2012

Tom Jones

5/10/2012

The Media Revolution: From Evolution to date

MEDIA REVOLUTION: FROM EVOLUTION TO DATE

By

Tom Jones

F.Sc. Forman Christian College (FC College), Lahore, 2011

A THESIS

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree

BACHELOR OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCE

Faculty of Management Sciences

Bilkent University

Istanbul

Turkey

Approved by:

Senior Professor

Ozer Khalid

Abstract

The creation and circulation of digital content over electronic communications networks to a

wide range of digital devices is going through exponential development. This worldwide media

spectacle has significant implications for development but there is insufficient understanding

about the dynamics of the process, and doubt about many results. It is clear that the constant

development of networks and collaborative presentations, together with the declining cost of

access and devices, are permitting millions of people in the developing world to become creators

of media content.

These new ―voices‖ oblige people‘s needs for entertainment, cultural illumination, and human

contact, and provide readily reachable and expressive content in local languages. The ―voices‖

give response to businesses and administrations and thereby promote sensitivity and

responsibility. The new voices are also being proposed onto the worldwide media space

connecting groups with collective interests and concerns from different countries and continents.

It is also clear that the recognized media production sector has a substantial and rising trade and

industry occurrence, including a high quantity of micro, small, and medium enterprises,

employing skilled workers.

Digital media is a major driver of investment in broadband setup and e-commerce, both of which

can alter the development process. Furthermore, with the burst of new media opportunities,

exclusively new business models are being applied by unpredicted new competitors who are

stimulating outdated trades and their systems. What is unfamiliar is how this interaction will

elaborate and what business models will ultimately dominate. Likewise, we can observe that the

influence of the media to development has not realized yet the degree of acknowledgement that it

justifies. Also, the social networks like Facebook, Twitter, etc. are playing a great role in

changing the attitudes of the people towards the politicians and rulers. The best example is the

recent revolution in Egypt and Libya in which the social media played a vital role. The social

networks like Twitter and Facebook were the major revolutionaries. It is our hope that this

Working Paper will assist in raising awareness, understanding, and visibility of the media in all

aspects.

Table of Contents ALL ABOUT MEDIA: FROM EVOLUTION UPTILL NOW .......................................

Abstract .............................................................................................................................................

Chapter 1- The Evolution Of Media-A Brief View About History ................................................ 1

Chapter 2- A Contemporary View On The Digital Media And The Internet ............................... 17

Chapter 3- A Contemporary View On The Social Media ............................................................. 30

Chapter 4- A Contemporary View On The Mass And Electronic Media ..................................... 46

Chapter 5- Introduction To The Freedom Of Expression—Media Democratization ................... 56

Chapter 6- Media In Pakistan—An Analysis Of PEMRA, And Social And Mass Media ........... 62

Chapter 7- Role Of Media—A Contemporary View On Cyberspace And Social Networks ....... 73

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 83

Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 85

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Chapter 1- The Evolution Of Media-A Brief View About History

Media is everything that is a mean of communication to people giving them information of day by

day happening. In communications, media are the storage and transmission channels or tools used to

deliver information or data. It is often referred to as identical with mass media or news broadcast

media, but may refer to a solitary medium used to interconnect any data for any purpose.

The evolution of media begins with the human communication through artificial networks, i.e. not

vocalization or signs dates back to ancient cave paintings, map drawings and writings. Innovations

in media technology are now becoming the standardization marks for history‘s major paradigmatic

shifts. Even ―Mediology,‖ is a familiar and ever rising field of study. French drastic scholar, Regis

Debray, for instance, suggests three historical ages of transmission technologies: the Logosphere

(the age of writing, technology, kingdom, and faith), the Graphosphere (the age of print, political

ideologies, nation, and laws), and the recent Videosphere (the age of multimedia broadcasting,

models, individuals, and opinions). Though these historical levels have not been widely accepted,

Debray‘s work illustrates the fact that the technologies of transmission have taken on apposition in

our culture of high power, almost, omnipotence, as media now get acknowledgement for shaping not

only to the information we deal out and consume, but our powers of perception, our political, social

and economic systems, and our general structures of truth. (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

Media and their fluctuating effects have been around ever since humanity has been assembling into

tribes and nations and developing methods of communication, ways of outspreading the opportunity

of one‘s bare voice beyond hearing range, and giving form and stuff to one‘s thoughts. The

Paleolithic paintings at Lascaux, in other words, are no less practical (although less universal)

expressions of media than TV shows and magazines of today. But the graphic analysis of media, the

recognition and study of its impression on every feature of social living, is only a few decades old.

Carlyle may have claimed in 1830s that the printing press destroyed feudalism and created the

modern world; Plato, as Derrida emphasizes, may have pointed to the effects of inscription 2,500

years ago, but the wide ranging today given to media and their effects is, on the whole, unmatched.

Even more fundamental, the concept of flexible individual constructed by his ―field of cultural

production,‖ as Pierre Bourdieu called it, has been tossed around for centuries. (Griscom, Amanda,

1996).

The 19th

century brought about major philosophical change that set the stage for media studies.

What with a God overwhelmed by that ordinary rebellious science, the chaos that seized Western

nations around the close of 19th

century seemed unparalleled in history. Darwin had come up with a

substantial theory of evolution which smacked God-fearing members of the Victorian Age square in

the face. He pull apart, on a grand scale the moral, spiritual, and even political foundations of

Western world, a world till now easily concentrated on the Almighty God who bestowed tidy,

unchallengeable cores in each one of his human creations. The concept that human beings have

flexible personalities largely constructed by the environment in which they develop, the partiality of

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experience, began to gain currency and technical evidence in the late1800s, and established the

grounds on which the grandfather of media theory, Marshall McLuhan, would base his statements

half a century later. (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

McLuhan introduced into the language our existing usage of the term media. By fall of 1965, his

most popular book, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man, had gained him a position as a

faddish social thinker. He was being called as the ―Most Important Thinker since Newton, Darwin,

Freud, Einstein, and Pavlov.‖ McLuhan‘s consistency began to fade away by the time of his death,

in 1980: he had become increasingly intractable in public, his words, increasingly illogical, even

absurd, and the print medium, which he pronounced obsolete (out-dated), was popular as ever. But

McLuhan was not altogether a mimic. Today his words vibrate with weird divination. Gary Wolf

often said:

―In on-going years, the upcoming new media, usually, the Internet has caused new anxieties. Or to

put a more McLuhanesque turn on it, the arrival of the new digital media has brought the conditions

of the ancient technologies into sharper liberation, and made us suddenly aware of our media

environment. In the muddle of the digital rebellion, McLuhan is important again ("Wisdom of St.

Marshall" 124).‖ (Wolf, Gary, 1996; Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

----McLuhan’s Message

Calling media "the extensions of man," McLuhan based his theory on the fact that content follows

form, and the rebellious technologies give rise to new structures of feeling and thought, new

manners of perception. He saw media as "make happen agents" rather than "make-aware" agents, as

systems "similar to roads and canals, not as precious art objects or uplifting models of behavior, and

he repeatedly reminds his readers that his proposition is best understood as a literary trope, not as

scientific theory" ("Wisdom of St. Marshall" 124). Delighting in the power of the pun, he constantly

cites as his authorities the modernist idols of the Age of Print and quotes at length from the novels of

James Joyce, particularly Finnegan‟s Wake, and the poems of T.S. Eliot and William Blake, and the

letters of John Ruskin. (McLuhan, Marshall, 1995).

McLuhan screened his work and his everyday parlance with word-play, and became notorious for

firing puns at his opponents such as: "You think my delusion is all wrong?" According to this

persistent deconstructionist, the pun is a "breakdown as breakthrough." The pun breaks down the

movement of normal language enlightening that something has been intimidated. In other words, the

pun is a breakthrough to reality when it breaks down some expected movement. McLuhan turns all

literary techniques for crossing different kinds of discourse into different ways of grasping reality

and uses all of them most effectively as devices to probe media. He applied this poetic alienation of

language to his formula for addressing two things that our civilization (especially today) is

concerned about --- the alienation of the self and the alienating influence of technology. In

a Playboy interview from March, 1969, McLuhan said:

The work is designed for the pragmatic purpose of trying to understand our technological

environment and its psychic and social consequences. But my books constitute the process rather

than the completed product of discovery; my purpose is to employ facts as tentative probes, as

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means of insight, of pattern recognition... I want to map new terrain rather than chart old

landmarks. Needless to say, McLuhan, himself, was disturbed by his experience of alienation from

new media; he was alarmed as much as he was intrigued by it. His interest lay, as said earlier, not in

promoting media, but in making the public aware of media's overwhelming effects. And he drew the

attentions of a vast audience through his positions as professor, author, and cultural critic.

McLuhan's major works included The Gutenberg Galaxy, Understanding Media: The Extensions of

Man, The Medium is the Massage --- his only bestseller, which combines word and image in a way

that transformed his readership's expectations of what a book should be --- and his posthumously

published work, The Global Village. The lasting themes of his works --- the ones that interest us

most today --- revolve around the two quantum leaps in communications technology which I explore

in this thesis. As Lewis Lapham explains in his introduction to Understanding Media:

“Beginning with the premise that 'we become what we behold," that "we shape our tools, and

thereafter our tools shape us,' McLuhan examines the diktats of two technological revolutions that

overthrew a settled political and aesthetic order: first, in the mid-fifteenth century, the invention of

printing with moveable type, which encouraged people to think in straight lines and to arrange their

perception of the world in forms convenient to the visual order of the printed page; second, since the

late nineteenth century, the new applications of electricity (telegraph, telephone, television,

computers, etc.), which taught people to rearrange their perception of the world in ways convenient

to the protocols of cyberspace.” (McLuhan, Marshal, 1995; Lapham, Lewis, 1995).

----The Medium is the Message

Perhaps McLuhan is best remembered for his valuation of the unconscious effects of the medium ---

its powers of hypnosis. He predicates his claims about the power of media on a belief in the

mutability of man. We are the content of our media. Therefore our modes of perception are

unnatural. McLuhan rejects General David Sarnoff's statement that "We are too prone to make

technological instruments the stooges for the sins of those who exercise them. The products of

modern science are not in themselves good or bad; it is the way that they are used that determines

their value." According to McLuhan, Sarnoff ignores the fact that the nature of the medium, of any

and all media, is to crawl inside the participant unnoticed: "in the true Narcissus style, one is

hypnotized by the amputation and extension of his own being in a new technical form... For any

medium has the power of imposing its own assumption on the unwary. Prediction and control

consist in avoiding this subliminal state of Narcissus trance" (Understanding Media 15). (McLuhan,

Marshal, 1967; Lapham, Lewis, 1995).

----No Medium Becomes Extinct

Just as our city streets are garlanded with architecture of a whole range of styles --- some dating

centuries back, our modes of perception reflect a compendium of media inspirations: the dominant

one of the time as well as rests of its precursors which may never become outdated.

McLuhan explains, borrowing from the work of Alexis De Tocqueville, the political symptoms of

print media in eighteenth-century France and Britain: "[In France] the typographic principles of

uniformity, continuity and linearity had overlaid the complexities of ancient feudal and oral society.

In England, however, such was the power of the ancient oral traditions of common law, backed by

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the medieval institution of Parliament, that no uniformity or continuity of the new visual print

culture could take complete hold. Hence the discontinuity and unpredictability of English culture".

The paradigmatic shift from oral to written culture did not necessarily render the oral obsolete, as De

Tocqueville suggests in his explanation of the discontinuity and unpredictability of English culture.

(McLuhan, Marshall, 1967).

When new media descend upon a culture they do not eradicate the influence of their antecedents, but

reposition and supplement them. McLuhan had faith in the Digital Revolution only with the

understanding that we will continue to value the booty reaped from print media:

Those who panic now about the threat of the newer media and about the revolution we are forging,

vaster in scope than that of Gutenberg, are obviously lacking in cool visual detachment and gratitude

for that most potent gift bestowed on Western man by literacy and typography: his power to act

without reaction or involvement. It is this kind of specialization by dissociation that has created

Western power and efficiency. Without this dissociation of action from feeling and emotion people

are hampered and hesitant. Print taught Western man to say, "Damn the torpedoes. Full steam

ahead!‖ (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

A new medium is never a buildup to an old one, nor does it leave the old one in peace. It never

finishes coercing the older media until it finds new shapes and positions for them. Each medium, if

its preference is accurately demoralized, reveals and communicates a unique aspect of reality, of

truth. Each offers a different viewpoint, a way of seeing an otherwise concealed dimension of

veracity. It's not a question of one reality being true, the other ones distortions. One allows us to see

from here, another from there, a third from still another viewpoint; taken together they give us a

more complete whole, a greater fact. New fundamentals are brought to the front, including those

made unseen by the "blinders" of old languages. Yet a new language is rarely greeted by the old.

The oral ethnicities distrusted writing, manuscript culture was contemptuous of printing, and book

culture hated the press, that slap-dag heap of passions.

----The Commodious Space of Digital Media

McLuhan deeply committed to a universal sense of "all-at-oneness." Herein lay his optimism about the

digital medium: Everything everywhere happens simultaneously. There is no clear order or system. This

sudden downfall of space into a single unified field overwhelms the visual sense. This is what the concept of

the global village means to its inventor: "we are all within reach of a single voice or the sound of tribal

drums." For McLuhan this future held a insightful risk of mass terror and sudden panic but he found great

promise in the powers of digital communications and compares the mystical unification of humanity (the

global village) to the Christian Pentecost. He saw in digital media the potential to "breakdown and

breakthrough" the immuring "linearity" of the printed text, and the detached, hyper rational mind of the

reader of print. In Understanding Media he trumpets: ―Electromagnetic technology requires utter human

docility and quiescence of meditation such as benefits an organism that now wears its brain outside

its skull and its nerves outside its hide. Man must serve his electronic technology with the same

servo-mechanistic fidelity with which he served his coracle, his canoe, his typography, and all other

extensions of his physical organs. But there is this difference that previous technologies were partial

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and fragmentary, and the electric is total and inclusive... No further acceleration is possible this

side of the light barrier.” (McLuhan, Marshall, 1995, p.84)

Although McLuhan saw that this electric speed and interconnectedness could bring all social and

political functions together in a sudden implosion --- that an aspiration for wholeness, empathy and

depth of awareness is "a natural assistant to electronic technology" --- he by no means discounted

the advantages of Gutenberg's brainchild. Despite McLuhan's insistence that print and digital

technologies have such radically different impacts on the user---and on culture in general, the one

shall examine the evidence that the two mediums had remarkably similar receptions into the public

sphere: a mad flurry of literary expression on a widespread, individual level. It's almost impossible

for us today, in our world of Xerox and fax mechanisms and laser printers --- to imagine how

revolutionary the opportunity to duplicate and disseminate one's opinions in a public sphere was in

the mid-seventeenth century. The beliefs of a private individual had heretofore been weightless,

silent, and for all intensive purposes, nonexistent. We members of the late twentieth century, on the

other hand, have been enjoying the liberties of print--- that is, the freedom to duplicate and give

substance to our opinions --- for decades, even before the digital medium extended them. (Griscom,

Amanda, 1996).

But the liberties of absolute pamphlet production were felt only temporarily. Democratized

expression could not endure in a society which privileged rational, linear modes of operation.

McLuhan's analysis of media not only as translators but sculptors of information --- is especially

useful when addressing the fate of certain forms of expression. As we will see with regard to the

pamphleteers, the dominant cultural voice perched at the top of a rigid chain of command eventually

reclaimed its authority with the restoration of Sovereign Charles II to the throne. De Tocqueville

explained that British civilization was volatile, prone to destabilization because the influences of

oral tradition remained in place even after the impact of print. The desire for the free flow of

expression that oral culture accommodated was therefore in place, latent, and probably impatient to

achieve fruition. But if the medium is an architect of space --- and print was the dominant architect

of the time --- that space will permit only a certain configuration of expression. I will be looking at

the space that digital technologies are creating today, and what personal, social, and political

configurations this space will permit. (McLuhan, Marshall, 1967; Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

----Fifteenth-century communications swing from script to print

It is staggering to the imagination to understand and appreciate the impact that Gutenberg's

invention has made on civilization. Without this innovation we could not possibly have arrived at

the revolution we now face today (and, as McLuhan put it, "without the alphabet there would have

been no Gutenberg"). Much as we may remember print as a capacious and categorically positive

agent of change (its rigid linearity notwithstanding), it was received by some with opprobrium upon

its arrival in the public sphere --- just the same way that the transition from oral to scribal culture

raised alarm:

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“Plato... saw writing as a mainly destructive revolution. Since then we have been through enough

revolutions to know that every medium of communication is a unique art form which gives salience

to one set of human possibilities at the expense of another.‖ (Stern, Gerald, 1981).

But the printing press introduced Western civilization to some of its sharpest weapons; among them:

linear, rational thinking, the preservation and cataloging of a vast assemblage of knowledge, the

establishment of standards, the bold documentation and dissemination of forthright, educated

opinions. In Notre Dame de Paris (1832), Victor Hugo discusses print as an architect --- quite

literally --- of culture:

“Till Gutenberg became famous, architecture was the principal form of writing, the universal

writing. This gigantic book, begun in the Orient, was continued through Greek and Roman antiquity

and in the Middle Ages its last page was written... In the fifteenth century everything is changed.

Human thought discovers a means of perpetuating itself that is not only more resistant and lasting,

but also a simpler and easier means than that which architecture employed; and architecture is

dethroned. The letters of orphic stone are succeeded by the leaden types of Gutenberg... The book

shall overthrow the edifice. The invention of printing is the greatest event in history --- the first of

many revolutions to which it gave birth.” (Hugo, Victor, 1832; Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

The great, oftentimes oppressive edifices that printing bore, both material texts and rational

perceptivity, are lasting, unlikely to crumble even under the massive weight (or lack thereof) of

digital „all-at-oneness‟. Although the new hypertextual medium extensively aggrandizes the scope

of our knowledge, and the process by which we acquire it, we must not condemn our ability to

delineate linear narratives, to think rationally, to obsolescence. In "The Political Computer," Ess

suggests that many critics are skeptical of the adequacy or efficiency of the hypertextual medium ---

its ability to stand alone in the absence of print. (Ess, Charles, 1994).

[Hypertext analyst] Romiszowski criticizes Bush's and Nelson's shared conception that hypertext

will enable nearly universal access to a global network of electronic libraries as conjuring up a

vision of a flood of information in which millions drown. Nor does everyone follow Landow, Bolter,

and others who celebrate the 'anarchic' or democratizing scopes of hypertext that result from its

blurring of the traditional boundaries of authority between author and reader, teacher and student.

For example, McKnight, Dillon and Richardson suggest that hypertext may support collaborative

work --- but only if traditional hierarchies between, say, a professor and a junior research assistant

can be preserved in hypertextual annotations. (Romiszowski, A. J, 1990).

We cannot suppose, therefore, that the direct structure imposed by the print medium, will be entirely

replaced by the distributed structure of the hypertextual network --- utopic as it may be.

If the digital medium and hypertextual form were to completely uproot print and its influences, to

fully supplant them, we may be left without valuable methods of learning and organizing

information. The endeavor to place more value on the position of the reader of the text ---

empowering her to draw upon her own subjective wealth of experience, and rewrite the information

she encounters --- assumes that reader will have accumulated a substantial reservoir of knowledge

having in part used linear methods. Print may have presumptuously forced words into boldface,

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immutable truths (or, more accurately, myths), but it also presented readers with valuable tasks: to

seek out, analyze, and commit oneself to meaning, to express it cogently in the service of education,

to journey toward a destination. This is not to say that hypertext is devoid of meaning, or that it goes

nowhere, but a rich reading of hypertext requires a reader rich in intellectual experience, and

familiar with a linear narrative. In this section I shall examine first the shift from scribal to print

media, and then the explosion of pamphleteering --- democratized expression --- which, according to

the message of the print medium as we now understand it, was fated to repossession by the

hierarchical order. (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

"The invention of typography confirmed and extended the new visual stress of applied knowledge,

providing the first uniformly repeatable commodity, the first assembly line and the first mass-

production" -- Marshall McLuhan, Gutenberg Galaxy

The printing press, as Francis Bacon suggested, changed the "appearance and the state of the whole

world," though these changes were not necessarily witnessed for several centuries after the press

was introduced. In The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, Elizabeth Eisenstein asserts that for at

least the first two centuries following Gutenberg's invention, most printed texts were classic works

previously conceived in manuscript, namely, the Bible.

Our knowledge of scribal culture is limited by the very fact that most of what we do know we access

through printed material and an inestimable, but presumably large amount of the primary sources

have been lost or damaged. Scribal culture is, by the nature of the medium, motley and inconsistent.

It is impossible to make reliable generalizations in light of the fact that "findings are bound to vary

enormously depending on date and place. Contradictory verdicts are especially likely to proliferate

with regard to the last century before printing --- an interval when paper had become available and

the literate man was more likely to become his own scribe" (Eisenstein, Elizabeth, 1980, p.11;

Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

By the very fact that there was no way to duplicate on a wide scale a particular standard, we can find

nothing typical --that is, no typical scribe or manuscript or production procedure or reading

experience. In its lack of a viable or enforceable standard, scribal culture exemplified perspectivism

as no fixed, literary position or point of view could yet preside. Each manuscript was individualized,

interpretive --- right down to the scribe's personal understanding of facts regarding dates, geography,

etc. Eisenstein reminds us that "the more thoroughly we are trained to master the events and dates

contained in modern history books, the less likely we are to appreciate the difficulties confronting

scribal scholars who had access to assorted written records, but lacked uniform chronologies, maps

and all the other reference guides which are now in common use" (Eisenstein, Elizabeth, 1980,

p.36). Each scribal text was uniquely flawed --- or, arguably, uniquely correct with regard to

subjective understanding. The Internet activity today is perhaps returning to this kind of

perspectivism: within its morass of networked information a theoretical or factual consensus is

absolutely infeasible. (Eisenstein, Elizabeth, 1980; Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

What Eisenstein calls "textual drift" --- the fact that each edition of the same text varied significantly

from others not only in layout, but content --- explains why no fixed unitary text could prevail in

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scribal culture. The lasting vestiges of oral culture --- on which scribal culture had to rely because of

the limited availability of the manuscripts --- exacerbated textual drift . Eisenstein asserts that

"scribal culture was so thin that heavy reliance was placed on oral transmission... producing a hybrid

half-oral half literate culture that has no precise counterpart today." (p.111). A precise counterpart

may not exist, but the digital culture out of which the Internet is rising is necessarily interactive,

which means no authoritative account or text can prevail without the appendage of some reaction to,

or interpretation of, the assumptions it exhibits. Each manuscript was usually accompanied by

illuminations, thus combining word and image in a way that to a large extent dissipated with the

introduction of print, but is being revitalized today with multimedia. (Eisenstein, Elizabeth, 1980;

Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

The worth of the scribal manuscript is indeed something that has no particular complement today.

