has involved papers on the m arketisation of services and the principles which should underlie tendering procedures for community services obligations.

A recent Brotherhood presentation to the ‘Constructing C hange’ forum of Community Child Care builds on this work to examine the extent in which ‘m arket-friend liness’ in policy is impacting on human services provision and how non-government organisations can respond in ways in keeping with their mission and value base.

The paper, Families and the market: im plications o f reforms to human services, aims to help people in the children’s services sector (and beyond) to develop clearer strategic ideas as to the possibilities for positive policy change. It will be available from Community Child Care.

Contact Don Siemon on (03) 9483 1380

The Changing Pressures Project

The Brotherhood has been concerned for some time about how changes in the provision and pricing of household energy and water might be impacting on people on low incomes.

Staff at the Brotherhood of St Laurence’s Material Aid Service in Frankston have been told by users of the service that many of them are having major problems in paying bills for these household essentials and that some have been disconnected from these services. In order to gain a more systematic understanding of the extent and the nature of the problem, staff took advantage of a student placement in mid-1996 to conduct a survey with users of the service.

The next Bulletin from the Changing Pressures project will look at issues facing low income households in their use of energy and water, illustrated by direct experiences of participants in the Material Aid Survey. The following concerns emerge from the survey:

• a surprisingly large proportion offamilies have been disconnected from electricity, gas or water;

• many families reported that they had to go without essentials, such as food, in order to pay their bills;

• many families could not afford to use fuel or water to the extent they needed; and

• some families were unaware of energy relief grants and other concessions to assist families on low incomes.

Contact Tim Gilley on (03) 9483 1385

Work progress...Stepping back into history -

the Government’s ‘work-for-the-dole’ proposal

Earlier this year, the Governm ent announced a ‘work-for-the-dole’ scheme prim arily (but not only) for young unemployed people. They argue that two days work per week in return for the unemployment benefit will bring ‘young unemployed people back into a work culture to help instil a positive attitude to work’. Under the threat of breach from their allowance, participation for some will be voluntary; for others it will be a compulsory activity.

The Brotherhood, like most other community agencies, has opposed the compulsory aspect of the proposal. We have argued that there is already sufficient compulsion in the income support system which means that unemployed people must actively search for work and undertake activities designed to im prove their em ployability. In return, it is the G overnm ent’s obligation to provide adequate income support and opportunities for people to participate.

Volunteer work is a useful activity for some job seekers and the current system currently provides opportunities for this. However,

not only is volunteer work incompatible with compulsion, it should be seen as one option in a process which links opportunities for skills and personal development with a job outcome.

An alternative approach to the very serious problem of unemployment is to link job seeker skills and aspirations with emerging job opportunities. Individual assessment of need and placement in a work experience and accredited training program is more likely to enhance job seekers’ self-esteem and motivation and improve their job prospects. Indeed, many of the programs abolished by the new Government sought to provide such assistance.

Contact Helen MacDonald on (03) 9483 1381 #

Concessionsinquiry

The Brotherhood recently gave evidence to a House of Representatives committee inquiring into concessions and concession cards. The presentation focused on the role and purpose of concessions as a supplement to income support, issues of equity between different low-income groups, and the risks of ‘cashing out’ such concessions.

The case for changes to concessions needs to be made from the particular circ­umstances and value of the concession. Cashing out could leave people with high needs (often for no fault of their own) very vulnerable and would also tend to reduce the rationale for other programs through which governm ents try to make the delivery o f services more socially responsible.

Contact Don Siemon on (03) 9483 1380

The Coolibah Day Centre(CDC) is one of the Brotherhood’s longest running services, having been established in the 1940s. Over the years, the Coolibah has attempted to respond to the changing needs of the population in South Fitzroy.

Originally, it was set up for older men. In the 1950s women were admitted. Until the early 1980s, the Coolibah functioned along lines that were similar to a Senior Citizen's Centre. Indeed, it was known as the Coolibah Club and clients had membership cards. Since then, however, the CDC has functioned as a cross between a drop-in

Coolibah evaluation

centre and an activities and advice centre for people aged over fifty years.

The purpose of the current evaluation is two-fold. The first aim is to determine whether the CDC is still responding to those in need in the local area. A questionnaire has been sent out to a large number of agencies within the City of Yarra to understand where the CDC fits in with service delivery generally within the area and the extent to which other agencies perceive our role in that service delivery. Consultations are also taking place with service users to determine whether the

CDC is still meeting their needs.