Producing a manuscript, and each piece was indisputably original required an excessive amount of

man hours. Manuscripts were used only for high-scholarly purposes rather than layman education or

entertainment. In fact, many members of the top saw a printed work as totally criticized in worth and

viewed manuscripts as artistically superior (what was once a hand-painted illumination became a

duplicable wood-cut or lithographic print). The Medici‘s, for example, are said to have insisted that

their libraries only hold manuscripts. In addition, the value of the reading experience, unlike today,

was a rare, highly fortunate, even revelatory peek reserved only for the insufficient little collection

of literate nobles. Handling a manuscript threatened its preservation. Literary work was meant to be

distributed verbally, but preserved in manuscript, and we realize in survey that the function as well

as the form of the text was about to change.

For years after printed books became available to the public, some owners even took them to the

nearest scribe to have it translated into a "work of art." Print called the orthodox understanding of a

work of art radically into question. In his essay "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical

Reproduction," early twentieth-century critic Walter Benjamin suggests that new technologies such

as photography and film (and in our case, print) not only demystify the process of creating art, they

radically alter the role of art in society: because art can now be easily and cheaply reproduced in

great quantities, it no longer resides exclusively in the domain of the bourgeoisie. Such technologies,

Benjamin argues, clear the way for the "formulation of revolutionary demands in the politics of

art." (Benjamin, Walter, 1968, p.113; Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

----Textual imperialism

The printing press gave Western civilization the means to limitlessly duplicate particular ideas in a

particular, standardized text, to extend its ideological mantle over the rest of the world. McLuhan

borrows from the findings of anthropologist Margaret Mead to explain that this phenomenon of

expansive power and standardization is unnatural --- a prosthetic addendum to our communicative

capacities:

“Margaret Mead has reported that when she brought several copies of the same book to a Pacific

Island there was great excitement. The natives had seen books, but only one copy of each, which

they had assumed to be unique. Their astonishment at the identical character of several books was a

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natural response to what is after all the most magical and potent aspect of print and mass

production. It involves a principal of extension by homogenization that is the key to understanding

Western power.” (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

Print radically minimized the number of man hours required to produce a text, which in turn

maximized output and greatly contributed to the sprit of capitalism that began to dominate the

Western world. Elizabeth Eisenstein explains that one printer could produce 1025 books in the time

it took a scribe to produce one of the same. Each printed text could sell at three times the price the

scribe might have sold it for. Within this economy of mass production, the printer became an urban

entrepreneur, admittedly profit-motivated. Eisenstein quotes one early printer's admission of his

dedication to "'making illustrious this author's name and to benefit the world.' The profit motive was

combined with other motives that were self-serving and altruistic, and even evangelistic at times."

(Eisenstein, Elizabeth, 1980; Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

Foremost among the amenities of the printing press lays the radical increase of diversity of

promulgated and examinable knowledge --- which urged the Western world to acknowledge,

develop, and specialize, new fields of study. In addition, printing generated the revolutionary

standardization of maps, calendars, time-tables, dictionaries, catalogs, textbooks, newspapers, and

the like --- bestowing upon Western man the ability to "rationalize, codify and catalog data" (p.88).

Instructional guides and conduct manuals emerged, thereby homogenizing, to some extent,

expectations for behavior, and by extension, establishing more rigid norms which sharply

distinguished the elite from the common. (Eisenstein, Elizabeth, 1980; Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

The invention of typography ushered in a standard for alphabetic ordering: "Print altered not only

the spelling and grammar but the accentuation and inflection of languages and made bad grammar

possible." Further, printing necessitated the introduction of copyright law. For the first time, authors

--- whose works lay in the hands of innumerable strangers --- fixated on notions of propriety with

regard to the specific phrasing of words as well as the formulation of concepts in general. Alvin

Kernan, in Printing Technology, says of the emerging preeminence of the author in print culture:

"Copyright law, which dates from this period, also redefined the role of the author by making the

writer the owner of his own writing" (Kernan, Alvin, 1987, p.4-5; Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

Along with a radical increase in standardized literary output, the scope of the reading public

expanded immensely. The spread of literacy meant that the middle class individual could become

autodidactic. The opportunity to self-instruct altered the roles of student and professor --- at once

esteeming the professor (or, perhaps, the textbook) as a definitive authority who could gain notoriety

and wide readership, and then detracting from his status, since individuals no longer had to rely on a

professor for oral instruction. The novel capability not only to consume, but to produce literature

revolutionized the intellectual capacity of the middle class: "Typography created a medium in which

it was possible to speak out loud and bold to the word itself, just as it was possible to circumnavigate

the world of books previously locked up in a pluralistic world of monastic cells. Boldness of type

created boldness of expression." (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

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Bold, standardized expression is at once emancipating and immuring. On the one hand, print

authorized puissant expression, but on the other, it reduced the literary experience to a single sense -

-- the visual --- and relegated auditory and other sensuous complexity to the background. McLuhan

explains the fragmented experience to which a reading of the printed text is limited: "With

typography, the principle of movable type introduced the means of mechanizing any handicraft by

the process of segmenting and fragmenting an integral action. What had begun with the alphabet as

a separation of the multiple gestures and sights and sounds in the spoken word, reached a new level

of intensity, first with the woodcut and then with typography." (McLuhan, Marshall, 1967; Griscom,

Amanda, 1996).

McLuhan argues that subliminal effects of print are engendered by repeatedly scanning lines of print

presented in a standardized format --- which can be calamitous according to McLuhan, since the

standardized code so inadequately or in-authentically relays experience. The duplicated,

standardized text subjects‘ scores of individuals to the same literary experience, conforming on large

scale readers' mental habits --- that is, the manners in which they learn, think, read and perceive. The

uniformity and repeatability of print permeated the Renaissance with the idea of time and space as

continuous, measurable quantities. The immediate effect of this idea was to desacralize the world of

nature and the world of power alike. The new technique of control of physical processes by

segmentation and fragmentation separated God and Nature as much as Man and Nature, or man and

man. Shock at this departure from traditional vision and inclusive awareness was often directed

toward the figure of Machiavelli, who had merely spelled out the new quantitative and neutral or

scientific ideas of force as applied to the manipulation of kingdoms. (McLuhan, Marshall, 1995).

McLuhan sees the printed word as the architect of nationalism. He contends that the effect of the

discovery of printing was evident in the savage religious wars of the sixteenth and seventeenth

centuries, borrowing from Harold Innis's argument in The Bias of Communication that the

application of power to communication industries hastened the consolidation of vernaculars and the

rise of ethnocentrism and imperialism. McLuhan expounds: "It may well be that print and

nationalism are axiological or coordinate, simply because by print a people sees itself for the first

time. The vernacular in appearing in high visual definition affords a glimpse of social unity

coextensive with vernacular boundaries." According to the analyses of McLuhan and Innis, we can

surmise that if seeing their vernacular actualized in distinct, indelible, material typography

influences a nation's perception of itself as discrete and authoritative, than the aesthetic of digital

ephemera --- words and images which are inconsistent in their intensity and on-screen endurance ---

may have the inverse effect, promoting in the viewers tolerance and humility. (Innis, Harold, 1951;

McLuhan, Marshall, 1996).

But we must remember to be conservative in our assumptions about the ideological change that

media effect. In Hypertext: The Convergence of Contemporary Critical Theory and Technology,

George Landow admonishes:

First of all such transitions [brought about by the introduction of printing] take a long time,

certainly much longer than early studies of the shift from manuscript to print culture led one to

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expect. Students of technology and reading practice point to several hundred years of gradual

change and accommodation, during which different reading practices, modes of publication, and

conceptions of literature obtained. According to Kernan, not until about 1700 did print technology

"transform the more advanced countries of Europe from oral to print societies, reordering the entire

social world, and restructuring rather than merely modifying letters." How long then will it take

computing, specifically, computer hypertext to effect similar changes? How long, one wonders will

the change to electronic language take until it becomes culturally pervasive? And what byways,

transient cultural accommodations and the like will intervene and thereby create a more confusing,

if culturally more interesting, picture? (Landow, George P, 1992).

----New Media Technology and Youth: Trends in the Evolution of New Media

An information environment is emerging from the simultaneous, rapid, and interconnected evolution

of transmission systems, interfaces, and content quantity, quality, and structure. It will be easy to

underestimate the collective impact of the sum of these changes on how young people communicate

and absorb information. Ultimately, it will be more important to understand how these technologies

will facilitate, amplify, or alter the cognitive processes and/or social behavior of the Internet

generation. The article analyzes the impact of the following trends on media use and cognition

among youthful users:

Information expansion and overload: Accessible networked information will continue to

grow at a rapid pace for at least the next 10–20 years.

Rapid increase in interface diffusion: The number of access points into the Internet is

expanding in number, variety, and mobility.

Evolution toward more embodied computing: Interfaces are evolving to use more of the

sensorimotor system to transfer information to and from the user.

The evolution of more intelligent sensors to interpret use behavior and intentions.

Evolution toward anthropomorphic agent techniques: Computers are evolving to use more

social and interpersonal communication techniques to interact with the user.1(Biocca, Frank,

2000)

----Trends in Technological Development

Research on television use provides the following estimate: American youth born to the television

generation will spend the equivalent of 7 years of their lives watching television. But what about the

Internet generation, the generation starting with children born in 1994? The computer is what

famous interface designer Alan Kay called a meta-medium, a medium that potentially combines TV,

the book, the radio, the typewriter, and the game console into one interface. Based on time spent

with these other media over a lifetime, we can make a rough estimate that members of the Internet

generation may spend as much as 20 years of their lives in front of, interacting with, and connected

to this medium. If we put this 20-year interaction in the context of some recent neuroscience

1 From the Media Interface and Network Design Labs, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan Address correspondence to: Frank Biocca, Ph.D., Ameritech Professor of Telecommunication, Director, M.I.N.D. Labs, Media Interface and Network Design Labs, Michigan State University, 409 Communication

Arts and Sciences Building, East Lansing, MI 48824-1292. Manuscript accepted April 24, 2000.

12 | P a g e

literature showing significant cortical reorganization based on motor and sensory stimulation, this

long-term interaction with virtual environments presents us with many cognitive unknowns. How

youth will think and act in this emerging virtual environment is largely unexplored. Although there

may be laboratory studies of youth and interactive media, there are few long-term studies of media

use from youth to old age that use sophisticated, detailed measures of context of cognitive and

perceptual processing. If the young brain and body are increasingly connected to media information,

the most important long-term changes might be cognitive. (Biocca, Frank, 2000).

This emerging meta-medium is young and not fixed in its ―hardware‖ and ―software.‖ There is no

single computer ―medium‖; rather, there is a family of intelligent information technologies. What

we call the computer medium is evolving more rapidly than did the traditional interfaces of radio

and television. It takes on new and varied shapes: different configurations of input and output

devices, new screens, etc. This medium frequently changes the way it looks and feels, involving new

interaction algorithms, new interaction techniques, etc. It continuously changes the information

content it presents: a continuous churn of content and evolution of formats. It is best to think of

these new emerging technologies as information environments that combine three elements: (a)

multisensory content, (b) various types of interfaces to access and present the information, and (c)

various transmission systems for delivering the information to the interface and the user. Here, I

review two classes of evolutionary change in media technology, trends that are likely to continue

through the early part of the new millennium:

Trends in the development of transmissions systems: The wires, protocols, and subsystems

that support the Internet and other information environments.

Trends in the development of interfaces: How the face of the medium, the part that directly

connect to the user‘s body, his or her senses, and motor channels is evolving.

Because interfaces, content, and transmission systems are in a continuous process of evolution, it is

best not to focus on specific rapidly obsolescing configurations [e.g., today‘s personal computer

(PC)]. Rather, an analysis of evolutionary trends in interfaces, transmission systems, and content is

more valuable for predicting youth involvement, planning research, and considering policy issues.

The current pattern of evolution is not random. Media are evolving but there are trends, constraints,

and maybe even a logic and teleology to this evolution. (Biocca, Frank, 2000).

----Trends in the Evolution of Transmission Systems

Patterns of Growth in Information Volume Cyberspace (The Internet) are the global, networked

information representation space created by the worldwide interconnection of computer memory,

data storage, and users. Although cyberspace is built of trillions of bits, young users experience it as

a physical and social space. Cyberspace, like physical space, is expanding rapidly. Constructed

within the world‘s telecommunication systems, it includes the universe of all electronic

communication. To young users it is variably a library of libraries, a giant electronic mall, a digital

bank of bits, a town square, or their own backyard. But none of these metaphors captures the

stunning range of information and experiences emerging on the outer frontiers of our

telecommunication systems. Herein lays both the opportunity and danger for the Internet

generation‘s eventual lifetime embrace of this new medium. Cyberspace has a potentially

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measurable volume, if we think of it as the sum of all mediated information. It can be defined in

terms of the number of bits stored or the number of nodes transmitting bits. In the past,

communication researchers rarely attempted to measure this theoretical volume of information. The

idea of the volume of information was buried under the loosely defined concepts such as ―info-

culture.‖ Information was also hard to measure. Much of this information volume was ephemeral,

such as a radio broadcast, some of it was decaying and disappearing daily (e.g., pamphlets), and

much was inaccessible to most people. In a networked environment, however, a great deal of the

volume is potentially accessible. As a consequence, transactions may be monitored, growth mapped

and plotted, and information traces tracked as they bounce around cyberspace. How is the volume of

information changing? To young users today cyberspace may seem huge, but it will grow

exponentially during their lifetimes. Since 1990 the size of the Internet has approximately doubled

every year. The number of hosts in 1999 is estimated to be about 63 million. By one conservative

estimate, there are more than 8 billion pages on the World Wide Web (WWW). Someone would

have to surf more than 300,000 pages a day to see it all. Although already enormous, the current

cyberspace information volume may be, 5% of the information that eventually will appear. The

number of WWW sites is doubling every 6 months. Huge stores of pictorial and video content have

not yet migrated to the WWW. If old media content such as the Dead Sea Scrolls is already being

put on the Net, it is likely that most content, existing as well as future, eventually will be there as

well. By the year 2020 more than 90% of the words, images, sounds, videos, and third-dimensional

(3D) worlds produced will be located somewhere on the Internet, and much of it will be accessible

for free or for some small fee. Because consumers also are producers of content on the Internet,

there is a relationship between the size of the user population and the volume of information. Given

all the news reports about the Internet, it is easy to forget that we are still at the very beginning of

the diffusion process. In 1999, an estimated 62 million people used the Internet. For all their activity

and enthusiasm, this is only 1% of the world‘s population. In this sea of content and networked

communicators, it appears that the Internet generation will be born into a world of information

abundance on a scale previously unknown to civilization. However, each child soon will discover

that the evil twin of information abundance is information overload. Information overload might

lead to a veritable crisis of information navigation, retrieval, and reliability. (Biocca, Frank, 2000).

----The Number of Access Points Into Cyberspace Is Expanding in Number, Density, and

Mobility

Thinking about cyberspace as an accessible information volume raises issues regarding the

development of technologies that influence when, where, and how information is accessed by young

users. Because each access point allows individuals to both produce and receive information, the

size of cyberspace is likely to increase as a function of the number of access points or ports into

cyberspace. This access point is usually an expensive PC with a modem. But the singular use of the

expensive, multipurpose PC as a port to cyberspace is changing. New access points to the WWW are

emerging to allow freer, less restrained, and easier access: Dedicated low-cost Web browser systems

including Web TV, Web-enabled game platforms (e.g., Sony), wearable and hand-held computers,

E-mail–augmented pagers, cell phones with data screens, and a variety of other specialized Internet

14 | P a g e

appliances are connecting humans to information and to each other. These active human-oriented

systems also are being joined by computers that work autonomously and are connected to the

Internet: sensors, intelligent home appliances, and other networked intelligent technologies. Thus,

the volume of data is being created by both human users and an expanding array of networked

sensors (i.e., continuously streaming cameras). If cyberspace can be thought of as a large volume,

users will be peeking at this volume through a wide variety of windows: some big, some small.

High- Internet-use households are emerging with a variety of access points to the Net: some high-

resolution systems [e.g., high-definition TV (HDTV) screens]; personal access systems (e.g.,

multiple PCs); and some low-end, WWW-enabled, mobile systems. We should expect this trend to

continue along with public access systems to the WWW and other forms of specialized portals to

cyberspace. (Biocca, Frank, 2000).

----Information Flow Is Speeding up and Expanding on an Increasingly Diverse Range of Bit

Transportation Systems

If cyberspace is like an ocean of information, the typical connection to cyberspace is little more than

a clogged straw. Users report that the slow speed is the most frustrating aspect of the Internet: It is

the most commonly reported complaint. Information just does not flow fast enough to support user

cognition or real-time social exchange. With the information space expanding and the number of

access points increasing, the most urgent telecommunication challenge has been to increase

bandwidth, the number of ones and zeros that can be transmitted per second from one place in

cyberspace to another. Major infrastructure changes are under way that are dramatically changing

the type of content and interaction that will engage the youthful user. The cable companies are

rolling out cable modems that provide1-10+ Mbps speed. Promising next-generation connectivity,

Internet 2 or one of its broadband sisters will find its way to most educational institutions and

homes. (Biocca, Frank, 2000).

This opens up the possibility for new formations of youth culture around music, homemade video

imagery, social virtual environments, political action, and various other forms of school-based,

local, or national forms of youth culture social coordination and expression.

----Trends in the Evolution of Interface Technologies

As cyberspace‘s information capacity expands and as bandwidth delivers a glut of information to the

home, the bottleneck becomes the user‘s ability to process the information. The youthful user may

suffer increasingly from information overload and an inability to find or absorb the information

sought. How can media designs increase the information processing ability of young students and

advanced information workers such as engineers, scientists, executives, and other staff? There is a

widespread belief in the computer industry that one way to increase information throughput is by

developing more natural interfaces that use more of the body‘s senses and motor systems. The

various types of virtual reality systems are just one example of this trend in interface design. These

kinds of interfaces are used most often by young users in location-based entertainment systems (e.g.,

Disney) and high-end computer games. Virtual reality systems work by immersing more of the

user‘s senses into the information environments. Information is presented intuitively not as abstract

15 | P a g e

symbols, but more as physical places and experiences. Designers tend to subscribe to a virtual

evolutionary argument for an embodied computer: Human beings have survived by working with all

of their senses, moving and searching with their bodies in the savanna and jungles of the past.

Interactions with physical places, things, and people require less training. In virtual reality,

information is presented in the way the body and mind were designed to absorb information: in three

dimensions surrounding the body of the user. How does this manifest itself technologically, in the

changing form in the interface? These technologies slightly or dramatically alter the way the

medium connects to the body. Interfaces are increasingly immersive, that is, they immerse more and

more of the user‘s senses and motor systems in mediated information. The level of sensorimotor

immersion can be defined as a combination of the degree to which the senses are immersed in media

stimuli, the degree to which the motor actions of the body are sensed by the computer, and the level

of coordination between motor actions and sensory feedback. This process of steadily engaging

more of the body of the user in mediated stimuli is sometimes referred to as the progressive

embodiment of the user. Let us consider some examples of this trend toward immersive technology.

Visual displays are getting larger and filling more of the visual field (e.g., HDTV). More senses are

being engaged by mediated stimuli [e.g., haptic (touch) feedback in games, motion platforms] (22).

The resolution of visual and auditory displays is increasing dramatically in homes and other

systems. Interfaces are increasingly being designed to be worn on the body, close to the senses (e.g.,

wearable computers). The increasing immersion of the body into the interface has important

implications for youthful users. More immersive, multisensory systems may increase users‘ sense of

being present in the virtual environment. This may support learning. There is some evidence that

increased sensorimotor interactions may increase learning for spatial information and other types of

information that cannot be easily encoded linguistically. This has implications for assisting learners

who may rely on more spatial and kinesthetic intelligence to model the world around them. Highly

embodied interfaces may increase ease of navigation, understanding of data, pattern perception,

creativity, and training efficiency. This approach to the design of new interfaces is sometimes

referred to as intelligence augmentation or intelligence amplification. This trend toward greater

embodiment in media resonates with research that indicates the important role of the body in all

forms of thought, including abstract thinking. On the darker side, there is some evidence that the

tighter coupling of the young user‘s body to the interface may contribute to some perceptual

disorders. The degree of coordination between motor actions and feedback through sensory displays

or across different sensory displays may be delayed or out of synchronization, or produce various

conflicting sensory cues. The result is simulation sickness, a type of motion sickness to which young

users may be more susceptible. There is also evidence of perceptual adaptation and other

performance-distorting aftereffects. This problem has severely inhibited some of the major game

companies from too rapidly adopting and diffusing highly immersive virtual reality technologies.

There also has been some concern about the effect of these highly immersive environments on mood

and on the intensification of effects from acting-out behaviors in highly realistic, sensory-

stimulating, and arousing environments. (Biocca, Frank, 2000).

----Trends in the Evolution of Social Virtual Environments

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Many metaphors are used to describe the Internet: as a space, a superhighway, a library, etc.

However, E-mail was the ―killer app‖ or widely adopted application that built the Internet. The

history of the Internet suggests that what attracts most people to it is not information: it is other

people. Internet services that allow like-minded people to gather and interconnect are booming. The

most social corners of the Internet are populated mostly with young users. Since the beginning of the

Internet, various environments have been created to allow people to meet each other and interact. E-

mail was one such application, but more informal synchronous communication environments have

arisen to support more conversational interaction. Perhaps the most interesting applications of this

interconnection of individuals are the so-called chat rooms. Those environments, also called MUDs

(multiuser dungeon or multiuser dimension), a cyberspace where users can take on an identity in the

form of an avatar and interact with each other. Originally, MUDs tended to be adventure games

played within enormous old castles with hidden rooms, trap doors, exotic beasts, and magical items.

Nowadays, the term is used more generically to refer to any cyberspace multiuser environment.

MUDs are also knows as 3D worlds and chat worlds. (from Webopedia) and MOOs (short for MUD,

Object Oriented, a specific implementation of a MUD) have been around for years as environments

where people interact using nothing but lines of text. The fundamental drive behind this family of

social applications is: A real-time interaction, approximating group face-to-face contact; Anonymity,

with options for self-disclosure as relationships develop; Environments that help to structure

interaction and talk, such as groups organized by topic, activity, or some other level of affinity.

(Biocca, Frank, 2000).

The latest generation of chat environments includes images and pictures that may help them seem

more like physical environments. In those virtual environments, such as World‘s Inc. and Blaxxun,

visitors are allowed to choose an avatar or the image that physically represents them in the virtual

world. Those virtual environments are increasingly social and embodied. The latest generation of

environments can support more simultaneous users ($1000) involved in increasingly complex social

behavior such as virtual gangs, real transactions, political activity, and virtual sex. The environments

also include 3D interaction that includes more of the body. In the more recent 3D networked virtual

environments, 3D avatars can walk around (instead of fly) and pick up objects for use in other rooms

and worlds. Another recent advance is that, in some worlds, rather than type feverishly, people can

talk through microphones to others in the virtual world. The interaction is more intuitive. Three-

dimensional social, audio-based environments allow people to talk, form relationships, discuss

business, play games, train, and do many of the social things they do in physical environments.

Companies are beginning to host environments to bond the user to the companies‘ products. For

example, MTV created 3D audio-enabled places in cyberspace that allowed young visitors to meet

each other and interact. (Biocca, Frank, 2000).

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Chapter 2- A Contemporary View On The Digital Media And The

Internet

BASIC COMMUNICATION TOOLS

As we know that ‗Media‘ may refer to ‗Communication‘, the tools used to store and deliver

information or data, so, the bases of communication are:

Digital Media, the electronic media used to store, receive, and transmit digitized

information.

Social Media, the media disseminated through social interaction.

Mass Media, all the means of mass communications.

Electronic Media, the communications delivered via electronic or electromechanical

energy.

Digital Media and the Internet

----The Question of Utopia

For many hundreds of years the prophetic [messianic] vision of the good society slumbered --- until

that decisive period in Western history beginning with Renaissance, when the seed of rational and

theoretical thought, transferred from Greece into the soil of Europe, began to germinate... A new

sense of strength arose, and man began to feel himself the potential master of his world. At this

point, two trends of Western civilization were joined: the prophetic version of the good society as a

goal of history and the Greek faith in reason and science. The result was that the idea of the utopia

was born again, the idea that man was capable of transforming himself, and of building a new world

peopled by a just, rational society of men, a world in which justice, love, and solidarity would be

realized. Each era --- the Renaissance, the English Revolution, the Age of Enlightenment, the

nineteenth century --- created its own utopia. (Fromm, Erich, 1960; Griscom, Amanda,1996).

The Digital Era is creating its own utopia, too, but unlike the utopias of yesterday --- which could be

nothing more than philosophical pipe dreams actualized only on the writer's page or in a work of art

--- today's digital utopia has been given a space to grow that's far bigger than a painter's canvas and

more substantive than the imagination. As of now --- and only the cornerstones have been lain --- it's

a horizontally distributed (anti-hierarchical) network of computers within which millions of people

can actually communicate and travel and make money and meet friends and buy products and argue

and pray and develop communities. The utopia that we are (perhaps inadvertently) attempting to

construct in cyberspace seems to satisfy the utopian ideals that have been hovering above Western

civilization since ancient Greece. In The Religion of Solidarity, late-nineteenth century author

Edward Bellamy (1960), conceived of the classic American utopia; his egalitarian ideal encapsulates

that of his utopian predecessors as well as that of digital utopians today:

The cardinal motive of human life is a tendency and a striving to absorb and be absorbed in or

united with other lives and all life... It is the operation of this law in great and low things, in the love

of men for women, and for each other, for the race, for nature, and for those great ideas which are

18 | P a g e

the symbols of solidarity, that has ever made up the web and woof of human passion... As

individuals we are indeed limited to a narrow spot in today, but as Universalists we inherit all time

and space. (Fromm, Erich, 1960; Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

At best, the digital medium (in terms of the Internet), will allow a sense of harmony and

interconnectivity to rise, like a phoenix from the ashes of a mighty blaze, out of the fragmented ruins

of the postmodern world.

The Internet is categorically a humanistic utopia. The radical digital utopian, George Gilder believes

that, if we assume utopia is some time away, the effusive development of digital technology means

that "In one year, if we get n closer to utopia, in the next year we will get n squared closer to

utopia... The Internet will multiply by a factor of millions the power of one person at a computer"

(Bronson, Po, 1996, p.124). The hyper textual network that is the Internet (or, more specifically, the

World Wide Web) allows one individual to journey through an entire world of information, to

inform and respond to all humans otherwise geographically displaced. Compared with the world of

the pamphleteers, limited by print media itself as well as constricted infrastructure, the possibility

for an interactive democracy of individual expression in the Digital Age is exponentially greater.

Predictions about the future size, that is, world-wide inclusiveness --- speed and function of the

Internet are futile. The same goes for writing a book about today's digital medium because by the

time the book gets copy-edited, typeset, printed, and shipped, the subject matter isn't so emerging

anymore. (Griscom, Amanda, 1996; Bronson, Po, 1996, p.124).

Bruce Sterling, in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction (1993), discusses the patulous

scope and unknowable fate of the Internet:

“The headless, anarchic, million-limbed Internet is spreading like bread mold. Any computer of

sufficient power is a potential spore for the Internet, and today, such computers sell for less than

$1000 and are in the hands of people all over the world. ARPA's network, designed to assure

control of a ravaged society after a nuclear holocaust, has been superseded by its mutant child, the

Internet, which is thoroughly out of control, and spreading exponentially through the post-ColdWar

electronic global village...The future of the Internet bids fair to be ... a multimedia global

circus!...Or so it is hoped -- and planned. The real Internet of the future may bear little resemblance

to today's plans. Planning has never had very much to do with the seething, fungal development of

the Internet. After all, today's Internet bears little resemblance to those original grim plans for

RAND's post-holocaust command grid. It's a fine and happy irony.”( Grunig, James, 1976; Sterling,

Bruce, 1993; Griscom, Amanda, 1996;).

----History

About thirty years ago, the Rand Corporation, America's foremost Cold War think-tank endeavored

to construct a post nuclear communications system that, like the Hydra of Greek Mythology, would

survive even if one of its limbs were destroyed. The Rand proposal, which went public in 1964, was

to create a communications network that had no central authority, and would be designed to operate

while in disrepair. All the nodes in the network would be equal in status to all other nodes, each

19 | P a g e

node with its own authority to originate, pass, and receive messages. The messages themselves

would be divided into packets, each packet separately addressed. Each packet would begin at some

specified source node, and end at some other specifies destination node. Each packet would wind its

way through the network on an individual basis and be passed around from node to node until it

ended up in its proper place. (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

During the '60s, RAND, MIT and UCLA researched this decentralized, imperishable, packet-

switching network idea, and in 1967 Britain's National Physical Laboratory developed the first test

network. The US followed suit in 1968 with a more ambitious project under the Pentagon's

Advanced Research Projects Agency where the nodes of the network were, relatively speaking,

high-speed computers which were good for data swapping among national research institutions. By

1969 ARPANET was comprised of four nodes (the first of which was installed at UCLA); by 1971

there were fifteen, and by 1972, thirty-seven. ARPANET was embraced as an invaluable research

tool for scientists and academics, and especially for casual interpersonal communication, which led

to the development of e-mail and mailing-lists. (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

Throughout the '70s ARPANET grew rapidly and with ease because of its decentralized structure

and the fact that it became accessible to a variety of different computers. By 1977 other networks

were linking to ARPANET by means of the newly standardized "Transmission Control Protocol"

and "Internet Protocol." TCP "converts messages into streams of packets at the source, then

reassembles them back into messages at the destination" ; IP "handles the addressing, seeing to it

that packets are routed across multiple nodes and even across multiple networks with multiple

standards" (Sterling, Bruce, 1993). This standardization allowed what was once just ARPANET to

become a "growing network of networks" wherein a group such as the military could break off and

become its own network, MILNET. In the '80s more and more commercial, academic,

governmental, and social subgroups entered the network.

Six basic Internet domains emerged, and were denoted with abbreviations for their addresses:

governmental (Gov.), military (mil), educational (edu), commercial (com), organizational (org) and

net, which served as a gateway between networks. Due to its overwhelming successes, ARPANET

surrendered to the phenomenal met network, the Internet, in 1989. Now there are hundreds of

thousands of nodes that comprise the Internet, though if it is the "world-wide encyclopedia" that

critics are calling it, it isn't yet comprehensive: few Third World countries have access, not to

mention the fact that less than half the of the America's population is on line. According to Dana

Hoffman, a researcher at Vanderbilt University and founder of Project 2000, which examines

Internet statistics, today an estimated 33 million Americans above the age of sixteen have access to

the Internet, and 22 million have used it in the last three months. On average, participants spend

about six hours a week online. With regard to gender, Internet users are roughly 85 to 90 percent

male and 15 to 10 percent female. For now, statistics show that democracy is limited, but provided

that computers become more intellectually and economically accessible, we've got the means to

create a global village. (Grunig, James, 1976; Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

----Defining the World Wide Web

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Strictly speaking, the Web the subset of the Internet (separate and apart from, for instance, other

informational services such as bulletin board systems, mailing lists, and UseNet newsgroups) which

most effectively employs the hyper textual format to create a global network of information. The

Web was designed by a team of programmers at CERN, a physics research lab in Geneva. Although

originally created to help scientists share information, it has grown to encompass nearly the whole

range of information available on the Internet --- everything from bird-watching to beer-guzzling to

political pontification. Accessing a multimedia hypertext document on the World Wide Web

requires a graphical web browser, which controls retrieval and display. Netscape, formerly Mosaic,

is the most popular web browser, as it is equipped to access two- and three-dimensional graphics as

well as sound and video clips. (Landow, George P, 1992; Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

The World Wide Web is an enormous compendium of individual web sites --- the trophies of

individual expression comparable to the seventeenth century pamphlet. Web site owners can share

whatever they like ---their poetry, their products, their political beliefs, their photo albums --- to

millions of would-be strangers. What's more, they can create links between their web sites and

others which they find particularly insightful --- or particularly offensive, for that matter --- thereby

sharing the power of authorship with the droves of others who are commenting on similar or related

topics. (Landow, George P, 1992; Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

Virtually anyone with the time and interest and a meager income can express himself on the Web.

As with the pamphleteers, invested interest is the key, as most participants stand to make no

financial profit off of their site unless they are advertising. Setting up a web site requires little

money and even less expertise. One Apple Macintosh advertisement reads: "Looking for a

compelling reason to set up an Internet site? How about the fact that you don't have to be a

propellerhead anymore to actually do it?" Anyone can buy user-friendly software right off the shelf,

but most owners broadcast their sites through a server with a high-speed Internet connection (a T-1

line) which can transmit an enormous amount of information and keep the site open to multiple

visitors at all times. Web site owners pay service providers monthly according to the amount of

memory their site requires --- usually anywhere from $20 to $100. Fees are steadily decreasing as

competition increases among service providers, and now many offer package deals which include

unlimited Internet access and a web page (with about two megs of memory) for around $25 a month.

(Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

In an interview, Larry Magott, columnist for the LA Times, explained that the lasting legacy of the

Internet comes down to two fundamental innovational concepts: egalitarian openness, which means

anyone can connect to the net as sure as they can connect to the phone system, and flat pricing,

which means that a broadcaster pays according to the bandwidth (the amount of data, sound, or

video that can be sent through a wire) that his site requires, not according to the number or distance

of the places he chooses to visit, or the length of time he chooses to stay. "Together," he said, "these

innovations provide a model where every home becomes a broadcast studio, every person becomes a

publisher, and this is what guarantees not only openness but profound social changes." (Griscom,

Amanda, 1996).

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----Navigating cyberspace

On the one hand, the hierarchical distribution of information that limited the scope of print culture

has been disrupted. Randall Davis, professor of computer science associate director of the artificial

intelligence lab at MIT, explained in an interview that "publishers and syndicates can worry because

it is now possible for authors and poets and artists and other information providers to bypass the

traditional distribution infrastructure which is incredibly cumbersome, and which favors the few. We

are witnessing the shift from oligarchy to meritocracy." The hierarchical system only allows a small

number of people to get their information out and actually make some money out of it. The Internet,

he argues, turns everyone into a private publisher, a distributor, a warehouse. (Griscom, Amanda,

1996).

On the other hand, while we celebrate this free flow of information, we don't want to get lost in the

chaos. This literary renaissance in which the masses can distribute their information without having

to be chosen or favored by the powers that be is theoretically appealing, but it can be utterly

overwhelming to try to navigate. By the very nature of the distributed network, no web site is any

less accessible than another --- that is, the web sites of celebrities or political giants can exercise no

preeminence over those of ordinary people. We may enjoy the concept of having the world's

information at the tips of our fingers, but actually absorbing it --- finding the sites that particularly

interests us --- is another matter altogether. Search engines such as Yahoo may limit our quest for

the ultimate destination to several thousand entries, but we still remain aimless. (Griscom, Amanda,

1996).

We do well to remember that, although all web sites are equally accessible in terms of their ability to

be called up on the computer screen, they are unequal in terms of notoriety. The popularity of web

sites can be assessed by number of hits-per-month, and the dominant institutions of culture today,

such as magazines, popularize those statistics inevitably and influence the meanderings of net

wanderers. Again, we are in the beginning stages of all this. Companies with the financial backing to

advertise gain the upper hand with regard to notoriety over private web site owners who can just pay

their online rent. The real way to gain power in the distributed hypertext network is to make sure

that a lot of links lead to one's web site. The popular notion about cyberspace is that it is infinite and

unbounded. But it, too is limited by the amount of human attention available in it. (Dyson, Esther,

1995). Does a place in cyberspace exist if no one visits it? What makes any kind of real estate

valuable? Esther Dyson, in her oft-quoted Release 1.0 article, examines the development of major

hubs in the Internet's infrastructure, and the value of the content they produce:

The initial appeal of real estate may be proximity to other space --- it's easy to find on your way

somewhere else. The net equivalent (more or less) is a listing in someone's guide, for example, a

pointer in a web page, or highlighted availability through a service such as CompuServe or Poland

Online. The virtual space near any particular location is limited --- just like the retail space along

Fifth Avenue in New York, Bond Street in London, or Nevsky Prospect in St. Petersburg. There are

just so many services to highlight and point to a particular location. (Dyson, Esther, 1995)

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But you can build your land up so that more people want to pass through it. You can add restaurants

and tony shops... The question of what happens to intellectual property on the net can be summed up

like this: value shifts from the transformation of bits rather than bits themselves, to services, to the

selection of content, to the presence of other people, and to the assurance of authenticity --- reliable

information about the sources of bits and their future flows. In short, intellectual assets and property

depreciate while intellectual processes and services appreciate. (Dyson, Esther, 1995, p.139-41).

On the Net, content can draw people in, and people draw more people: they exist as content that no

one owns, but content that is sold to other members of the market. Content and people (like goods)

that get visibility in favorable locations gain in popularity, and can thereafter be used in other

locations to raise value elsewhere. The gold rush for popularity among web sites on the Net to which

Dyson refers seems to belie the basic principles of Democracy. But a profound shift is taking place

nevertheless: value lies in the ancillary market; success lies in favorable relationships with --- links

to --- other web sites. The insular world of print is being forced into a state of interactivity.

(Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

The question remains: Does a place in Cyberspace exist if no one visits it? What good will

democratized literary expression do if the voices are never heard? We must resign to the fact that we

need to rely on some authority to separate the wheat from the chaff, as it were. Randall Davis

comments:

We need to have some sense of all of the information widely available, but there remains still a

necessity for editing, for putting faith in a credible source, and I think we are already beginning to

see the same sorts of structures build up in the Internet world which are, in effect, critics and people

who can vouch for or against the various information sources...anyone with a laser printer or an ink

jet printer can pass out their leaflets on street corners, but why do millions of people read Time

magazine and only an handful of people read those leaflets? (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

Davis alludes to the fact that for now, we rely on filtering systems, and in today's world that means

relying on brand names. So we find major media conglomerates jockeying for a position , trying to

create a brand name, trying to establish their preeminence as erudite guides, quality information

providers. Does this mean that, just as the traditional systems of hierarchy co-opted the anarchic

expression of the pamphleteers, cyberspace will find itself fragmented into a series of information

dictators? (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

No, the mere fact that we cannot, by our very humanness, absorb (indeed we may even be expected

to read) an entire world of information, and that we must therefore prioritize among the planetary

scope of possibilities in order to suit our interests, does not doom us to a future of rigid hierarchy. In

the first place, the hyper textual format itself means that we will encounter, on our journey to

uncover whatever information we are in pursuit of, far more ancillary knowledge than we have ever

had access to. If all goes well, the hyper textual format will encourage a prevailing suspicion about

hierarchical trends in culture and the immutability of meaning. (Landow, George P, 1992; Griscom,

Amanda, 1996).

----Politics and Digital Media

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And to some extent we need to execute control to reserve the democracy that might otherwise

become polluted if left to its own defenses. Here enters American politics. Is government outdated

in cyberspace? No, not entirely, but the possibilities of centralized control are drastically diminished.

What will happen to monopolies? Will or, can the market throws them off? As yet, no definitive

answers to these questions exist.

The overwhelming ethos of the Internet is, theoretically speaking, libertarian. We cannot jump to

conclusion that government is or will be --- or even should be --- uninvolved. Some radical

libertarians such as George Gilder demand that "an information superhighway cannot be built under

a canopy of federal tariffs, price controls, [public policy] mandates, and allocated markets" (Kline,

and Burstein,1996, p.88). Some less optimistic --- and, I would argue, more realistic --- critics say

"The bigger and more unpredictable the industrial tiger, the more cautious Washington ought to be

in poking it with the stick of national policy" (Kline, Davis, 1996, p.90).

On the one hand, the free market has shown itself to be the most effective force in society for

creating new wealth and spreading that wealth relatively broadly among the population.

Governments may pontificate about desirable social goals, but business has a much better track

record in turning innovative technology such as communications network into a material force that

transforms millions of lives for the better. On the other hand, while tomorrow's decentralized,

networked economy offers great potential for letting the creative forces of the market tackle some of

the social tasks previously managed by government, historical experience suggests that society's best

interests (i.e. anti-monopolist legislation, environmental issues, etc... ) will probably still require

governmental intervention---even if it is vastly downsized. "The law of supply and demand has

never by itself prevented businesses from skunking the consumer...." (Kline, Davis, 1996, p.92).

Newt Gingrich, the most digital-minded politician out there, perhaps, and his advisors Alvin and

Heidi Toffler are, of course, leaning toward the libertarian approach. Says Newt's spokesperson

(from his 'think tank') "He believes in a strong culture underlying the free market. But he does not

believe it is the government's job, beyond the most basic levels of right and wrong, to be the moral

policeman." Gary Chapman, in his article in FEED online magazine, "The Exxon Divide," discusses

the divisive effect the Internet has had on right-wing solidarity. To another ilk of right-wingers

swayed by radically distorted media sensations, "the Internet has become the world's filthiest

pipeline of hard-core pornography and pedophilic seduction." The extent to which the Government

assumes control in censoring information on the Net is a much disputed topic. I shall examine the

recently enacted telecommunications bill as a reflection of where we stand today in terms of

governmental control of commerce and free speech in cyberspace. (Griscom, Amanda, 1996)

On February 8, 1996 President Bill Clinton claimed that with a strokes of his pens "our laws will

catch up with the future." In the immutable fountain -pen ink used by our forefathers, and in the

colorless blood of our future (bits of light as ephemeral as they are duplicable widely distributable,

issued forth from an electronic pen), he signed into both reality and virtual reality a

telecommunications bill which has been bouncing around congress for years and has undergone

radical revisions. As a result---even taking the modifications into account---corporate moguls are

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toasting him with the finest crystal, and cyber rights activists are shaking their fists. (Griscom,

Amanda, 1996).