The second major aim of the evaluation is to examine the various government funding programs in order to see which program(s) best fit the work of a centre such as the Coolibah.

It is hoped that the outcom e of the evaluation will be a truly responsive service — able to meet the needs of a diverse client group as well as able to satisfy the current reporting and monitoring arrangements of government.

Contact Mandy Leveratt (03) 9483 1316

,4 (Jf&dzL

Book ReviewsUnder One Roof: Issues and Innovations in Shared HousingGeorge C. Hemmens, Charles J. Hoch & Jana Carp, eds.,State University of New York Press, New York 1996. Paperback 152pp.

Like Australia, the pursuit of home ownership in the form of single family dwellings has constituted part of the United States’ mythology of success. Like Australia, too, home ownership has become less affordable for many low to moderate income earners. In turn, this has placed pressure upon the private rental market, forcing up rents.

This book contains a number of discrete articles, each one of which explores alternative housing options for different groups such as low income households, the aged and singles.

Of particular interest is the chapter on low income households in Chicago by Hemmens and Hoch, which is part of a larger longitudinal study into the impact of the 1980s recession. Here, shared housing reveals the importance of the home as a means of caring, coping and transmitting values across generations. Whilst such households may appear to have failed when measured by the yardstick of the powerful imagery of the nuclear family, this chapter argues that shared housing can act as a bulwark against the vicissitudes of unemployment, illness, old age and migration.

But the aim of this book is not to project a rosy picture of communitarianism. Rather, its intent is to draw attention to the inadequacies of planners and public policy makers who, in a time of rapid demographic, social and economic change, insist on perpetuating the myth of one family, one house as the road to a mature and socially responsible citizenry. In response, the authors call for a change of values, financing systems, regulations and design across the housing industry. Nothing less, theybelieve, can counter the powerful mythology at work. Mandy Leveratt

Child abuse and child protection: a guide for health, education and welfare workersby Chris GoddardChurchill Livingstone, Melbourne 1997204 pages

Child abuse and child protection has been written in recognition of the pressures put on people working with children, both by media attention on child abuse cases and by the widespread introduction of mandatory reporting of child abuse across Australia. The book aims to provide workers in health, education and welfare with an understanding about what is currently known about child abuse and of what to do when child abuse is suspected.

The focus of the book is explicitly on children under the age of 10 although much would be applicable to older chi Idea. Topics covered include the historical background to the 'discovery’ of child abuse; issues of definition of physical abuse, neglect, sexual abuse, emotional and psychological abuse; the extent, causes and effects of child abuse; and issues in relation to child protection practice.

Janet Taylor

New publication from the Brotherhood

Browsing the BrotherhoodThe Brotherhood’s web site has grown steadily

since its launch in August 1996.

Economic growth and employment

Three papersby well-known economists explore what needs to be done to ensure that economic growth generates the maximum possible number of jobs.

$20.00 plus $2.50 postage

The site features Brotherhood media releases, speeches, presentations and submissions, including those made for the National Wage

Case and Work for the Dole Bill. Also featured are full text versions of the first four issues of

the Changing Pressures bulletins.

The site incorporates a catalogue of all Brotherhood publications, new acquisitions by

the Brotherhood library, poverty and unemployment statistics and much more.

Point your browser to

www.vicnet.net.au/~bstlNow available — call Sarah on (03) 9483 1383

(_'flu ***"*<■,

ew information on poverty, housing and unemploymentThe following are among the latest significant acquisitions received by the Brotherhood Library.

Austen, Siobhan, Dandie, Sandra, Stromback, Thorsten 1995. Recent trends in unemployment and the job compact. Labour Market Research Centre, Curtin University of Technology [Perth, WA]

Australia. Department o f Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs 1996. Reforming employment assistance : helping Australians into real jobs. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, ACT.

Australia. Department of Transport and Regional Development c 1996. Study on older people’s housing: measuring the costs and benefits of moving. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, ACT.

Berry, Mike, 1996. ‘The private rental market in Australia: expectations and capacities.’ Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute. Unpub.

Bradbury, Bruce 1996. Are the low income self- employed poor? Social Policy Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney

Brotherhood of St Laurence 1997. ‘The needs of young unemployed people: the Social Security Legislation Amendment (Work for the Dole) Bill 1997: submission to the Community Affairs Legislation Committee.’ Unpub.,

Buck, Mary. ‘The price of poverty: mental health and gender’, Critical Social Policy, Issue 50 17(1) February 1997 pp79-97.