Basically this bill means that our government is investing a whole lot of faith in the free market, and

not so much in free speech. The media industry is now substantially deregulated and plutocratic

America will---if only temporarily---reach vertiginous heights. In a newly expanded, free-for-all

market, the country's biggest telephone and media companies are scrambling to merge together and

dip into each other's markets. Cable companies, for instance, are thrilled about infiltrating the local

phone business. They are now allowed to provide on-line access which means expanding the

capacity of bandwidth about five hundred percent. But, in the absence of anti-trust legislation, the

mighty monopolies will increase their purview. Within moments of the bill's passage, chatter

abounded regarding a potential merger between NYNEX and Bell Atlantic and an alliance between

the long-hostile giants AT&T and MCI. The NYNEX/Bell merger could mean that the consolidated

powers will control phone lines from Virginia clear up to Maine. As reporter John Keller (1996)

explains in a recent Wall Street Journal article (1996), AT&T and MCI claim that their alliance may

lead to an unprecedentedly extensive network of phone lines which "could be used by any company

providing local service... [MCI executive Gerald Taylor says] 'The opportunity here is to have a

carrier's carrier... that other carriers could buy from.'"(Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

In the best of all worlds, these monopolistic mergers will eventually lead to greater competition

among a larger number of small business---and, we hope, decreased prices and far wider choice for

the average consumer. But as far as I can tell, the executives of these gargantuan companies are only

securing their positions at the tippy-top of the socio-political hierarchy---perched as if Greek gods in

Olympus, fiddling at will with their small-company-pawns on the chess board of international

economics. (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

However, in his February 8 article, "Communications Bill Signed and Battles Begin Anew,"

Edmund Andrews admitted that "even some consumer activists who had warned that the new law

would raise prices for consumers and lead to a new era of media conglomerates said the final bill

had been moderated by pressures from Mr. Gore and Senate Democrats and might actually be good

for ordinary people." (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

What concerns just about everybody in the community of cyberspace is a provision that makes it a

crime to publish "indecent" or "patently offensive" material anywhere on the Internet in reach of

children younger than 18. The "indecent" material refers specifically to pornography, Œbad

language,' and information about abortion (the Justice Department, however, assured that the latter

was unconstitutional and would never be enforced). Violators face a $250,000 fine and a two-year

prison term. These provisions, to be sure, are already facing lawsuits from such organizations as The

American Civil Liberties Union. The bill also requires television-makers to build into their sets

devices called V chips that will allow parents to keep violent and sexually oriented programs out of

their children's reach. This, too, faces a court fight. (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

Netizens expressed their defiance not through riots but through written ranting and blackened

screens. Within minutes of the law's signing, the backgrounds of Internet home pages started turning

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black through the efforts of this newly minted breed of digital-age dissenters. We can bet that a

strong fight in support of the First and Fourth Amendment rights in cyberspace will continue as long

as censoring persists. (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

But according to Michael Joyce, the free flow of information cannot truly exists. Refer to the

interview included in the Appendix for the details of his argument. The hope lies in hypertext,

although it's having a real time of it gaining on the obstinate heels of print technology. In

a FEED article, "Written on the Web," Carolyn Guyer, a writer of hypertext fiction since the late

80s, discusses the hypertextual format of the web:

Our postmodern era is particularly concerned with multiplicity, with equalized and decentralized

authority, which is actually reflected in the decentralized structure of the Web itself. Yet in reading

through many of the requirements people have for inclusion on literature and hypertext lists, or for

participation in collaborative web projects, I found that there is much retrograde insistence on

author-provided continuity of narrative , and little insistence given to reader-provided coherence. In

truth, the urgency for print-style continuity belies every web traveler's experience in this

environment, and reveals the widespread cultural assumption that voice and individuality are had

through the control of other voices. Of course that doesn't even touch on what constitutes narrative

or story...Collaborative fictions generally deserve much more attention and effort, and though so far

I've only seen a little here I really like, web hypertext may be where that can finally happen. (Guyer,

Carolyn, n.d; Griscom, Amanda, 1996)

Reading and writing these works might even be perceived as similar to the experience of web travel:

the propensity to move, make a line, fill in a gap, gather myriad views which we blend to a tensional

event held by its own momentum. Hypertext proceeds from the notion that style and function, form

and content, are intertwined, and the processes of reading and analysis become simultaneous. But

mainstream visionaries such as Bill Gates (a corporate mogul in this case) see the linear narrative as

indefatigable and cannot conceive of hypertext supplanting the traditional story-line. The following

is an excerpt from Gates' best-selling book, The Road Ahead(1995):

Among all the types of paper documents, narrative fiction is one of the few that will not benefit from

electronic organization. Almost every reference book has an index, but novels don't because there is

no need to be able to look something up in a novel. Novels are linear. Likewise, we'll continue to

watch most movies from start to finish. This isn't a technological judgment---it's an artistic one:

Their linearity is intrinsic to the storytelling process. (Gates, Bill, 1995).

The success of CD-ROM games has encouraged authors to begin to create interactive novels and

movies in which they introduce the characters and the general outline of the plot, then the

reader/player makes decisions that change the outcome of the story. No one suggests that every book

or movies should allow the reader or viewer to influence its outcome. A good story that makes you

just want to sit there for a few hours and enjoy it is wonderful entertainment. We don't want to

choose an ending for The Great Gatsby or "La Dolce Vita." F. Scott Fitzgerald and Frederico Fellini

have done that for us. (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

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But in order for the message of the hypertext medium to reach its full volubility, the artistic world --

-including, and mainly literature --- must not remain invulnerable to the hyper textual format.

If print produced the linear, rational man, what is the fate of hypertext man? The mosaic

arrangement of the medium itself and the process of revealing information profoundly shape our

ways of thinking and feeling. The Internet links millions of people in new spaces that are

challenging the way we think and the way we form our communities. Does this mean we are moving

from a modernist culture of calculation to a postmodernist culture of simulation. "Computer screens

are the new location for our fantasies, both erotic and intellectual. We are using life on computer

screens to become comfortable with new ways of thinking about evolution, relationships, sexuality,

politics, and identity." (Turkle, Sherry, 1996, p.149; Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

----The Cybernetic Community

The utopic feeling of "all-at-oneness" which hypertext has the capacity to promote can be at once

unifying and alienating. With the publication of his book on the subject in 1993, Howard Rheingold

put the term "virtual community" on the map. His book focused on one of the chief benefits of the

online conferencing systems --- they can restore a sense of community to a society that's been

feeling alienated and alienated and disempowered by its lack. These types of distributed

communities may be largely responsible for preserving democracy on the Internet. Within exclusive,

heterogeneous virtual communities members continually inform and challenge each other in general,

perpetuating a commitment to the interchange of ideas and prevent ideological tyranny. (Godwin,

Mike, 1995; Griscom, Amanda,1996)

Mike Godwin, an outspoken member of the Electronic Frontier Foundation, an organization

spearheaded by John Perry Barlow which is dedicated to preserving the First and Fourth

Amendment rights within cyberspace, suggests the following guidelines for virtual community

development, which he contends, we should start actively developing now He based these

parameters on his own virtual community, WELL (Whole Earth 'Lectronic Link):

1- Use software that promotes good discussions (i.e. that makes receiving and retrieving postings--

even archival--simple.

2- Don‟t impose length limitations on postings, (as some servers do to 25 lines).

3- Frontload system with talkative, diverse people. Decrease online charges for a group of people

who are committed and proficient at facilitating discussions--incendiators, not monitors.

4- Let users resolve own disputes.

5- Allow institutional-size memory so that there will be no problem preserving archives.

6- Promote continuity--re. Membership treatment and long-term members

7- Be host to particular interest group.

8- Provide places for children

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9-Confront members of the community with crisis for which, together, they will need to arrive at a

solution in the democratic way. (Godwin, Mike, 1995, p.98).

Virtual communities need to rely on heterogeneity to create some state of overall equilibrium in a

system of checks and balances. But heterogeneity is by choice --- to create a dynamic forum of

greater intellectual activity --- a place where everyone who loves a challenge can practice her

powers of persuasion in a effort to prove herself or sway others, and maybe even modify her own

stance. But heterogeneity is not meant to cause destructive strife. The beauty of it is: when things

become unpleasant in one section of the Internet, it is remarkably easy to move some place different

in the service of peace. Therefore, a "live and let live" attitude accompanies the absence of police or

litigious regulation. (Godwin, Mike, 1995, p.98; Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

----The future of the Net

Sven Birkerts, a modern-day Luddite, is feeling uneasy about all this rapid cultural change. He longs

for the slow elegance of print culture. So much so, in fact, that the cover of his new book, The

Gutenberg Elegies, features a fuzzy caramel-colored snapshot of a naturally-lit library which houses

the endangered species of digital modernity: a leather armchair draped with an afghan, droopy lace

curtains, and shelves of softened leather hard-backs coveting thick yellowed pages and the tidy,

immutable thoughts of yesterday's literary prophets.

Birkerts is terrified that his warm dusty paradise is being ransacked, and the remaining rubble is

merely forgotten or misunderstood in a world distracted by garish, pulsing iconography. He calls

this digital insurgent the "devil," though he read his Marlowe and knows all about Faustus --- and he

absolutely refuses to sell his soul. (Birkerts, Sven, 1994).

In the last pages of the Gutenberg Elegies Birkerts warns:

The devil no longer moves around on cloven hooves, reeking of brimstone... he is an affable,

efficient fellow. He claims to want to help us all along to a brighter, easier future, and his sales

pitch is very smooth. I was, as the old song goes, almost persuaded. I saw what it could be like, our

toil and misery replaced by a vivid, pleasant dream. Fingers tap keys, oceans of fact and sensation

get downloaded, are dissolved through the central nervous system. Bottomless wells of data are

accessed and manipulated, everything flowing at circuit speed. Gone the rock in the field, the broken

hoe, the grueling distances. 'History,' said Stephen Dedalus, 'is a nightmare from which I am trying

to awaken.' This may be the awakening, but it feels curiously like the fantasies that circulate through

our sleep. From deep in the heart I hear a voice that says 'Refuse it' (Birkerts, Sven, 1994, p.229).

Birkerts' potent paranoia (which has been printed not only in his book, but in the pages of major

periodicals) has secured him notoriety as a 'modern-day Luddite.' The term 'Luddite' this is

nowadays synonymous with ‗counterrevolutionary or used to describe a person opposed to

technological growth has wandered from its original denotation. The nineteenth-century Luddites

were violent machine breakers angry manual laborers whose livelihoods were being replaced by the

efficient and inexpensive machines of the Industrial Revolution. (Birkerts, Sven, 1994; Griscom,

Amanda, 1996).

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The first Luddites appeared in 1811 in Nottingham, England when knitters began to demolish

machines that made shoddy stockings at prices which undercut skilled craftsmen. Their name came

from Ned Ludd, nicknamed 'King Ludd,' who is said to have smashed two stocking frames. The

movement exploded among bands of workers around the country who stormed cotton and wool

mills. Though the rebellion had little to no organization, and the British government restored order

with a mere waive of its wand, the Luddites were for a time considered a serious threat. And they

turned out to be real trend-setters. (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

McLuhan said that resistance is futile. In a Wired article, Gary Wolf ordained McLuhan a saint.

With regard to McLuhan's take on Luddism, Wolf explains: "McLuhan believed that the message of

electronic media brought dangerous news for humanity; it brought news of the end of humanity as it

has known itself in the 3000 years since the invention of the phonetic alphabet. The literate-

mechanical interlude between two great organic periods of culture is coming to an end as we watch

and as we listen. 'On a moving highway, the vehicle that backs up is accelerating in relation to the

highway situation.' [McLuhan] wrote. 'Such would be the ironical status of the cultural reactionary.

When the trend is one way, his resistance insures a greater speed of change'" Gary, Wolf, 1996,

p.129).

Sven Birkerts mourns with elegance. His appreciation of the printed text is understandably romantic.

Few of us wish to witness the suffocation and demise of our best friend, the book, and Birkerts is

persuasive in his adulation. As an adversary of the Digital Age, however, Birkerts is weak. Indeed

he is educated in literature, but he has no proficiency in computers whatever --- and therefore no

access to the abundant amenities of the Digital Revolution. His resistance, in the end, is untenable.

(Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

But even cyber - enthusiasts fear for the future of the digital medium. Media critic John Katz,

condemner of Luddites, himself, admitted in an interview: "we have a lot to fear. Mostly, a profound

class division between the technological elite and the culturally illiterate." Michael Joyce

expounded: "I fear it as intensely as I champion it. I fear any claim for communication, for

universality, for possibility, for a future whose immanence undermines the present meaning we

make and remake among us." (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

----Conclusion

All media, according to anthropologist Edmund Carter, are new languages. Each codifies reality

differently; each conceals a unique metaphysics. Writing, for example, didn't record oral language, it

was a new language which encouraged an analytical mode of thinking with an emphasis on lineality.

Subject became distinct from verb, adjective from noun, thus separating actor from action, essence

from form. (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

Where preliterate man imposed form diffidently, temporarily --- for such transitory forms lived but

temporarily on the tip of his tongue, in the living situation --- the printed word was inflexible,

permanent in touch with eternity: it embalmed truth for posterity. (Griscom, Amanda, 1996). The

embalming process froze language, eliminated the art of ambiguity, made puns the lowest form of

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wit, and destroyed word linkages. The word became a static symbol, applicable to and separate from

that which it symbolized. It now belonged to the objective world. It could be seen... The word

became a neutral symbol, no longer an inextricable part of the creative process. (Griscom, Amanda,

1996).

Gutenberg completed the process. The manuscript page with pictures, colors, correlation between

symbol and space, gave way to uniform type, the black and white page, read silently, alone. The

format of the book favored lineal expression, for the argument ran from cover to cover, subject to

verb to object, sentence to sentence, paragraph to paragraph, chapter to chapter, carefully structured

from beginning to end, with value embedded in the climax. This was not true of great poetry and

drama, but it was true of most books... Events were arranged chronologically and hence, it was

assumed, casually; relationship, not being, was valued. The author became an authority; his data

were serious, that is, serially organized. Such data, if sequentially ordered and printed, conveyed

value and truth; arranged any other way, they were suspect. (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

Ted Nelson's invention of the new language, hypertext, in the 1960s disrupted the sequence of data

and thereby disrupted the configuration of truth. Truth is embodied within the process of revelation

in a hyper textual network: the fixity of print has been diffused into digital ephemera which gain

substance and meaning only when a reader chooses to edify them with light. Hypertext creates a

palimpsest of layered meaning wherein hegemonic authority defers to multilinker relativism. For

McLuhan and other cyber enthusiasts, this necessarily tolerant structuration of knowledge

approaches a state of spiritual nirvana more closely than any other medium to date. (Griscom,

Amanda, 1996).

The paradigmatic shift from print (linear) to digital (hyper textual) culture has not yet occurred and

we cannot, according to Thomas Kuhn, accurately predict its occurrence. The splendid anarchy

which a hyper textual structure such as the Internet has the capacity to accommodate cannot as yet

pervade the political and ideological configuration of our culture. In its beginning stages, the impact

of digital media is certainly widespread, but not even close to universal. Only a fraction of America

--- much less, the rest of the world --- can access and participate in the hyper textual medium,

though its ubiquity increases exponentially every day. For now, we continue to emulate the linear

modes of thinking and learning on which Western civilization has long been predicated. These

habits become less oppressive as we become more aware that they are merely learned. Though we

cannot expect to witness in our lifetimes a full-fledged paradigmatic shift from print- to digitally

constructed culture, we are equipped to dedicate ourselves to the first stages of repositioning --- but

not nullifying --- the authority of print media. We shall challenge the fixity of things and protect the

space in which readers become authors, consumers become producers, and meaning lies in the

process by which it is revealed. (Griscom, Amanda, 1996).

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Chapter 3- A Contemporary View On The Social Media

Social media has become an integral part of modern society. There are general social networks with

user bases larger than the population of most countries. There are niche sites for virtually every

special interest out there. There are sites to share photos, videos, status updates, sites for meeting

new people and sites to connect with old friends. It seems there are social solutions to just about

every need.

Recent years have seen a transformation in the type of content available on the web. During the first

decade of the web‘s prominence—from the early 1990s onwards—most online content resembled

traditional published material: the majority of web users were consumers of content, created by a

relatively small amount of publishers. From the early 2000s, user-generated content has become

increasingly popular on the web: more and more users participate in content creation, rather than just

consumption. Popular user generated content (or social media) domains include blogs and web

forums, social bookmarking sites, photo and video sharing communities, as well as social

networking platforms such as Facebook and MySpace, which offers a combination of all of these

with an emphasis on the relationships among the users of the community. (Castillo, et al., n.d)

Community-driven question/answering portals are a particular form of user-generated content that is

gaining a large audience in recent years. These portals, in which users answer questions posed by

other users, provide an alternative channel for obtaining information on the web: rather than

browsing results of search engines, users present detailed information need, and get direct responses

authored by humans. In some markets, this information seeking behavior is dominating over

traditional web search. (Castillo, et al., n.d)

An important difference between user-generated content and traditional content that is

particularly significant for knowledge-based media such as question/answering portals is the

variance in the quality of the content. As Anderson describes, in traditional publishing mediated

by a publisher—the typical range of quality is substantially narrower than in niche, unmediated

markets. The main challenge posed by content in social media sites is the fact that the

distribution of quality has high variance: from very high-quality items to low-quality, sometimes

abusive content. This makes the tasks of filtering and ranking in such systems more complex

than in other domains. However, for information-retrieval tasks, social media systems present

inherent advantages over traditional collections of documents: their rich structure offers more

available data than in other domains. In addition to document content and link structure, social

media exhibit a wide variety of user-to-document

relation types and user-to-user interactions. (Castillo, et al., n.d)

Social media has exploded as a category of online discourse where people create content, share

it, bookmark it and network at a prodigious rate. Examples include Facebook, MySpace, Digg,

Twitter and JISC list serves on the academic side. Because of its ease of use, speed and reach,

social media is fast changing the public discourse in society and setting trends and agendas in

topics that range from the environment and politics to technology and the entertainment industry.

Since social media can also be construed as a form of collective wisdom, we decided to

investigate its power at predicting real-world outcomes. Surprisingly, we discovered that the

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chatter of a community can indeed be used to make quantitative predictions that outperform

those of artificial markets. These information markets generally involve the trading of state-

contingent securities, and if large enough and properly designed, they are usually more accurate

than other techniques for extracting diffuse information, such as surveys and opinions polls.

Specifically, the prices in these markets have been shown to have strong correlations with

observed outcome frequencies, and thus are good indicators of future outcomes. (Asur, Sitaram,

2010; Huberman, Bernardo A, 2010)

In the case of social media, the enormity and high variance of the information that propagates

through large user communities presents an interesting opportunity for harnessing that data into a

form that allows for specific predictions about particular outcomes, without having to institute

market mechanisms. One can also build models to aggregate the opinions of the collective

population and gain useful insights into their behavior, while predicting future trends. Moreover,

gathering information on how people converse regarding particular products can be helpful when

designing marketing and advertising campaigns. (Huberman, Bernardo A, et al., 2006).

Although Twitter has been very popular as a web service, there has not been considerable

published research on it. Huberman and others studied the social interactions on Twitter to reveal

that the driving process for usage is a sparse hidden network underlying the friends and

followers, while most of the links represent meaningless interactions. Java, et al. investigated

community structure and isolated different types of user intentions on Twitter. Jansen and others

have examined Twitter as a mechanism for word-of-mouth advertising, and considered particular

brands and products while examining the structure of the postings and the change in sentiments.

However the authors do not perform any analysis on the predictive aspect of Twitter. There has

been some prior work on analyzing the correlation between blog and review mentions and

performance. Gruhl and others showed how to generate automated queries for mining blogs in

order to predict spikes in book sales. And while there has been research on predicting movie

sales, almost all of them have used meta-data information on the movies themselves to perform

the forecasting, such as the movies genre, MPAA rating, running time, release date, the number

of screens on which the movie debuted, and the presence of particular actors or actresses in the

cast. Joshi and others use linear regression from text and metadata features to predict earnings for

movies. Sharda and Delen have treated the prediction problem as a classification problem and

used neural networks to classify movies into categories ranging from ‘flop‘ to ‘blockbuster‘.

Apart from the fact that they are predicting ranges over actual numbers, the best accuracy that

their model can achieve is fairly low. Zhang and Skiena have used a news aggregation model

along with IMDB data to predict movie box-office numbers. We have shown how our model can

generate better results when compared to their method. (Huberman, Bernardo A, et al., 2006).

----Twitter2

Launched on July 13, 2006, Twitter 2 is an extremely popular online micro-blogging service. It

has a very large user base, consisting of several millions of users (23 million, unique users in

Jan3). It can be considered a directed social network, where each user has a set of subscribers

known as followers. Each user submits periodic status updates, known as tweets, that consist of

short messages of maximum size 140 characters. These updates typically consist of personal

information about the users, news or links to content such as images, video and articles. The

2 http://www.twitter.com

3 http://blog.compete.com/2010/02/24/compete-ranks-top-sites-for-january-

2010/

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posts made by a user are displayed on the user‘s profile page, as well as shown to his/her

followers. It is also possible to send a direct message to another user. Such messages are

preceded by @userid indicating the intended destination. A retweet is a post originally made by

one user that is forwarded by another user. These retweets are a popular means of propagating

interesting posts and links through the Twitter community. Twitter has attracted lots of attention

from corporations for the immense potential it provides for viral marketing. Due to its huge

reach, Twitter is increasingly used by news organizations to filter news updates through the

community. A number of businesses and organizations are using Twitter or similar micro-

blogging services to advertise products and disseminate information to stakeholders. (Huberman,

Bernardo A, et al., 2006).

----Dataset Characteristics

The dataset that we used was obtained by crawling hourly feed data from Twitter.com. To ensure

that we obtained all tweets referring to a movie, we used keywords present in the movie title as

search arguments. We extracted tweets over frequent intervals using the Twitter Search Api4 ,

thereby ensuring we had the timestamp, author and tweet text for our analysis. We extracted 2.89

million tweets referring to 24 different movies released over a period of three months. Movies

are typically released on Fridays, with the exception of a few which are released on Wednesday.

Since an average of 2 new movies is released each week, we collected data over a time period of

3 months from November to February to have sufficient data to measure predictive behavior. For

consistency, we only considered the movies released on a Friday and only those in wide release.

For movies that were initially in limited release, we began collecting data from the time it

became wide. For each movie, we define the critical period as the time from the week before it is

released, when the promotional campaigns are in full swing, to two weeks after release, when its

initial popularity fades and opinions from people have been disseminated. (Huberman, Bernardo

A, et al., 2006).

----The specter of Social Media

As of January 2009, the online social networking application Facebook registered more than 175

million active users. To put that number in perspective, this is only slightly less than the

population of Brazil (190 million) and over twice the population of Germany (80 million)! At the

same time, every minute, 10 hours of content were uploaded to the video sharing platform

YouTube. And, the image hosting site Flickr provided access to over 3 billion photographs,

making the world-famous Louvre Museum‘s collection of 300,000 objects seem tiny in

comparison. According to Forrester Research, 75% of Internet surfers used ‗‗Social Media‘‘ in

the second quarter of 2008 by joining social networks, reading blogs, or contributing reviews to

shopping sites; this represents a significant rise from 56% in 2007. The growth is not limited to

teenagers, either; members of Generation X, now 35-44 years old, increasingly populate the

ranks of joiners, spectators, and critics. It is therefore reasonable to say that Social Media

represent a revolutionary new trend that should be of interest to companies operating in online

space or any space, for that matter. Yet, not overly many firms seem to act comfortably in a

world where consumers can speak so freely with each other and businesses have increasingly

less control over the information available about them in cyberspace. (Kaplan, A. M., &

Haenlein, M., 2009a)

4 http://search.twitter.com/api/

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Today, if an Internet user types the name of any leading brand into the Google search, what

comes up among the top five results typically includes not only the corporate webpage, but also

the corresponding entry in the online encyclopedia Wikipedia. Here, for example, customers can

read that the 2007 model of Hasbro‘s Easy-Bake Oven may lead to serious burns on children‘s

hands and fingers due to a poorly-designed oven door, and that the Firestone Tire and Rubber

Company has been accused of using child labor in its Liberian rubber factory. Historically,

companies were able to control the information available about them through strategically placed

press announcements and good public relations managers. Today, however, firms have been

increasingly relegated to the sidelines as mere observers, having neither the knowledge nor the

chance or, sometimes, even the right to alter publicly posted comments provided by their

customers. (Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M., 2009a)

Wikipedia, for example, expressly forbids the participation of firms in its online community.

Such an evolution may not be surprising. After all, the Internet started out as nothing more than a

giant Bulletin Board System (BBS) that allowed users to exchange software, data, messages, and

news with each other. The late 1990s saw a popularity surge in homepages, whereby the Average

Joe could share information about his private life; today‘s equivalent would be the weblog, or

blog. The era of corporate web pages and e-commerce started relatively recently with the launch

of Amazon and eBay in 1995, and got a right ticking-off only 6 years later when the dot-com

bubble burst in 2001. The current trend toward Social Media can therefore be seen as an

evolution back to the Internet‘s roots, since it retransforms the World Wide Web to what it was

initially created for: a platform to facilitate information exchange between users. But does that

mean that Social Media is just old wine in new bottles? Probably not! As we will delve into

further, the technical advances that have been made over the past 20 years now enable a form of

virtual content sharing that is fundamentally different from, and more powerful than, the BBS of

the late 1970s. (Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M., 2009a)

Precursors to Social Media

----Usernets

Usenet systems were first conceived of in 1979 by Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis. UseNet‘s let

users post articles or posts (referred to as ―news‖) to newsgroups. UseNet‘s had no centralized

server or dedicated administrator, setting them apart from most BBSs and forums. UseNet‘s are

mostly responsible for the development of newsreader clients, which are the precursor to RSS

feed readers so commonly used to follow blogs and news sites today. Group sites such as Google

Groups and Yahoo! Groups use many of the conventions established by the original UseNet

systems. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

----BBSs (Bulletin Board Systems) The first BBSs came online in the late 70s. Originally these were primarily hosted on personal

computers and users had to dial in through the host computer‘s modem. Only one person at a

time could gain access to the BBS. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

FIG 1

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5

While there were legitimate BBSs, most were at least somewhat involved in illicit, illegal, or

other shady practices. Adult material, virus code, information and instructions for hacking and

phreaking (phone hacking), and materials like The Anarchist‘s Cookbook were commonly

hosted on BBSs. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

But BBSs were the first type of sites that allowed users to log on and interact with one another,

albeit in a much slower fashion than we currently do. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

----Online Services

After BBSs came ―online services‖ like CompuServe and Prodigy. These were the first real

―corporate‖ attempts at accessing the Internet. CompuServe was the first company to incorporate

a chat program into their service. Prodigy was responsible for making online service more

affordable (CompuServe had been prohibitively expensive for many, with charges of $6/hour

plug long-distance fees that often made the service run $30/hour or more).

Genie was an early online service created by a General Electric subsidiary (GEIS) in 1985. It ran

through 1999 and was one of the earliest services available. It was a text-based service, and

considered the first viable commercial competition to CompuServe. The service was created to

make use of idle time-sharing mainframes after normal U.S. business hours. GEnie offered

games, shopping, mail, and forums (called Roundtables). There was even a print magazine

associated with the service at one time. AOL started as an online service too and made great

strides at making the Internet more universally accessible in the U.S. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

Five points about using media

----Choose carefully

There are dozens, if not, hundreds of Social Media applications, and new ones are appearing on

the horizon every day. If you still need time to run your core business, you simply cannot

participate in them all, especially since ‗‗being active‘‘ is one key requirement of success (see

below). Choosing the right medium for any given purpose depends on the target group to be

5 Fig 1 represents the BBs model ―<img src="./The History and Evolution of Social Media Webdesigner

Depot_files/bbs.jpg" alt="" width="615" height="450">‖

35 | P a g e

reached and the message to be communicated. On the one hand, each Social Media application

usually attracts a certain group of people and firms should be active wherever their customers are

present. For example, if your main target audience is book lovers, a content community via

which users share self-written novels or poems is likely better suited to your purpose than a

virtual world which centers on fighting dragons and finding treasures. On the other hand, there

may be situations whereby certain features are necessary to ensure effective communication, and

these features are only offered by one specific application. For example, when the U.S. Army

undertook an initiative in 2007 to reach the Hispanic community, it decided to utilize the social

networking site Univision rather than the more popular Facebook. This choice was driven in part

by the fact that Univision a Spanish language television network in the U.S. and Puerto Rico is

the social networking application with the largest Latin American audience, due to an extensive

range of telenovelas and Mexican programs produced by Grupo Televisa. However, another

reason Univision was chosen is because it offers a moderating service which checks comments

from users for appropriateness before posting them on the site. In contrast, other applications,

including Facebook, allow users to post messages without supervision. (Kaplan, A. M., &

Haenlein, M., 2009b)

----Pick the application, or make your own

Once you know which game you‘re playing, the next decision involves whether to make or buy.

In some cases, it might just be best to join an existing Social Media application and benefit from

its popularity and user base. After all, there is no need to reinvent the wheel if somebody has

already done it, especially given that Social Media show positive network externalities in the

sense that they get more attractive to join the more participants they already have. But in some

cases, the right application might just not be available yet. Japan‘s Fujifilm, for example,

recently launched its own social network to build a community of photo enthusiasts. In a similar

spirit, U.S.-based department store firm Sears collaborated with MTV music television to create

a social network around back-to-school shopping. Yet, whatever the ultimate decision to buy,

make, or both it is vital that there is an understanding of the basic idea behind Social Media. It‘s

all about participation, sharing, and collaboration, rather than straightforward advertising and

selling. (Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M., 2009b)

----Ensure activity alignment

Sometimes you may decide to rely on various Social Media, or a set of different applications

within the same group, in order to have the largest possible reach. In this case, it is crucial to

ensure that your Social Media activities are all aligned with each other. A prime example in this

context is computer manufacturer Dell and its ‗‗Digital Nomads‘‘ campaign. Dell uses a

combination of social networking sites (Facebook, LinkedIn), blogs, and content communities

(YouTube videos) to show how its range of laptop computers enable individuals to become a

nomadic mobile workforce. In a similar spirit, Chrysler‘s Jeep brand connects with its customers

by combining photos shared on the content community Flickr, with groups on social networking

sites such as MySpace and Facebook. Using different contact channels can be a worthwhile and

profitable strategy. But remember: one goal of communication is the resolution of ambiguity and

reduction of uncertainty, and nothing is more confusing than contradicting messages across

different channels. . (Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M., 2009b)

----Media plan integration

What is true for different types of Social Media also holds for the relationship between Social

Media and traditional media: Integration is key! While you may consider these two arenas to be

36 | P a g e

completely different, in customers‘ eyes they are both part of the same: your corporate image.

Consider the actions of soft drink giant Coca-Cola. In June 2006, a pair of performance artists

shot a video featuring a series of geysers they created by dropping Mentos brand mints into 2-

liter bottles of Coke; the clip became a major hit on YouTube. Realizing customers‘ enthusiasm

for this performance, Coca-Cola fostered the sensation by airing the video on late-night

television and ensuring broad digital distribution across different content communities. Besides

the advantage of high impact/low cost media coverage, the campaign also resulted in a

measurable sales uplift. . (Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M., 2009b)

----Access for all

Although this might sound elementary, once the firm has decided to utilize Social Media

applications, it is worth checking that all employees may actually access them. Commonly, firms

block Facebook, YouTube, and Second Life on corporate PCs for fear that staff might spend too

much time networking instead of working. While this is certainly a consideration, it cannot imply

that employees must have special permission to be able to access the company blog. At the same

time, there is a need to curtail the possibility of the entire organization spending all its time

producing funny videos and uploading them to YouTube. One possible approach involves

defining groups of employees whose primary objective is the management of corporate Social

Media; all other staff members are treated as occasional participants. Under this scenario, the

first group is given administrator rights which allow the opening of new discussion threads and

deletion of inappropriate posts while the second group is not. Also, at some point, it will be

necessary to develop certain guidelines for Social Media usage; as done, for instance, by ‗‗Big

Blue‘‘ IBM, which has a corporate Charta for appropriate behavior within Second Life. For

example, it is important to highlight that every employee needs to identify himself or herself as

such when posting a comment on the corporate blog. Otherwise, end-consumers could get the

impression that anonymous accounts are used to enable employees to post fake messages and

overly- positive feedback, which could severely damage the credibility of your whole Social

Media campaign. . (Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M., 2009b)

Five points about being social

----Be active

If you want to develop a relationship with someone, it is always advisable to take the lead and to be

active. Social Media are all about sharing and interaction, so ensure that your content is always fresh

and that you engage in discussions with your customers. Consider the aforementioned blog kept by

Sun Microsystems CEO Jonathan Schwartz. Via this outlet, the figurehead discusses on an ongoing

basis his corporate strategy, new product development projects, and company values, and replies

directly to correspondence received. In considering your Social Media efforts, be aware that firm

involvement must extend beyond responding to negative comments and defending product offerings.

Social Media is less about explaining why your baking mix, detergent, or shampoo is better than

anyone else‘s than it is about engaging others in open and active conversation. Participants on Social

Media applications have the desire to actively engage and to become both producers and consumers

of information, so-called ‗‗presumes‘‘ (Toffler, Alvin, 1980). Be considerate of this need and act

accordingly. . (Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M., 2009b)

---- Be interesting

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Let‘s face it: nobody is interested in speaking to a boring person. As such, if you would like your

customers to engage with you, you need to give them a reason for doing so–—one which extends

beyond saying you are the best airline in town, or manufacture the most robust kitchen blender. The

first step is to listen to your customers. Find out what they would like to hear; what they would like

to talk about; what they might find interesting, enjoyable, and valuable. Then, develop and post

content that fits those expectations. Coffee powerhouse Starbucks, for example, created the ‗‗My

Starbucks Idea‘‘ platform, via which customers can submit new ideas for the company. These ideas

are subsequently voted on by other users, with the winners being considered for implementation by

Starbucks top management. As stated by Oscar Wilde in his novel, The Picture of Dorian Grey: The

one sin for which there is no forgiveness is ennui. . (Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M., 2009b)

----Be humble

Never forget that Social Media existed before you decided to engage in them; indeed, in many cases,

even before you knew about their existence. In this light, do not expect that you know better how to

use them than others who have spent countless hours on Facebook or Second Life, for example.

Before you enter any application, first take some time to discover it and to learn about its history and

basic rules. Only once you have gained the necessary understanding, start to participate. When

aerospace and defense firm Boeing decided to launch its first corporate blog, the site was designed

such that users were not allowed to comment on what they saw. Yet, interaction and feedback are

critical elements of all Social Media, blogs included. Hence, many readers perceived the Boeing

blog as a fake, and simply corporate advertising in disguise. If there is one certain path to failure, it

involves thinking that Social Media is just about posting existing TV spots on YouTube or putting

prefabricated press announcements on corporate blogs. . (Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M., 2009b)

----Be unprofessional

Have you ever noticed that in Hollywood blockbuster films, it‘s not usually the handsome guy who

ends up with the girl, but rather the clumsy, charming one? The same goes for Social Media, and

firms would be wise to avoid overly-professional content offerings. There‘s no need to spend

$100,000 to design the perfect MySpace presence, or hire a professional writer to manage your

corporate blog. Instead, try to blend in with other users and don‘t be afraid to make mistakes! Bill

Marriott, Chairman and CEO of the Marriott International Hotel chain, uses his blog, for example, to

post regular updates and stories from his travels to Marriott properties around the world–—very

much in the same way as would a work colleague when describing her last vacation. Social Media

users are people like you, who understand that things do not always go smoothly. And, if you‘re nice

to them, they may even give you free advice on how to do it better the next time. . (Kaplan, A. M.,

& Haenlein, M., 2009b)

----Be honest

Last but not least, be honest and respect the rules of the game. Some Social Media such as

Wikipedia may not allow companies to be involved, so do not try to force your way in. Consider

Anheuser-Busch, owner of SeaWorld marine mammal parks. Anheuser- Busch tried to ‗‗rectify‘‘

misleading information on Wikipedia through the use of PR firms, and failed miserably at it. Never

38 | P a g e

expect that other participants may not find out who stands behind some anonymous user account;

after all, you‘re dealing with some of the most technologically sophisticated people on the planet. .

(Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M., 2009b)

Major Advances in Social Networking

The early 2000s brought some huge developments in social networking and social media.

----Friendster

Friendster was really the first modern, general social network. Founded in 2002, Friendster is

still a very active social network, with over 90 million registered users and 60+ million unique

visitors each month. Most of Friendster‘s traffic comes from Asia (90% of it). (Chapman,

Cameron, n.d)

Fig 2

6

Friendster operated by allowing people to discover their friends and then friends-of-friends, and so

on to expand their networks.

Its goal was to be a safer place to meet new people than in real-life, as well as being faster.

Friendster was, in part, a new kind of dating site.

Instead of matching complete strangers based on shared interests, it operated on the assumption

that people with shared friends and acquaintances would have a better chance than those who

had no shared connection. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

Friendster was most popular with three different groups: gay men, attendees of Burning Man and

bloggers. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

6 http://www.friendster.com/

39 | P a g e

----Hi5

Hi57 is another major social network, established in 2003 and currently boasting more than 60

million active members according to their own claims.

Profile privacy works a bit differently on Hi5, where a user‘s network consists of not only their own

contacts, but also second (friends of friends) and third (friends of friends of friends) degree contacts.

Users can set their profiles to be seen only by their network members or by Hi5 users in general.

While Hi5 is not particularly popular in the U.S., it has a large user base in parts of Asia, Latin

America and Central Africa. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

----LinkedIn

LinkedIn8 was founded in 2003 and was one of the first mainstream social networks devoted to

business.

Originally, LinkedIn allowed users to post a profile (basically a resume) and to interact through

private messaging. They also work on the assumption that you should personally know the

people you connect with on the site. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

Fig 3

9

Gradually, other features have been added, including groups, question and answer forums, and

advanced profile features, including real-time updates. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

----MySpace

MySpace10

was founded in 2003 and by 2006 had grown to be the most popular social network in

the world.

MySpace differentiated itself from competitors by allowing users to completely customize the

look of their profiles. Users could also post music from artists on MySpace and embed videos

from other sites on their profiles. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

7 http://www.hi5.com/

8 http://www.linkedin.com/

9 http://www.linkedin.com/profile

10

http://www.myspace.com/

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Fig 4

11

Originally MySpace allowed communication through private messages, public comments posted to a

user‘s profile, and bulletins sent out to all of your friends. Blogs are also a big part of MySpace

profiles, with each member automatically getting a blog.

In 2006 MySpace introduced MySpace IM, an instant messaging client that lets users chat with

their friends. Other recent additions to MySpace‘s functionality include the addition of real-time

status updates and a news feed showing friend activity. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

----Facebook

While Facebook12

started out as a Harvard-only social network back in 2004, it quickly expanded to

other schools, then to high schools, businesses and eventually everyone (by 2006).

In 2008 Facebook became the most popular social networking site, surpassing MySpace, and

continues to grow. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

Fig 5

13

Facebook doesn‘t allow the same kind of customization that MySpace does. Facebook does,

however, allow users to post photos, videos and otherwise customize their profile content, if not

the design. Facebook has added a number of features over the past few years, including instant

messaging/chat and apps (and their developer platform). (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

11

http://www.myspace.com/home 12

http://www.facebook.com/ 13

http://www.facebook.com/markzuckerberg/

41 | P a g e

Users have a few different methods of communicating with one another. Private messaging is

available as well as writing on another user‘s wall. Wall posts are visible to that user‘s friends, but

usually not to the general public. Users can easily change their privacy settings to allow different

users to see different parts of their profile, based on any existing relationships (the basic privacy

settings are ―only friends‖, ―friends of friends‖, and ―everyone‖). Users can post notes that are

visible to all of their friends. Users can also comment on or, more recently, ―like‖ the posts of their

friends, and conversations often occur within the comment sections among multiple people.

(Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

Media Sharing

Social media isn‘t just limited to social networking sites. Sharing photos, videos, and other

multimedia content is also a popular social media activity.

----Photobucket

Photobucket14

was the first major photo sharing site, launched in 2003.

Photobucket allows users to share photos publically or in password-protected albums. They allow

users 500MB of storage (lowered from 1GB in August of 2009). Pro accounts get 10GB of storage

(lowered from 100GB to 25GB in July of ‘08 and then to 10GB in August of ‘09). Photobucket also

hosts video content. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

Fig 6

15

In 2007, Photobucket was purchased by Fox Interactive Media (a News Corporation subsidiary). It

was rumored to have sold for as much as $250 million, though terms of the sale were never

disclosed. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

----Flickr

Flickr16

has become a social network in its own right in recent years. They claim to host more than

3.6 billion images as of June 2009. Flickr also has groups, photo pools, and allows users to create

profiles, add friends, and organize images and video into photo sets/albums. (Chapman, Cameron,

n.d)

14

http://www.photobucket.com/ 15

http://www.photobucket.com/home 16

http://www.flickr.com/

42 | P a g e

Fig 7

17

One of Flickr‘s major advantages is that they allow users to license their photos through Creative

Commons, as well as retaining all copyrights. Flickr has also recently launched a collection called

―The Commons‖, which features archived photos and images from a variety of museums and other

institutions under a ―no known restrictions‖ license (basically meaning the photos are believed to be

in the public domain). (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

----YouTube

YouTube18

was the first major video hosting and sharing site, launched in 2005.

Users can upload videos up to 10 minutes long and share them through YouTube or by embedding

them on other websites (social networks, blogs, forums, etc.). YouTube now allows users to upload

HD videos and recently launched a service to provide TV shows and movies under license from

their copyright holders. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

17

http://www.flickr.com/home 18

http://www.youtube.com/

43 | P a g e

Fig 8

19

YouTube‘s major social features include ratings, comments, and the option to subscribe to the

channels of a user‘s favorite video creators. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

Social Everything

It seems that nowadays there are social and user-generated sites for just about every activity you can

imagine. There are social shopping sites, social financial planning sites, and sites for getting book,

movie, app, and other review. Sites to share your goals and meet like-minded people. Sites to plan

your travels and share them with others. And sites to help us make decisions on just about anything.

(Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

Fig 9

20

Social media has become a huge part of the lives of millions of people worldwide. Whether it‘s

something as simple as looking up reviews of movies from real, live people (instead of professional

movie reviewers) or getting advice on major life decisions, there are social sites out there to provide

you with the information you seek. Even on general-purpose social networks and social media sites

like Twitter there are thousands of ways to get input on just about anything. Instead of using Google

19

http://www.youtube.com/home 20

http://www.websabe.com/home

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the next time having a question about something, try asking on Twitter. A lot of the time you get

better information from the crowd there in less time than pouring over pages of search results.

(Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

Social Media Concerns and Criticism

As social media has grown in popularity and become mainstream, it has been faced with growing

controversy and criticism. The main criticisms seem to fall along a few lines: Social media can be

used by stalkers; Social media can be used by child predators; and, Social media sites open up

privacy and security concerns. While there is only so much social media sites can do about the first

two, there is a growing trend among many sites to bolster the privacy policies and make users feel

more secure. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

Social Media Used by Stalkers

Facebook and other social media sites have come under attack for making it easier for stalkers to

track their victims or even to find new ones. This kind of accusation is not entirely unfounded.

Many social media users don‘t take advantage of privacy settings and leave their entire profiles

public. While this is often a good idea for professional profiles where you want to make connections

with people you don‘t necessarily know, personal profiles can benefit from hiding some information

from public display. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d).

Social networks make these privacy settings available to users to help prevent stalkers and predators

from being able to see their updates. But they can‘t force users to use them, so in the end much of

the responsibility falls to the individual users, not the networks themselves. (Chapman, Cameron,

n.d).

Social Media Used by Child Predators

MySpace is the most publically attacked social networks accused of being a haven for child

molesters and pornographers, but the site, and other social networks, have made great strides in

protecting the identities and information of minors using their sites. Again, this is one of those

situations where much of the problem came from users not making their profiles private.

MySpace took a major step to prevent predators from friending underage teens by requiring friend

requesters to know the email address or another personal identifier in order to send a friend request

to a minor. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

They also require the profiles of teens under the age of 16 to be private, not allowing non-friend

users to view them. Other sites have taken similar steps.

Privacy Concerns

Facebook recently came under attack for changes to its privacy policy that were worded

ambiguously enough to effectively grant rights to Facebook to use any of your content, private or

public, for their own purposes (such as advertising) even after you‘d deleted your profile.

Fig 10

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21

While the company maintains that was never their intent and it was simply unfortunate wording, the

backlash was severe enough that Facebook changed their privacy policy back to its previous version

and then solicited user input for revisions. It was a harsh lesson in how concerned many users are

about the information they provide online. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

When you consider that many people post information about all aspects of their lives online, mostly

on social media sites, it‘s no wonder many are concerned about what companies can do with that

information. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

Social networks and other sites have to rapidly respond to user concerns over privacy and security.

With the information in an average social media profile, it would not be inconceivable for a hacker

to illegally gain enough information about a person to steal their identity or otherwise cause

problems. (Chapman, Cameron, n.d)

Security concerns have also cropped up as average people have found their profiles hacked and

embarrassing information posted about them. While this type of thing was once relatively confined

to celebrities and well-known people (or people who had a personal vendetta against them), it has

become more widespread and it‘s not unheard of for regular people to be targeted. (Chapman,

Cameron, n.d).

21

http://www.facebook.com/privacy

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Chapter 4- A Contemporary View On The Mass And Electronic

Media

When it comes to the media, most of us spontaneously think of the mass media. However, for those

who work in the field, mass media tools are not always the most suitable or most commonly used.

Media can be separated into two main categories:

– Those that favor interpersonal communication. This type of media is most common in research

projects that employ the participatory communication approach. They include what are called

―group media‖ and ―traditional media‖ and are used primarily with groups that are directly affected

by the research projects. They can be used to implement the research results.

– Those that favor mass communication. They are used mainly to reach publics other than those

directly affected by the research projects. They can be used to increase the visibility of research

projects. (Anon, n.d)

When used appropriately, the mass media are a highly effective means of transmitting information.