Council of Single Mothers and their Children [ca. 1996]. Who cares: single mothers speak out. (Council of Single Mothers and their Children,Collingwood, Vic.

Davidson, Roy, Council on the Ageing (Australia) 1995. ‘An older person’s perspective.’ Unpub.

Goodman, James. ‘Scapegoating and surveillance: unemployment policy in

Australia’, Arena Magazine 27 1997 pp20- 23.

Groenewold, N icolaas 1996. Employment protection and aggregate unemployment. Department of Economics, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tas.

Hosking, Peter 1995. Globalisation and social economic development. Uniya, Kings Cross, NSW.

Huber, Evelyne, Myles, John, Stephens, John D.1995. The future o f welfare states in global perspective: an international debate. National Institute of Social Research, Copenhagen

Kemp, Peter 1994. The effects o f benefit on housing decisions. HMSO, London.

McCoull, Frances. ‘Assisting unemployed people —the OECD view’, Social Security Journal December 1996 pp 69-89.

Longmuir, Mark. ‘Keeping the lid on youth unemployment: work for the dole?’, YacVicBits March 1997 ppl-2.

Morris Consultants, Australia. Department of Transport and Regional Development c l996. Financing older people’s housing: the extent to which questions about financing older p eo p le ’s housing have been answered. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, ACT.

O’Neill, Steve 1996. Labour market programs in 1995: overview and assessment, Department of the Parliamentary Library, Canberra, ACT.

Orloff, Ann. ‘Gender in the welfare state.’ Annual Review o f Sociology 22 1996 p p 5 1-78 (Reprint).

Prime Ministerial Youth Homeless Taskforce1996. First report o f the Prime Ministerial Youth Flomeless Taskforce: framework for the Youth Homelessness P ilo t Programme. Australian Government Publishing Service,

Canberra, ACT.

Purdon Associates, Australia. Dept, of Transport and Regional Development, c l996. Review of overseas experience with older people's housing. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, ACT.

Raheim, Salome. ‘Problems and prospects of self- employment as an economic independence option for welfare recipients.’ Social Work 42(1) January 1997 pp44-53.

S & S Consultants. cl996. Review o f housing choices local area pilot projects. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, ACT.

Smeeding, Timothy M, Gottschalk, Peter 1995. The international evidence on income distribution in modern economies: where do we stand? LIS, Luxembourg.

Smith, Susan J, Mallinson, Sara. 'The problem with social housing: discretion, accountability and the welfare ideal.’ Policy & Politics 24(4) October 1996 pp339-357.

Vrielink, G A 1996. ‘The Australian welfare state regime: poverty among sole parent families.’ Unpub.

Whiteford, Peter. ‘Measuring poverty and income inequality in Australia.’ Agenda 4(1) 1997 pp39-50.

Wilson, William J 1996. When work disappears: the world o f the new urban poor. Knopf : Distributed by Random House, Inc., New York.

Winter, Ian, Bryson, Lois. 'The poverty of housing policy: Newtown 1966 and 1991.’ Family Matters 45 Spring/Summer 1996 pp41 - 43.

The World Bank 1996. The World Bank Research Program 1996: abstracts o f current studies. The World Bank, Washington, DC.

Inform ation Services for the PublicThe Brotherhood of St Laurence library offers a specialist focus on the issues of poverty, unemployment, aged care, social policy and welfare, taxation and housing. It can also provide, for the cost of copying and mailing, up-to-date information sheets on housing and homelessness, poverty and unemployment as well as information on the Brotherhood and its services. The library is open to students, community groups and members of the public from 9 am to 5 pm, Tuesday to Thursday. Books can be borrowed through the inter-library loan system (enquire at your regular library).

To find out whether we can help you with the information you require, ring the library on (03) 9483 1387 or (03) 9483 1388. And don't forget Brotherhood Publications—for a catalogue, call Sarah on (03) 9483 1383.

J L

• Will economic growth create jobs?

• Effects of 1997 Federal Budget

• Starting-School - Life Chances Study

• Schooling costs

• Education Maintenance Allowance

• Helping early school leavers - new project

• What difference will a Youth Allowance make?

• Social policy changes in Asia

• Submissions to government

• Work in progress

• Book reviews

• New information on poverty, housing & unemployment

Brotherhood Comment depends on your

subscriptions fo r its mailing costs

- we appreciate your support.

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