For research projects in the field, however, mass media are rarely favored over participatory or

traditional communication media. However, that doesn‘t mean that they should be neglected

altogether. Rather, it is important to strike a proper balance between mass media and media based on

interpersonal communication. Before using mass media, it is important to identify their different

forms, to clearly understand their advantages and their audiences and to be aware of the contacts that

can be developed through them. In other words, the use of mass media is a process that requires

organization. (Anon, n.d)

----A list of local media

If we are developing a communication strategy, it‘s important that we should be familiar with our

media environment. This entails drawing up a list of the media available to us and that are capable

of reaching our target audiences and groups:

– General print media (daily, weekly, monthly publications; in a European or local language)

– Specialized print media (national or international, public or organizational)

– Local, national or international radio or television stations

This media list can be established by consulting:

– Our own library or by referring to documents we have read

– The telephone directory of the country in which the project is operating

– Documentation centers dealing with issues similar to ours

– Organizations or researchers working in the same field

– A specialist in local communication, to whom this task can be conferred

In the print media, for example, we can establish contact with different journalists according to the

sectors they cover (politics, the environment, agriculture, editorials, columns, regional news).

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In the electronic media, it‘s important to be on the lookout for programs that could be interested in

our research topic and whose format and content may offer a suitable vehicle for presenting our

project. (Anon, n.d)

Means of intervention

The principal means of intervention using the mass media include:

– The press release: Brief, clear and precise, the press release announces a piece of news; it never

repeats something that has already been said or is already known, unless the purpose is to explain

the context. The release is dated and gives an authorized date of publication as well as the contact

information of a resource person for further details. (Anon, n.d)

– The press kit: It is distributed to one or more media during an individual or group meeting. The

aim of the press kit is to familiarize the media with the project and to provoke the interest of

journalists. Press kits include texts and photos. (Anon, n.d)

– The interview: The interview can be used in both the print and electronic media. It allows for a

different, more dynamic coverage and lends a more personal touch to the information. (Anon, n.d)

– Feature story: From time to time, you may run into a journalist who shows a particularly strong

interest in your project. This person should become your main contact in the media. You can suggest

a topic for a feature story or simply offer a visit to your project. (Anon, n.d)

– Advertising: Barring special circumstances, we don‘t recommend using advertising. Truly

effective advertising is too expensive. In the development field, a good media campaign produces a

stronger impact and is more credible in the eyes of the target populations. (Anon, n.d)

Just because we want to reach a certain audience, doesn‘t mean we have to limit ourselves to a

single medium. On the contrary, the coordinated and simultaneous use of several media to transmit a

single message to a given audience is a good way to reinforce the impact of our message. (Anon,

n.d)

For example, in order to support a development intervention in a village, we can choose several

more traditional or familiar means of communication:

– Informal discussions

– Storytelling and proverbs

– Flannel graphs

– Theatrical representations

– Posters

– Radio

Michel Andrien addresses this subject in his work Social Communication in Nutrition: A

Methodology for Intervention:

“On several occasions, it was stated that no one medium can, by itself, significantly alter social

communication […]. Interventions should make use of different media which will mutually reinforce

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each other. To this end, the planning committee is faced with a formidable task of coordination. This

is absolutely essential for the success of the Programme.

Programs that have been successful in bringing about change in nutrition-related habits have dem-

onstrated the need to complement the interpersonal channel with other methods […].” (Andrien,

Michael, 1993)

----Attitude towards Mass Media and its role in promoting Environmental Consciousness

Communication remains the most fundamental element of society and its progress. Therefore, the

modern epoch of information technology - also known as the era of ‗satellite communication‘ -

necessitates mass media as part and parcel of human existence, experience, and endeavor. Through

communication, members of a society share their experiences and knowledge, understands each

other, and generates collective wisdom. The ever-expanding network of communication has

overcome great distances and formidable boundaries. It has enabled the most essential and basic trait

of human communication to thrive and flourish more splendidly. Today, various types of mass

media enable people all over the world to interact and learn from each other at a tremendous pace.

Communication, with the help of mass media, not only brings people but also communities together,

thus contracting the globe into a village (McLuhan, Marshall, 1964). The frontier between mass

media, individual and cultural transition has been the subject of investigation for many social

scholars since the dawn of the ‗information and communication age‘ (Lerner, Daniel, 1958; Hagen,

Everett, 1962; Schramm, Wilbur, 1964; Rogers, Everett & Shoemaker, Floyd, 1971; Rogers,

Everett, 1986; Alahari, Prasad, 1997; McDonald, R, 2000).

As mass media becomes an integral part of human societies, it, undoubtedly, brings varying degrees

and natures of unprecedented changes to different societies and individuals in different ways. It is

reported that initially, early studies on mass media communication were based upon the assumption

that the effects of mass media communication were powerful, direct, and uniform. The insight into

the importance of diverse societal needs and priorities, and individual differences in people‘s

attitudes, values and other personality variables, prompted later scholars to cast doubt on its very

theoretical foundation. This gave birth to a new theoretical framework considering societal and

individual differences pertaining to their perceptions and responses. The new theory assumes that

the effects of the media are selective and dependent on the characteristics of a society and individual

differences, and is supported by many empirical findings (Peterson, Ruth & Thusrstone, Louis,

1933; Cantril, Hadley, 1940; Schramm, Wilbur, 1979; Kazee, T.A, 1981; Lowery, Shearon &

DeFleur, Melvin, 1988).

----Role of mass media in modern democracy

The mass media constitute the backbone of democracy. The media are supplying the political

information that voters base their decisions on. They identify problems in our society and serve as a

medium for deliberation. They are also the watchdogs that we rely on for uncovering errors and

wrongdoings by those who have power. It is therefore reasonable to require that the media perform

to certain standards with respect to these functions, and our democratic society rests on the

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assumption that they do. (Fog, Agner, 2004; Venturelli, Shalini, 1998; Kellner, D, 2004; McQuail,

Denis, 1993; Skogerbo, Eli, 1996).

The most important democratic functions that we can expect the media to serve are listed in an

often-cited article by Gurevitch and Blumler (1990). These functions include surveillance of

sociopolitical developments, identifying the most relevant issues, providing a platform for debate

across a diverse range of views, holding officials to account for the way they exercise power,

provide incentives for citizens to learn, choose, and become involved in the political process, and

resist efforts of forces outside the media to subvert their independence. (Fog, Agner, 2004).

However, there is a growing concern that the mass media are not fulfilling these functions properly.

Media critics claim that commercial mass media controlled by a few multinational conglomerates

have become an antidemocratic force supporting the status quo (Kellner, D, 2004; Herman, Edward

and Chomsky, Noam, 1988; Herman, Edward and McChesney, Robert, 1997; Alger 1998;

McChesney, Robert, 1999; Keane, John, 1991). The news is more entertaining than informing,

supplying mostly gossip, scandals, sex, and violence. Political news is more about personalities than

about their ideologies. In the absence of serious debate, voters are left with paid political propaganda

containing only meaningless slogans making them disinterested and cynical about politics

(Bagdikian, Ben, 1983; Fallows, James, 1996; Capella, Joseph and Jamieson, Kathleen, 1997;

Bennett, Lance and Entman, Robert, 2001; Barnett, Stephen, 2002). It is also claimed that the

watchdogs are barking of the wrong things. The media hunt for scandals in the private lives of

politicians and their families, but ignore much more serious consequences of their policies. They go

after wounded politicians like sharks in a feeding frenzy (Sabato, Larry, 1991). All too often, the

media make us afraid of the wrong things. Minor dangers are hysterically blown out of proportions,

while much more serious dangers in our society go largely unnoticed (Glassner, Barry, 1999). The

exaggerated fears often lead to unnecessary measures and legislation and "gonzo justice" (Altheide,

David, 1995, 2002; Altheide, David and Michalowski, RS, 1999).

Critics also complain that the media fail to report wrongdoings in the industry. For example, many

media have suppressed information about the health hazards of smoking due to pressure from

advertisers. Even more alarming is the claim that certain mass media (especially women's

magazines) are promoting worthless alternative health products, thereby effectively conspiring with

the industry to defraud consumers of billions of dollars every year (Barrett, Stephen and Jarvis,

William, 1993).

The political and cultural consequences of this suspected misinformation of the community are not

fully explored. What are the effects of the democratization of the news? Which way does this effect

push the growth of our society? The study of these questions is difficult because it must integrate

findings from many different scientific disciplines. (Fog, Agner, 2004).

----Media Economics

Most newspapers, radio- and TV stations get most or all of their earnings from advertisements and

sponsoring. The media will therefore seek to please the interests of their advertisers, which are not

necessarily equivalent to the interests of the readers, listeners and viewers. (Baker, Edwin, 1994;

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McManus, John, 1994). The predominant view among economists is that free competition generally

benefits society because it provides the most differentiated supply of commodities to the optimal

price. This line of reasoning dominates European as well as American media policy. (Blum, Jay,

1992; Noam, Eli, 1991; Sepstrup, P, 1989).

It is well known, though, that free competition does not always consider all benefits. The term

market failure describes the situation where the free market forces do not mechanically lead to

highest welfare (often defined as the sum of benefits to all parties). Market failure may occur, for

example, when consumers are unable to evaluate the quality of a commodity, when third party

interests are affected (externalities), or when production has large fixed costs (McManus, John,

1995).

In the case of media financed by advertisements exclusively, the interests served are those of the

advertisers. The interests of the media consumers are satisfied only insofar as these are coincident

with the interests of the advertisers (Doyle 2002; McManus 1994, 1995). There is no guarantee that

public interests are served well. This is the reason why many countries have public radio- and TV

stations with public service obligations. Liberalizing the media market and relying on the free

market forces are policies that are often used for the express purpose of making sure that all interests

are served. Many theorists ignore, however, that the media not only satisfy consumer preferences,

but also form them (Entman, Robert and Wildman, Steven, 1992).

----Popularization of Media

The simulation of proximity is an important element in popularization. A political decision can be

difficult to explain in abstract terms. It helps when the medium shows an ordinary person telling

what the consequences of the decision is for him or her. The audience feel that a story is more

convincing when they see an example they can identify with. But in fact it is less credible because

the example may not be representative. A magazine can show a person who felt better after taking a

certain brand of alternative medicine, and fail to show the 99% who felt worse after taking the same

medicine. Advertising has a profound influence on the choice of programs. TV advertisers prefer to

have their commercials shown in association with soft entertainment. Ideal from the advertisers'

point of view are shows such as competitions where one can win sponsored merchandise, or soap

operas that portray a privileged lifestyle where luxurious goods give status (Shoemaker, Pamela and

Reese, Stephen, 1996).

This does not provide good conditions for the political debate. It is difficult to find sponsors for

serious political debates because these do not make the viewers relax and because some of the

viewers will disagree with the points of view presented (Herman and McChesney 1997; McManus

1994, 1995). Furthermore, the commercial media are not very inclined to cover controversial issues

in a balanced way. People prefer to hear points of view that they agree with. It is therefore adverse

to the media's economy to view a controversy from both sides and present alternative points of view.

The media are prone to choose side in a controversy; and if later evidence should favor the opposite

side, they are likely to keep silent about the matter rather than loosing face. Disclaimers are not

profitable. This is a self-amplifying process. The more the media create consensus about a particular

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issue through biased coverage, the fewer proponents of the opposite view will there be to balance

the issue, and the more difficulties will these proponents have in gaining access to the media

(Ericson, Richard, et al., 1989).

Nowhere is this bias problem worse than in crime reporting. The media often take a stance on the

question of guilt before a verdict has been made. The police and the prosecutor are often very

willing to express themselves because it gives them a PR gain and an opportunity to ask the public

for help in solving crimes, while a suspect has few, if any, possibilities and resources for replying

(Ericson et al. 1989). It is very unlikely that judges can resist being influenced by this when media

frenzy has created a public outcry against a suspect (Fog, Agner, 2004). The legal possibilities of

forcing the media to publish disclaimers or to give a voice to alternative points of view are quite

illusory, and the means of sanctions are far from effective (Ericson at al. 1989).

The printed media cannot compete with the ability of the electronic media to keep their audience

spellbound by strong sense impressions. The newspapers have their strength in the possibilities for

in-dept. analysis of social and other topics. However, this possibility is not fully exploited because

the journalistic resources are limited by economic competition, and because this parameter of

competition only gives access to a limited niche of the reader market.

Many papers and magazines therefore compete on news about celebrities and topics that appeal to

the emotions (McManus, John, 1994). Everything that is dangerous, different or wrong has a

obvious place, especially in those papers that are mainly sold from newsstands. They want to have a

new scandal on the front page every day in order to tempt people to buy the paper. We may expect

to see similar approaches when electronic pay-per-view media become common. Radio- and TV-

channels based on advertising use fewer horror effects, because this would conflict with the

principle of bringing the viewers into a buying-mood. This does not improve the journalistic and

artistic quality, however. Many media workers are frustrated that their creativity is curbed by the

economic structures, and the situation is hardly better for advertisement-free commercial media,

such as home video and pay-tv (Blumler, Jay and Spicer, Carolyn, 1990).

----Effects of the Mass and Electronic Media

There are many different theories about how the media impact people's attitudes, worldview, and

behavior. While ancient as well as modern observations are full of examples indicating to the power

of the mass media to effect people, early experimental studies have failed to confirm the assumption

that mass media have a strong power to change people's attitudes (McGuire, William, 1986). This

discrepancy between experiments and real world observations was solved with the introduction of

theories of cognitive processing, such as agenda setting, framing, and priming (Lowery, Shearon &

DeFleur, Melvin, 1988).

The effect of Media on us today is a stealthy thief. As we read our daily Newspaper, the advertising

sometimes takes up the whole page. We search for the rest of the article, hidden back beneath the

ads. When we turn the Radio on during the ride to work, verses of songs can overwhelm us with the

vulgarity and crudeness, casting us into a foul mood for the rest of the day. As we drive down the

road we are still being contacted by advertising. The Billboards tell us where to stay, where to shop,

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and how to get to the racetrack. The Magazines we read now have articles we would not want our

children to read. The racy and risqué now is commonplace, causing our children to grow up with

way too much information. Our children and teenagers have used Games and gaming to such an

extent that they now feel violence is normal and acceptable. The games children play with on the

Internet seems to be destroying the value system we desire to teach. When we go online to surf the

web we are bombarded with inappropriate Internet pop-ups and emails. Buy this, play the casino

here - we will even give you money to start. Then, when we get home our place of peace, yet

the Television is on, inciting our children, and toys there are. On TV they age can watch the ill

manners of the Bart Simpson show, playing at a time that is not appropriate, the dinner hour. This

show is adult humor, yet there it is when our little ones are still up.

We need to evaluate the trends of today. Does the influence in our family‘s lives build stronger

healthier families? Or do the TV, Radio, Magazines, Internet, and Games tear down what we are

trying to establish, a good moral home place, family values that are taught and learned at home. Is

what we see, what we are about to become? How much does what we see stay with us?22

----Mass Media Influence

In the last 50 years the media influence has grown exponentially with the advance of technology,

first there was the telegraph, then the radio, the newspaper, magazines, television and now the

internet. (Web)

We live in a society that depends on information and communication to keep moving in the right

direction and do our daily activities like work, entertainment, health care, education, personal

relationships, traveling and anything else that we have to do. (Web)

A common person in the city usually wakes up checks the TV news or newspaper, goes to work,

makes a few phone calls, eats with their family when possible and makes his decisions based on the

information that he has either from their co workers, news, TV, friends, family, financial reports,

etc. (Web)

What we need to be aware is that most of our decisions, beliefs and values are based on what we

know for a fact, our assumptions and our own experience. In our work we usually know what we

have to do base on our experience and studies, however on our daily lives we rely on the media to

get the current news and facts about what is important and what we should be aware of. We have put

our trust on the media as an authority to give us news, entertainment and education. However, the

influence of mass media on our kids, teenagers and society is so big that we should know how it

really works. (Web)

----How mass Media Influence works

Of all the media distribution channels the most influential has been the television, we are constantly

exposed to thousands of images of violence, advertising, sex, celebrities and much more, in fact a its

known that a child is exposed to about 40,000 ads a year. (Web)

22 http://webpages.shepherd.edu/edye01/homepage.htm [accessed on 28-04-2012 at 9:00pm]

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But who owns the media, which are the companies or people that shape our values, beliefs and

decisions? The media is basically dominated by five major companies they are:

Time Warner

VIACOM

Vivendi Universal

Walt Disney

News Corp

Those 5 companies own 95% of all the media that we get every day. They own the major

entertainment theme parks, entertainment movie studios; television and radio broadcast networks

and programing, video news and sports entertainment. (Web)

They also own integrated telecommunications, wireless phones, video games software‘s, electronic

media, the music industry and more.

Years ago there was more diversity in companies, but they have merged so now they are just a few

and they have the power to shape the opinion and beliefs of us and our kids. So it‘s important to be

aware of what your kids are exposed to every day and you should also try to look at things from

different perspectives and not just from the one the media gives you.23

----How does mass media influence young people?

The media makes billions of dollars with the advertising they sell and that we are exposed to. We

buy what we are told to be good, after seeing thousands of advertisings we make our buying

decisions based on what we saw on TV, newspapers or magazines to be a product we can trust and

also based on what everyone else that we know is buying and their decision are also base don the

media. (Web)

These are the effects of mass media in teenagers, they buy what they see on TV, what their favorite

celebrity advertise and what is acceptable by society based on the fashion that the media has

imposed them.

There are some positive and negative influences in young people.

Here is a positive influence example, if there is a sport that is getting a lot of attention by the media

and gains popularity among your friends and society, you will more likely want to practice the sport

and be cool with all your friends. The result is that you will have fun with your friends and be

healthier because of the exercise you are doing. (Web)

23 http://rayuso.hubpages.com/hub/Mass-Media-Influence-on-Society [accessed on 28-04-2012 at 9:00pm]

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However a negative influence in teenagers is the use of cigars by celebrity movie stars, the constant

exposure of sex images, the excessive images of violence and exposure to thousands of junk food

ads. (Web)24

Young people are in a stage of life where they want to be accepted by their peers, they want to be

loved and be successful. The media creates the ideal image of a beautiful men and women and tells

you what the characteristics of a successful person are; you can see it in movies and tv. Its a

subliminal way to tell you that if you are not like them you are not cool yet so its time to buy the

stuff they buy and look like they look. (Web)

Another negative influence in teenagers that has grown over the last years are anorexia and obesity.

There are millions of adolescents fighting obesity, but at the same time they are exposed to

thousands of advertisements of junk food, while the ideas image of a successful person is told to be

thin and wealthy.

Also more women are obsessive with losing weight even when they are not obese; there are many

thin women that want to look like the super models and thin celebrities so they engage in eating

disorders which lead to severe health issues and even death. (Web)25

----Effects of violence in the Media

When we watch TV or a movie we usually see many images of violence and people hurting others.

The problem with this is that it can become traumatic especially in our children as we see it more

and more. Our kids that are starting to grow and are shaping their personality values and beliefs can

become aggressive or they can lose a sense of reality and fiction of what they are seeing. (Web)

In the past years there have been some cases of kids carrying a gun at school and even hurting others

with it. Those kids have been linked to excessive use of violent video games and war images.

Another problem is that real war is used as a form of entertainment by the media, we should make

our kids and teen aware that war is not a form of entertainment and that there is no win or lose like

in video games, in real war everyone lose. (Web)26

----How media influence public opinion

As i have said above, the media has a huge impact on society and also in public opinion. They can

shape the public opinion in different ways depending of what is the objective. For example, after the

attacks of 911 the media gave a huge coverage of the event and exposed Osama guilty for the attack

as they were told by the authorities. This shaped the public opinion to support the war on terrorism,

the same happened with the war on Iraq. The problem is that if media received inaccurate

information then the public opinion supported a wrong cause, this is the power of public opinion

influence. Other ways to influence are with polls and trends, especially in political campaigns. The

24

http://rayuso.hubpages.com/hub/Mass-Media-Influence-on-Society [accessed on 28-04-2012 at 9:00pm] 25

http://rayuso.hubpages.com/hub/Mass-Media-Influence-on-Society [accessed on 28-04-2012 at 9:00pm] 26

http://rayuso.hubpages.com/hub/Mass-Media-Influence-on-Society [accessed on 28-04-2012 at 9:00pm]

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candidates that can pay for more TV and media exposure have more influence on public opinion and

thus can receive more votes. (Web)27

27

http://rayuso.hubpages.com/hub/Mass-Media-Influence-on-Society [accessed on 28-04-2012 at 9:00pm]

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Chapter 5- Introduction To The Freedom Of Expression—Media

Democratization In the last decade and a half, media reform and media freedom have come under close

scrutiny by governmental and nongovernmental organizations as well as academic scholars. Media

reform and freedom often are viewed as intrinsically important and are seen by many as related to

development of democratic institutions and a civil society. In the view of some, media reform is

needed for media freedom, and media freedom is a necessary condition for democratization.

Because of the importance of media freedom, western governments have invested heavily in training

of media workers and in media reform in order to bring it about. In addition, a number of prominent

governmental and nongovernmental organizations have developed indices of press freedom, at least

implicitly so as to judge the consequences of and need for media reform. The methodologies

employed in creating these indices of media freedom are not always transparent, however, and

charges are often made about biases in the underlying assumptions behind them. Nor are the

conceptual bases for the indices always obvious. It is possible that the competing indices measure

different concepts, measure the same concept unreliably, or measure the same concepts in a reliable

but invalid way. (Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy, 2004).

The concept of press freedom is a contentious one in the literature of mass communication. McQuail

(2000) argues that the concept of media freedom covers both the degree of freedom enjoyed by the

media and the degree of freedom and access of citizens to media content.

“The essential norm is that media should have a certain independence, sufficient to protect free and

open public expression of ideas and information. The second part of the issue raises the question of

diversity, a norm that opposes concentration of ownership and monopoly of control, whether on the

part of the state or private media industries.” (p. 144-145). (Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy, 2004).

Curran (1996) differentiates between a classical liberal perspective on media freedom and the

radical democratic perspective. The former focuses on the freedom of the media to publish or

broadcast. The latter focuses on how mass communications can ―mediate in an equitable way

conflict and competition between social groups in society (p. 55).‖ Within the classical liberal

perspective, according to Curran, is a ―strand‖ arguing that the media should serve to protect the

individual from the abuses of the state. Within the radical democratic perspective, he continues, is a

―strand‖ that argues that the media should seek to redress the imbalances in society. (Becker, Lee &

Nusser, Nancy, 2004).

For Price (2002), the ―foundation requirement‖ for media freedom is that government does not have

a monopoly on information. Rozumilowicz (2002) contends that the question of who has control is

the critical consideration as to whether media are free and independent. There must be a diffusion of

control and access supported by a nation‘s legal, institutional, economic and social-cultural systems,

she argues. Thus, free and independent media ―exist within a structure which is effectively

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demonopolized of the control of any concentrated social groups or forces and in which access is

both equally and effectively guaranteed‖ (p. 14). (Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy, 2004).

Rozumilowicz sees media independence as the outcome of a process of media reform. The general

assumption is that the media ―should progress ever nearer to an ideal of freedom and independence

and away from dependence and control‖ (p. 12). In her view, a media structure that is free of

―interference from government, business, or dominant social groups is better able to maintain and

support the competitive and participative elements that define the concept of democracy and the

related process of democratization.‖ (Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy, 2004).

Rozumilowicz sees the ideal media environment as one in which there are two media sectors, a

market-led media sector and a nonmarket-sector. Within the market sector, advertisers are free to

present their goods to target audiences, programmers can use fees provided by these advertisers to

draw in audiences, and audiences are informed and entertained to the extent the market allows. The

nonmarket-sector provides balance by ensuring that the needs of non-dominant groups are met. It

also creates a forum in which a common discourse emerges and which allows people to function

within the society. .‖ (Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy, 2004).

For these two sectors to exist, there must be both legal and institutional support for them as well as

social-cultural support. For example, the market sector can exist only if laws are in place protecting

media from government interference. Audiences also must be protected via defamation laws from

media abuse. Also needed are anti-trust legislation, ownership laws limiting concentration, licensing

laws, and rules on advertising. .‖ (Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy, 2004).

For the nonmarket-sector to exist, there must be legal and institutional support for the right to

publish and the right of access. Citizens are guaranteed the right to information, and the various

voices in society are guaranteed the right to communicate.

For Rozumilowicz, socio-cultural support for free media comes from training for and

professionalism among journalists, a general educational system that instills values of tolerance

within society, and training for politicians on the workings of a free press in an open society.

Following from this conceptualization, Rozumilowicz outlines four stages of media reform. The first

stage, labeled a Pre-transition Stage, lays the groundwork for subsequent change. During this

change, there is an opening or- freeing of a previously constrained media system. The regime signals

a greater willingness to tolerate criticism and expressions of alternative points of view.‖ (Becker,

Lee & Nusser, Nancy, 2004).

The second stage is termed a Primary Transition Stage. During this stage, there is a systematic

change within the formerly authoritarian regime. Statutes on access to information, defamation,

ownership, and the like are passed. The culture of censorship is disrupted.

The next stage is called the Secondary Stage. During this period both politicians and journalists

participate in training seminars to explain and clarify the new institutional and legal order. Networks

of media professionals develop. Journalists receive training in new skills of investigative and

responsible journalism. (Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy, 2004).

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The final stage is called the Late or Mature Stage. At this point, legal and institutional questions

have been resolved. Educational opportunities for journalists are well established. Instruction to

provide support for open communication is incorporated in primary and secondary schooling.

(Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy, 2004).

More than 100 organizations throughout the world are currently engaged in some form of media

system assessment and evaluation or media freedom promotion. Many of these are newly-formed in

response to recent democratization in Europe and re-democratization in Latin America. The groups

describe their missions variously as promoting free and independent media through activism,

monitoring media freedom violations, evaluating media systems through indices and written reports,

and defending and protecting journalists working in conflict zones and under repressive

governments. The organizations have applied rather than conceptual goals for their work. They are

interested in media reform often because they believe it plays a role in the development of

democratic states. Their work is often described and cited in the popular media, giving weight to

their operationalization‘s –and consequent conceptualizations—of media freedom. For this reason,

their applied activity deserves close examination. Additionally, examination contributes to the future

development of precise instruments for measuring media freedom. (Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy,

2004).

Reviewing some of the organizations, those are global or regional in scope, allowing for country by

country assessments of their outcomes and deductions. Their reports are categorized by generality,

systematic research, and specific expertise in the areas they cover, often originating from the

organizations‘ durability, the experience of their employees, and their use of diverse, in-country

bases.

----The Freedom House

A non-governmental organization based in Washington D.C., Freedom House was founded more

than 60 years ago to promote democracy globally. Since 1978, Freedom House has published a

global survey of freedom, known as Freedom in the World, now covering 192 countries and 18

related or disputed territories, which are widely used by policy makers, academics, and journalists.

In 1980, as a separate undertaking, Freedom House began conducting its media freedom survey–

Freedom of the Press: A Global Survey of Media Independence–which in 2003 covered the same

192 countries (Freedom House, 2004).

Concept: Freedom of the media.

Conceptual Definition: In the 2004 report, Freedom House says that it attempts to measure ―the

legal environment for the media, political pressures that influence reporting, and economic factors

that affect access to information‖ (Freedom House, 2004). Operational Definition: To measure

press freedom as defined, Freedom House attempts to assess the political, legal, and economic

environments of each country and evaluate whether they promote and do not restrict the free flow of

information. (Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy, 2004).

Procedures: According to the Freedom of the Press managing editor Karin Karlekar (personal

communication, July 6, 2004), Freedom House U.S.-based staff keep year-round files on media

activities for each country. The files contain news articles by and on media in each country and other

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reports from governmental and international organizations. These files are consulted prior to the

production of the annual reports. To augment that information, Freedom House staff members

consult local and international media organizations, multilateral and governmental organizations,

and other NGO‘s. Staff members also rely on the Toronto-based International Freedom of

Expression Exchange (IFEX), a global clearing house for media freedom organizations around the

world, and on Freedom House‘s own world freedom surveys.28

(Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy,

2004).

----Reporters Sans Frontiers (RSF)

The non-profit RSF works to defend journalists and media outlets by condemning attacks on press

freedom worldwide, publishing a variety of annual and special reports on media freedom, and by

appealing to governments and international organizations on behalf of journalists and media

organizations. The group, based in Paris and including a network of 100 correspondents, works to

reduce censorship, opposes laws devised to restrict press freedom, supports journalists and media

outlets with financial aid, and has recently developed a judicial branch to promote effective

prosecution of crimes against journalists. On an annual basis, RSF publishes comprehensive regional

and country reports that assess political, economic, and legal environments for media freedom. In

2002, RSF released its first Worldwide Press Freedom (RSF, 2002a) report and ranking of

individual nations. (Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy, 2004).

Concept: Respect for media freedom.

Conceptual Definition: ―The amount of freedom journalists and the media have in each country

and the efforts made by government to see that press freedom is respected‖ (RSF, 2002b).

Operational Definition: Extent to which legal and political environments, circumstances, and

institutions permit and promote media freedom and the ability of journalists to collect and

disseminate information unimpeded by physical, psychological, or legal attacks and harassment.

Procedures: To create the index, RSF sends out a 53-item questionnaire to in-country sources,

usually members of domestic and foreign media as well as legal experts and members of NGOs

involved with media freedom. RSF receives an average of three to four completed questionnaires for

each country, and if it does not receive at least three, the country is not included. The questions fall

into the five categories of physical and psychological attacks on the journalists, legal harassment of

and discrimination against journalists, obstacles to collecting and disseminating information, and

government manipulation of the media. (Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy, 2004).

After questionnaires are returned, RSF staff members in Paris score the surveys. Each of the

questions is weighted. Lower scores indicate more media freedom. Points are summed and averaged

to arrive at final score.29

(Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy, 2004).

----Arab Press Freedom Watch (APFW)

28

http://www.freedomhouse.org/research/pressurvey.htm 29

http://www.rsf.org/article

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APFW was formed in May 2000, describing itself as the first media freedom organization to monitor

Arab countries. Based in London, the organization produced its first annual report in 2001 (APFW,

2001), which included regional and country analyses of media freedom conditions and a chronology

of attacks on journalists. Its 2003 report (APFW, 2004) on 19 Arab countries included 235 cases of

media freedom violations, including journalists‘ arrests, threats, injuries, imprisonment, kidnapping,

and deaths. This report also included cases of censorship and banning of media, as well as new press

laws that APFW considers to be an obstacle to media freedom. (Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy,

2004).

Concept: Freedom of media, opinion, and expression in Arab countries.

Conceptual Definition: Extent to which nations are characterized by violations of freedom of

expression (Arab Press Freedom Watch, 2001) and media.

Operational Definition: Cases of censorship, overly restrictive press laws, and physical,

psychological and legal attacks on or intimidation of journalists.

Procedures: The newly-formed organization draws on journalists and individuals described as media

freedom supporters to compile information for the annual reports. It states that some contributors

prefer to remain anonymous for fear of reprisal. Neither the annual reports or the APFW Web site

provide more details on procedures.30

(Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy, 2004).

----European Institute for Media (EIM)

The European Institute for the Media, a policy-oriented think tank, was created in 1983. In 1989,

EIM, based in Paris and Dusseldorf, created the Media and Democracy Programme (MADP) to

monitor media development in the emerging democracies of Europe. The EIM so far has monitored

media coverage in at least 50 presidential, parliamentary, and municipal elections in Central and

Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, producing comprehensive written reports from each

mission. Additionally, the project has published several books on related topics, such as media and

elections and media and conflict. (Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy, 2004).

Concept: Media coverage of elections and media developments in former totalitarian countries.

Conceptual Definition: Extent to which media provide free, fair, and objective coverage of

elections and contribute towards ―diversity, participation and accountability in the society‖ (EIM,

2004).

Operational Definition: Equal media coverage for all political candidates participating in the

election, defined as equal space in print media and equal time on broadcasts, as well as objective

tones in reports.

Procedures: To produce its reports, EIM missions, which have included academics and journalists

as well as EIM staff members, are sent to the selected countries to conduct field research. During

30

http://www.apfw.org/data/annualreports/2001/english/2001annualreport.pdf

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monitoring of coverage of the March 2002 elections in the Ukraine, for example, the EIM mission

oversaw monitoring of the print and broadcast media to produce quantitative data on the amount of

media time was spent on competing candidates. Monitors also measured positive, negative and

neutral references to provide an assessment of the tone of coverage. In addition, they conducted

interviews with sources from media, political and regulatory fields. The interviews addressed issues

of impartiality of election coverage, media access for all political parties and candidates, balance in

the presentation of various political perspectives, and the ability of the media to report freely, fairly

and objectively. Reports (EIM, 2004) include descriptions of staffing, methodology, political and

regulatory background, as well as summaries of findings.31

(Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy, 2004).

----International Federation of Journalists (IFJ)

Based in Brussels, the IJF is among the most longstanding media freedom organizations, claiming

500,000 members in more than 100 countries (IFJ, n.d.). First formed in the 1920s, it describes itself

as politically neutral but committed to freedom of expression, defense of press freedom, partly

through independent trade unions. IFJ chronicles the killings of journalists all over the world in the

IFJ Annual Report on Journalists and Media Staff Killed. (Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy, 2004).

Concept: Safety of journalists and media workers.

Conceptual Definition: Extent of ―press freedom violations‖ throughout the world (IFJ, 2004).

Operational Definition: Counts of cases of reported and unconfirmed murders of journalists, deaths

of journalists covering news.

Procedures: IFJ monitors abuses of journalists and media workers, including translators, drivers,

technicians and others. IFJ includes cases in which it is unclear why journalists were killed, and

cases in which journalists were killed in accidents while on the job. The annual compilation of

attacks includes the sources for each case, often other media freedom organizations such as the

International Press Institute, Committee to Protect Journalists, World Association of Newspapers,

Reporters sans frontiers, Canadian Journalists for Free Expression, and the International Freedom of

Expression Exchange.32

(Becker, Lee & Nusser, Nancy, 2004).

All of these above mentioned organizations are involved in the day to day activities and

operations of Media, and are informed for its actions. There are several other institutions which also

play a great role in media democratization….

31

http://www.eim.org/ 32

http://www.ifj.org/

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Chapter 6- Media In Pakistan—An Analysis Of PEMRA, And

Social And Mass Media After nine years of military rule, Pakistan today finds itself in the second year of a challenging

transition to democracy. Unlike previously unsuccessful transitions to democracy, this transition is

characterized by the presence of a newly liberalized mass media. This can prove to be to be a crucial

– and positive – factor, but only if the media can assume a role as a watchdog of democracy. Even

though Pakistan‘s media is vibrant this is a difficult task, because the media is faced with a number

of challenges. (International Media Support, 2009)

----Media landscape

Pakistan has a vibrant media landscape, which in spite of political pressure and direct bans that they

are sometimes subject to from the state; the media enjoys independence to a large extent. After

having been liberalized in 2002, the television sector experienced a media boom. In the fierce

competitive environment that followed commercial interests became paramount and quality

journalism gave way to sensationalism. Although the radio sector has not seen similar growth,

independent radio channels are numerous and considered very important sources of information –

especially in the rural areas. (International Media Support, 2009)

The Pakistani media landscape reflects a multi-linguistic, multi-ethnic and class-divided society.

There is a clear divide between Urdu and English media. Urdu media, particularly the newspapers,

are widely read by the masses – mostly in rural areas. The English media is urban and elite-centric,

is more liberal and professional compared to the Urdu media. English print, television and radio

channels have far smaller audiences than their Urdu counterparts, but have greater leverage among

opinion makers, politicians, the business community, and the upper strata of society. (International

Media Support, 2009)

----Media and conflict

Pakistan ranks as the most deadly country in the world for journalists. The security and safety

situation in the conflict-affected areas, the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) and North

West Frontier Province (NWFP), are the most grievous. Here journalists face propaganda, threats,

coercion, and targeted killings. Some areas are effectively no-go areas for journalists; and the

journalists working in the conflicts epicenters have adapted to self censorship in order to not

antagonize the conflicting parties. As a result, curbs have been put on the free flow of information

and some areas in FATA and NWFP and Baluchistan suffer from a dearth of information – or an

outright information vacuum. There is a great need to provide journalists with improved security

through risk-awareness training and conflict sensitive journalism. (International Media Support,

2009)

Pakistani media have not only been caught up in this violent conflict, but also in a war of words,

ideologies and propaganda. FATA and NWFP have more than a hundred radical, illegal hate speech

radios and the mainstream media have been subjected to a radical agenda as well. The media

coverage of the regional conflicts within Pakistan and how these relate to the conflict in Afghanistan

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is either very rudimentary or stereotypical, and does not contribute to a greater understanding of the

interwoven challenges from extremism that the two neighbors face. (International Media Support,

2009)

Pakistan is at cross roads in its history. It is the cradle of contemporary terrorism and the centre of

attention in the global war against terrorism. The country is faced with a violent, prolonged domestic

conflict. But most importantly, after having held elections in February 2008, Pakistan today finds

itself in the second year of a challenging transition to democracy after nine years of military rule.

The present development marks a historic nexus with an opportunity to establish a sustainable

democracy. Pakistan is a fragile state, threatened by economic crisis and the effects of a continued

insurgency. The civilian government is facing a difficult task. (International Media Support, 2009)

The violent conflict with the Pakistani Taliban, Al Qaeda and other militant groups on one side, and

the army and state on the other, has intensified dramatically during the past year; and has craved

thousands of casualties, produced millions of internally displaced persons and now threatens the

cohesion of the state. In several regions the military is involved in fierce fighting with the Taliban,

which have been able to assert its will and enforce Sharia Law in the tribal areas and parts of NWFP.

(International Media Support, 2009)

Recently, the armies have had its first major success in pushing back the Pakistani Taliban when it

cleared the Swat district for militants after heavy fighting. Although ruthless, the military operation

received a previously unseen backing of the public and the major opposition party. (International

Media Support, 2009)

The public support encouraged the military and was pivotal for a successful outcome. This indicates

that there is now greater resolve to counter the insurgency. But whether the military success in Swat

is the beginning of a more determined and comprehensive policy to defeat the Pakistani Taliban

remains unclear. But one thing is for certain. If the tide is not turned by a decisive strategy, Pakistan

could begin to slide toward a failed state. This possible scenario is echoed in a recent report from the

Atlantic Council think tank, which calls for a more comprehensive US policy towards Pakistan.

(International Media Support, 2009)

The Atlantic Council argues that Pakistan is on a rapid trajectory to failure as a democratic and

stable state, and needs a boost of $4 billion in aid and loans each year to begin a reform process. The

report warns ―that we are running out of time to help Pakistan change its present course toward

increasing economic and political instability, and even ultimate failure.‖33

(International Media

Support, 2009)

9/11 brought Pakistan into the epicenter of international politics. It was an indispensable actor of the

US-led global war against terrorism. Consensus in the international community strongly agrees that

a democratic, stable Pakistan is paramount for global peace. But the million-dollar question is if this

is still possible. Creating a well-functioning democracy will require a political leadership able to

curb the military‘s influence in state affairs; find solutions to Pakistan‘s economic crisis; improve 33 Pakistan Report: Comprehensive U.S. Policy Needed, John Kerry and Chuck Hagel, Atlantic Council, Feb. 2009.

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the previous democratic governments‘ poor track record on effective governance and, lastly, curb

the increasing spread of violence and Talibanisation. (International Media Support, 2009)

The role of the media in this process must be emphasized. If Pakistan is going to make a successful

transition to democracy, the media must be able to perform its role as a watchdog -holding

politicians, the state apparatus and army accountable and keeping the general public well informed.

Even though Pakistan has a vibrant media this is challenging task. Pakistan‘s media is faced with

number of challenges. The booming electronic media is powerful, but young, and needs to find a

greater balance in its coverage of political and conflict-related issues. Many journalists need

training. Areas within the country suffer from lack of access to media. Journalists reporting from

conflict areas face security problems that in turn hamper their ability to provide a free flow of

information. With twelve deaths in 2008, Pakistan became the second deadliest country for working

journalists and other media employees. With six journalists killed so far in 2009, Pakistan now ranks

as the most deadly country in the world for journalists to work in. (International Media Support,

2009)

Pakistan is faced with a huge job ahead if it is to establish autonomous governance and practices,

inner peace and fortune for its residents. Responsive of the significant role the media needs to play

in this process, and alarmed by reports of the weakening security condition correspondents face in

large parts of the country, an IMS team went to Pakistan in January 2009 on a combined media

assessment mission. (International Media Support, 2009)

The purpose of the mission was two-fold: 1) to carry out a needs valuation and 2) to identify

potential forthcoming partners able to recruit actions as quickly as possible. This report is the result

of the mission; and its conclusions constitute the foundation for IMS‘s plans for future projects and

collaboration with Pakistan media workers and institutions. (International Media Support, 2009)

The mission, which took place from 31 January to 7 February 2009, was based in Islamabad where

most of the major local media organizations, related ministries and governmental institutions,

international media support organizations, academic institution and think-tanks have their main

offices. Furthermore, a close proximity to FATA and NWFP was preferred as safety issues for

journalists were part of the mission scope. (International Media Support, 2009)

During the mission a series of investors was consulted. To ensure effectiveness, and gauge how IMS

could subsidize, other international and local media support organization were primarily consulted

in order to learn from their experiences in the country and to establish contacts for possible future

cooperation. (International Media Support, 2009)

Based on these preliminary studies, the IMS mission team consulted with Pakistani media

stakeholders. Representatives from print, television and radio broadcaster outlets, the local union of

journalist, media regulating authorities, the information ministry, and educational institutions were

interviewed. The emphasis of the research was on gaining a general understanding of the Pakistani

conflict, and a detailed insight into the media‘s role and working conditions for the journalists who

operate in the conflict areas. The Pakistan Institute of Peace Studies (PIPS) assisted in organizing

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the mission and provided an overall review of the prevailing conflict and the corresponding media

issues. This background information was complimented with interviews and insights from local

journalists, some of whom work in conflict areas such as the Federally Administered Tribal Areas

(FATA), Baluchistan and the North West Frontier Province (NWFP). (International Media Support,

2009)

Due to the conflict‘s regional character – spanning the Afghan-Pakistani border – the mission had a

particular focus on media relations between the two countries when conduction field research and

interviews with media support organizations, newspaper editors and journalists occupied with the

conflict. The mission small team consisted of Finn Rasmussen; IMS Programme coordinator, and

two consultants: Ranga Kalansooriya, specialist in media development, and Jeppe Matzen, MA in

History and journalist specialized in Pakistan affairs. (International Media Support, 2009)

----Description of the media landscape

Pakistan has a energetic media landscape; among the most vigorous in South Asia. To a large extent

the media enjoys freedom of expression in spite of political pressure and direct bans sometimes

managed by political investors. More than 40 television channels beam soaps, mockery, music

programs, films, religious speech, political talk shows, and news of the hour. Although sometimes

criticized for being unprincipled and politically unfair, the television channels have made a great

involvement to the media landscape and to Pakistani society. (International Media Support, 2009)

Radio channels are frequent and considered a very important source of information – especially in

rural areas. Besides the state channel Radio Pakistan, a number of isolated radios carry independent

reporting content and news. But most radio content is music and entertainment. There are hundreds

of Pakistani newspapers from the large national Urdu newspapers to the small local dialect papers.

(International Media Support, 2009)

Media demographics imitate a multi-linguistic, multi-ethnic and stratified class society with a clear

divide between Urdu and English media. Urdu media are mostly inspired by the rural population.

The English media targets urban and the exclusive and is more generous and professional in

contrast. English print, television and radio channels have far smaller spectators than their Urdu

colleagues, but have great influence among opinion makers, politicians, the business community,

and the upper strata of society. (International Media Support, 2009)

Besides the Urdu/English and Rural/Urban divide, Pakistan media is also divided linguistically with

a series of media in dialect languages, such as Punjabi, Pashto and Sindhi. Pakistan‘s media sector is

highly influenced by the possession structure. There are three dominating media powers, or large

media groups, which to some extent also have political relationships. Due to their dominance in both

print and broadcast industries all three media groups are very influential in politics and society. The

security situation for journalists in general has deteriorated in the past couple of years. Twelve

journalists were killed in 2008; and so far by May 2009 six more has been killed. Threats and

intimidation against journalists and media workers by state and non-state actors is widespread.

Political pressure on media is mostly done indirectly. One tool widely used by the government is to

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cut off ‗unfriendly‘ media from governmental advertising. Using draconian laws the government has

also banned or officially silencing popular television channels. The Pakistan Electronic Media

Regulatory Authority (PEMRA) has been used to silence the broadcast media by either suspending

licenses or by simply threatening to do so. In addition, media is also visible to advertising from state

agencies, pressured by powerful political elements and non-state actors involved in the current

encounter. (International Media Support, 2009)

As news coverage on the most popular private television channels is mostly focused on conflict and

political stories, reports covering social issue, minorities, marginalized groups, human rights and

women rights do not get due exposure in the media. In defense of the media, one could argue that

developments within political theatre and the prevailing conflict have been so intense that they have

demanded all the attention of journalists and media in general. (International Media Support, 2009)

----Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority– from partner to controller

Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA) was promoted by the government as an

open media policy reform and was fortified with strong regulatory teeth but it is in reality one of the

major hurdles to press freedom in the country. The establishment of PEMRA was initiated in 2000

through the formation of the Regulatory Authority for Media Broadcast Organizations which was

mandated to improve standards of information, education and entertainment; expand the choice

available to the people of Pakistan in the media for news, current affairs, religious knowledge, art,

culture, science, technology, economic development, social sector concerns, music, sport, drama and

other subjects of public and national interest; facilitate the devolution of responsibility and power to

grass roots by improving the access to mass media at the local and community level; and lastly, to

ensure accountability, transparency and good governance by optimizing the free flow of

information. (International Media Support, 2009)

Many pro-democratic campaigners consider this four-point mandate to be a solid foundation

supporting democracy processes and comprehensive media liberalization. However, the general

opinion among media practitioners is that PEMRA only acted as a license issuing office that has

implemented regulatory barriers for broadcaster. “It is a Bhatta (means money extortion in Urdu)

body that collects money from broadcasting operators in a legal way. Nothing more can be

expected,” notes media law activist and journalist Matiullah Jan. (International Media Support,

2009)

The PEMRA laws were utilized by the Musharraf regime in his attempts to tame the media. Some

stations were shut down and some were under severe harassments using these laws. The 12-member

authority was dominated by bureaucrats and ex-police officers – a phenomenon that had been partly

changed after the assumption of office by the present government. (International Media Support,

2009)

However, media activists are still not comfortable with the composition of the 12-member

committee where they highlight the need of a greater representation from the media itself.

―Regulation of the TV and Radio should be through the participation and representation of the stake

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holders. What must happen is the restructuring of the Board of PEMRA with independent eminent

people. It is still full of bureaucrats and ex-policemen, so there you find lack of ownership,‖ say

Matiullah Jan. (International Media Support, 2009)

PEMRA‘s leadership agrees to that the institution needs to be more engaged with its stakeholders.

“It‟s a combination of regulator and the stakeholders. Therefore, the chain is – Law /Regulator /

Stakeholder,” says Dr. Abdul Jabbar, the Executive Member of PEMRA. (International Media

Support, 2009)

However, the present government is under pressure to amend or repeal these laws. Many media

practitioners confirmed that the harsh use of the PEMRA laws during the Musharraf regime had not

occurred during the past year. The PEMRA board has been reconstituted to some extent and

includes some media professionals. Furthermore, the government is making some attempts to

reintroduce some democratic norms in its media regulation reform. The Code of Conduct made by

PEMRA has been subjected to criticism by the industry players, and is now being reviewed by the

government. The former Minister of Information has requested Pakistani Broadcasters Association

to draft a new Code of Conduct to replace the existing Code of Conduct of PEMRA. (International

Media Support, 2009)

Still, a somewhat top-down approach is taken from PEMRA authorities on this matter. Referring to

the issue on Code of Conduct, Dr. Abdul Jabbar said that presently there are many Codes of

Conduct, one by PFUJ, one by South Asia Free Media Association (SAFMA) and the broadcasters

are in the process of formulating another. “The Government will not agree to any of these, most

probably. But taking all these documents into account, the government will come up with a

comprehensive document that can be acceptable to all stakeholders. Then everybody has the

ownership”. He continued: “PEMRA will function – it will not be silenced or nullified. We will be

the regulatory body. But the stakeholders will have a say in the Code of Conduct. That‟s what we

call self-regulation”. (International Media Support, 2009)

----Journalists and media workers in Pakistan

The working conditions of a Pakistani journalist varies greatly depending on the form of the media

(electronic/print), its readers (rural/urban), language (English/Urdu) and the size of the media

(local/national). Financially, the greatest divide is between print journalists on the one hand and TV-

journalists and other electronic media workers on the other. A fulltime TV employee earns up to

100,000 rupees a month (1.200 Euros). The most prominent reporters and anchors have higher

salaries than cameramen and other TV employees under regular contracts. (International Media

Support, 2009)

Newspaper journalists earn less, often with no clear contracts and irregular payment of wages. The

minimum wage at a newspaper is officially 10,000 rupees a month (120 Euros). At a larger paper a

regular employee will typically make 15-20,000 rupees a month. Salaries at the large national papers

and especially those in English are higher. (International Media Support, 2009)

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According to the general secretary of PFUJ, Mazhar Abbas, up to 80% of the print journalists have

no contracts or employment letters and media houses invent scams to avoid paying higher salaries.

Dawn, according to Abbas, contracts some journalist through a subcontractor in order to avoid

having complaints about wages directed at the newspaper itself. (International Media Support, 2009)

Working for a rural newspaper can be particularly difficult. ―Sometimes the owners of rural

newspapers tell the journalists, that there is no salary, but that they can make money by selling

advertising‖ says Abbas. (International Media Support, 2009)

Many rural journalists work part-time for a local paper or they freelance and provide local news for

a larger urban or national media. Besides poor financial conditions these journalists also lack

backing for their safety concerns and support in legal matters and insurance. Journalists training

vary greatly. Some local journalists have no education or training at all. Many came from low-paid

jobs as for example schoolteachers. Journalists who are able to write and speak English are more

likely to make a decent salary. A job with the urban elitist media is considering favourable if you are

print journalist. (International Media Support, 2009)

These urban media also have a number of columnists, who often come have different backgrounds.

Many of these columnists are retired army officers, academics and intellectuals, who often are

financially well off and belong to the higher middle or upper classes. They are often very influential

and provide background information related to specific news reporting. (International Media

Support, 2009)

Female Pakistani journalists have very different work area. In general female journalists are not

assigned to cover conflicts or politics, but find themselves confined to reporting on social and

cultural topics. Most female reporters work for the large urban and national media, and especially in

the electronic media. (International Media Support, 2009)

----Quality of media and journalists

Pakistan has many excellent and professional journalists, who are able to produce high quality

journalism under very difficult conditions. But the standard of journalism varies widely from the

best trained, educated and most professional journalist to the uneducated, untrained and

unprofessional. Even the most professional journalists often work under conditions that make it hard

to maintain a high journalistic standard. (International Media Support, 2009)

The boom in electronic media has led to a surge in the number of journalists working in Pakistan in

recent years. Some experienced TV-journalists have left the state broadcaster PTV to work at the

new TV-channels, but the bulk of the new TV-reporters have come from the print media. TV-

channels offer better salaries and the prospect of gaining celebrity status – attractive work places for

a young journalist. (International Media Support, 2009)

Sufficient training and education of TV-professionals have not accompanied the sudden boom of

TV-channels. Major TV-channels and reporters are criticized for sensationalism and too heavy a

focus on breaking news. News events are followed on minute-by-minute basis with reporters on the

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spot, but these contain little background information, analysis or follow up that could put events in a

context. ―Few journalists care about the quality of the news and have little knowledge of issues‖,

says Farrukh Tanveer Malik, Senior Assignment Editor at Geo TV in Islamabad. ―They just report

on what is happening.‖ (International Media Support, 2009)

Commenting on the issue of the breaking news trend, Farrukh Tanveer Malik explains that owners

insist on a focus on breaking news. ―Stories are broken up into mini-stories, where insignificant

details are blown out of proportion. ‗Now the Chief Justice comes out of his house, now he sits in

his car, now…‘ This is not breaking news. We are forced to practice it.‖ Sensationalism is also

prevalent in the political talk shows. Seeking to raise ratings by airing opinions presumed to be

popular among their viewers, talk show moderators sometimes step outside their roles and become

biased stakeholders in a debate. (International Media Support, 2009)

According to Khalid Jameel, Bureau Chief of Ajj TV in Islamabad, five or six moderators on the TV

channels dominate national debate. Acting as hosts to a group of retired army personnel and

professional opinion makers, these Programme anchors sometimes espouse ungrounded speculations

and unfounded conspiracy theories. (International Media Support, 2009)

To some extent this sensationalism can been seen as part of the growing pains of a recently

liberalized and booming electronic media with ambitious journalists trying to learn to deal with the

responsibilities of a powerful medium. Farrukh Tanveer Malik, at Geo News, thinks that too few

journalists care about the quality of the news and have knowledge of the issues. He stresses the need

for more training. In general TV journalists come from three backgrounds. Former print journalists

that have gone into TV reporting, because of the much higher salaries, better working conditions and

higher status; young journalists or newcomers that have begun their career in television. The third

group is of the few seasoned television reporters, or senior newspaper journalists, who often fill the

editorial and management positions or function as anchors. (International Media Support, 2009)

Both in the electronic and print media, reporters, anchors and editors also unfounded speculations.

Political talk shows on TV are crammed with guest analysts and retired army officers who often are

biased and are not being challenged about their personal agendas. The same goes for the opinion

pages in the newspapers, which some times print erroneous and untruthful manipulative content.

This is often the case for foreign affairs news reporting. The Pakistani media‘s coverage of foreign

affairs is limited, superficial and, at times, misleading. (International Media Support, 2009)

Commercial interests, hidden political agendas, and attempts to coerce media are often the

motivations behind airing biased information in newspaper and TV reports, interviews and talk

shows. But journalists have so far not been able to unite and raise their concerns about the lack of

objective, balanced journalism with the powerful media owners. Training and education is not part

of the media budgets. ―Few journalists do mid-career training or refreshment courses. They are

trying to do their best, but are not up to mark‖, says Farrukh Tanveer Malik from Geo TV.

(International Media Support, 2009)

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----Media distortion

Media content in Pakistan is distorted most of all because of coercion, pressure, bribery and

propaganda from outside actors. Radical Islamist influence on the media first manifested itself in the

1950s, when the government in Punjab used the media to promote radical views against the

Ahmadis Muslims. The newspaper Nawa-e-Waqt was among the papers receiving money from the

Punjab government to incite public anger against the Ahmadis. (International Media Support, 2009)

Since then radical groups and political parties such as Jamaat-i-Islaami, Sipahi- Sahaba and more

recently the Pakistani Taliban, have infiltrated the mainstream media or strengthened and expanded

their own media platform. The radical organizations have grown strong enough to threaten violence

with such leverage that the mainstream media often give in to their agenda. A survey by the Pakistan

Institute of Peace Studies found that 69% of 16 journalists and editors thought that radicalization

was crippling freedom of expression. 50% found that the radical media had an impact on

mainstream media, and 57 % thought that the media was concealing facts about radicalization.34

(International Media Support, 2009)

Coercion comes in different forms and affects the media in many ways. When journalists are in the

field in NWFP, says an interviewee that prefers anonymity, ―the militants use to follow journalists

around to ensure that they are not talking to ordinary people. They are not honoring our

independence.‖ (International Media Support, 2009)

This is a mild form of coercion. Radicals also threaten to kill journalists and their families, media

owners and editors. According to Waseem Ahmed Shah, resident editor of the Dawn in Peshawar,

journalists and media representatives live in fear, and therefore they censor their reporting so the

public are not getting appropriate and balanced information.18 The situation is very different from

region to region. In the south and middle regions of the country radical influence is not as dominant

as in the NWFP and FATA. (International Media Support, 2009)

Part of the radical influence has also been generated by the media‘s own dynamics as media sees the

conflict as hot news and follows it intensely. During the Red Mosque incident in 2007, the media

was criticized for covering the event as an entertaining spectacle, and thereby for giving too much

airtime to the radicals inside the mosque. Journalists are not sufficiently trained to have a critical

eye, to sort out undocumented information and radical viewpoints when these are not relevant or

necessary to the present story. Radical organizations seek media coverage because they want to

spread their messages. The media is aware of this and, consequently, give the radicals extensive

coverage to avoid their wrath.19(International Media Support, 2009)

Part of the problem is that journalists, TV-anchors and reporters want to be popular and increase

their program‘s ratings by covering what they believe to be popular events and issues. This is true at

both the large TV stations as well as at small newspapers. The Urdu media however prefers to

propagate radical views as they believe that their readers and viewers are conservative and more

likely to appreciate Islamist agendas. (International Media Support, 2009)

34 Muhammad Azam, Radicalization and Media, Conflict and Peace Studies, vol. 1 2008, PIPS, p. 37.

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In addition to the radicalization of mainstream media, the Islamists also have their own media.

Pakistan has always had religious media, but in the 1980s a new type of radical Islamist media came

into existence that was established in order to support the call for Jihad in Afghanistan and building

support for Islamist movements. This has now become a parallel media industry. (International

Media Support, 2009)

The number of radical publications runs into hundreds. Six major jihadi outfits print more than 50

newspapers and magazines alone. The Urdu monthly, Mujalla Al-Dawa, has a circulation of

approximately 100,000. It is published by the Jamaat ud-Dawaa, an organisation run by Lashkar-e-

Taiba which has been label as a terrorist organization. Lashkar-e-Taiba also publishes the weekly

paper, Ghazwa, claiming a circulation of approximately 200,000.20 The Islamist party Jamaat-i-

Islami publishes 22 publications with a total circulation equaling that of a large mainstream

Pakistani newspaper. (International Media Support, 2009)

Many of these publications can be found in newsstands across the country; the banned publications

are distributed around mosques, or delivered to subscribers‘ home address. Glorification of the

Mujahidin and disparage of the US and its allies are the dominant features of these publications.

They criticize the government of Pakistan; and encourage true believers to die for Islam.

(International Media Support, 2009)

Militant activities are highlighted and glorified as are calls for the Umma to unite against the

enemies of Islam. The jihadi and other radical organizations are also using electronic media.

According to Altaf Ullah Khan, Professor in Mass Communication at Peshawar University, there are

hundreds of underground Jihadi radios in FATA and NWFP. Mullahs use the radio to glorification

and to propagate their cause. But another very important use of the radios is to generate fear.

Mullahs began using the radio to spread hate and fear a few years ago and realize that it is an

effective weapons useful to instill terror in inhabitants of FATA and parts of NWPF who are cut off

from the rest of the country and hostage to the Taliban and other militant groups. In Swat the

notorious Mullah FM run by Maulvi Fazl Ullah broadcasts threats of attacks. These are always

followed up with action the next day if the people named do not comply and capitulate to the

verdicts announced on the radio. People regularly listen to the radio to hear whether they are named,

or their business or profession banned. Children want to have a radio to hear whether their schools

will be allowed to function or whether the age limit for girls to go out in public is further reduced.

(International Media Support, 2009)

Many community radio stations in Pakistan have fallen into the hands of radicals. One of the reasons

for this is that PEMRA has not been willing to issue licenses for community or non-commercial FM

radio operation. PEMRA has the authority to issue special licenses for community radios, but the

special community radio licenses have not been put into effect on a large scale. FATA is not under

the jurisdiction of PEMRA. The central government has the authority to issue radio licenses in the

tribal areas. Shabbir Anwer, Principal Information Officer at the Ministry of Information suggests

that a system for issuing free frequencies for community radios could be establish. (International

Media Support, 2009)

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According to Altaf Ullah Khan, community radio could have a major impact in fostering social

change, public healthcare, education and the spread of democracy. It is impossible to close down or

jam the radical stations but providing access to an alternative and a voice for normality would be

valuable. (International Media Support, 2009)

The government, military and intelligence agencies also influence the media‘s agenda through

coercion, bans and revoking of advertisement budgets. According to Samina Ahmed of the

International Crisis Group, bribery is also used. “Prominent journalists are on the take and corrupt.

But the journalist associations and union don‟t want to come to terms with it”, she says.

(International Media Support, 2009)

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Chapter 7- Role Of Media—A Contemporary View On Cyberspace

And Social Networks

THE INTERNET, SOCIAL MEDIA AND POLITICAL CHANGE

The political uprisings in Tunisia and Egypt in 2011 have further intensified discussions on the

political potential of internet communication which, since the very beginning, have been closely tied

to the worldwide expansion of the medium: the new information and communication technologies

(ICT) are generally seen as facilitating a more open information exchange, the formation of

alternative political opinions, and the mobilization of social actors previously excluded from

political participation. Six months after Twitter messages about the protests of Iranian voters against

the manipulation of the presidential elections in June 2009 had mobilized worldwide attention, US

Secretary of State Hillary Clinton declared internet freedom a new priority in American foreign

policy. Drawing on Cold War rhetoric, Clinton warned of a descending ―new information curtain‖

and likened the battle against internet censorship to an overall fight against authoritarianism (Clinton

2010)35

. Coupled with the powerful impressions from Egypt where protesters allegedly used social

media like Facebook to organize their vast presence in Cairo‘s central Tahrir Square, the perception

of the internet as a means for democratization and development is bound to shape future political

expectations and decisions. As a consequence, the new medium increasingly attracts the interest of

civil society activists, policy makers, and development organizations. In the US, as in many other

Western countries, this has already led to a sharp increase in projects and funds dedicated to harness

the supposed democratic potential of the internet. (Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011)

Yet the narrative of the ―Twitter/Facebook-Revolutions‖ has been contested. In his detailed rebuttal

of ―cyber-optimism‖ Evgeny Morozov argues that a mere focus on information freedom and

technology access neglects the way authoritarian rulers are using the internet for propaganda

purposes, online surveillance, and targeted censorship. A one-sided approach to supporting net-

activism would risk not only a waste of funds and resources but also carry dangers for the very

activists the assistance is directed at (Morozov, Evgeny, 2011). Also, research on the Kenyan post-

election crisis of 2007 has shown that the new communication technologies actually exacerbated

conflict and violence (Goldstein/Rotich 2008, BBC 2008)36

. The Tunisian blogger Sami Ben

Gharbia points out that the sudden interest in digital activism, the politicization of cyberspace, and

the proliferation of funding affect the independence, autonomy, and authenticity that have

characterized online initiatives in the Arab world so far. Moreover, due to the involvement of giant

private companies like Google and Facebook he considers the ―Internet Freedom Agenda‖ a new

35

Clinton, Hillary Rodham (2010): Remarks on Internet Freedom. U.S. Department of State, January 21. http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2010/01/135519.htm. 36

Goldstein, Joshua/Rotich, Juliane (2008): Digitally Networked Technology in Kenya’s 2007-2008 Election Crisis. Berkman Center for Internet & Society, Harvard. http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/sites/cyber.law.harvard.edu/files/Goldstein&Rotich_Digitally_Networked_Technology_Kenyas_Crisis.pdf.pdf

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strategy for advancing the geopolitical and economic interests of the West (Gharbia, Sami, 2010;

Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011).

----The Internet as a Potential Tool for Democratization

It is not surprising that the internet has raised high expectations regarding its possible effects on

authoritarian regimes and the advancement of worldwide democratization. The internet allows for a

quasi instantaneous transmission of information at low cost and free from the typical barriers that

confine access to the traditional media. The evolution of the new media during the last decade has

made it easy to transmit messages in different formats (text, sound, and image). Furthermore, online

communication transcends geographical borders permitting the formation of transnational

communities based on shared language, culture, or interests. Due to its network-like and non-

hierarchical structure, the internet has been considered as the ideal means of communication for

social movements and subaltern groups challenging established power structures (Michaelsen,

Marcus, 2011). In Western democracies, it was expected to eradicate the democratic deficits of

corporate-dominated media systems, influenced by consumer-culture and intertwined with powerful

elites. As for authoritarian systems, the World Wide Web promised not only to undermine the state‘s

control on information circulation but also to open up new communication channels for suppressed

opposition groups and dissidents (Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011).

Up till now, however, it has become evident that the internet‘s potential for fostering democratic

change is restrained by several factors. First of all, the different aspects of the so-called ―digital

divide‖ shape, size, and composition of online public groups as well as possible forms of usage: not

only infrastructural development and access quality but also education, media literacy and socio-

economic stratification create unequal conditions within the population for accessing and using the

Internet (Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011).

Secondly, the characteristics of online communication itself influence its political outreach. The

internet is considered a ―pull-medium‖; i.e. users have to actively search for the content and

applications they are interested in. Consequently, political information and debate enter an uneven

rivalry with entertainment – as it is the case in other media too. In addition, users tend to visit the

websites of well-established traditional media, like newspapers or TV-stations that generally have

significant resources at their disposal to compete with independent online publications or weblogs

(Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011).

Thirdly, non-democratic regimes have developed sophisticated mechanisms for the surveillance and

control of online communication. Administering the national infrastructure and legislation of

telecommunication, authoritarian states successfully block access to specific internet content, and

monitor and persecute dissident online authors. The recent events in Iran and Tunisia have shown

that security agencies employed internet technology to identify protesters and networks of

resistance. Furthermore, regime actors actively produce online content in order to extend their

ideological hegemony into cyberspace. In China and Russia, for instance, not only all are important

state media present on the internet but the government also organises bloggers who engage

extensively in online debates in order to drown out dissident voices. Saudi-Arabia and Thailand

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provide internet users with the option of reporting websites considered offensive to ruling norms and

values, thereby ―crowd-sourcing‖ censorship. The Singaporean government uses internet forums to

absorb critique that could otherwise seek different channels to emerge in public. These various

forms of pro-active internet use ultimately contribute to strengthening the legitimacy of non-

democratic rulers. (Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011).

Finally, aside from authoritarian regimes other non-democratic actors benefit from the internet too:

extremist groups of various orientations discovered long ago the advantages of online

communication, underlining the fact that the internet as such does not necessarily function along

democratic norms. (Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011).

As a consequence of these restricting factors, the internet‘s use for the spreading of political

information and debate in developing and transitioning countries remains generally limited to the

educated and urban layers of society. Nevertheless, these information elites by and large originate in

the middle classes and can be considered as upwardly mobile social groups who, in an authoritarian

setting, are often affected by political exclusion. In many transformation processes, educated

professionals such as journalists, academics, lawyers, and engineers have formed the core of

movements that have challenged established regimes. In civil society, these actors are often

committed to social development and change. By creating awareness of existing grievances and

formulating demands for change they influence public opinion. With regards to democratization

processes, it is therefore necessary to evaluate the capability and inclination of internet-active social

actors to challenge the status quo. Subsequently it can be examined whether and how the internet is

supporting the activities of these actors. For this purpose, several potential effects of the internet on

the communication and activities of civil society and political challengers will be distinguished in

the following. (Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011).

----Case Study of Pakistan

Since its foundation in 1947, Pakistan has not succeeded in establishing a stable system of

democratic governance. Alternating intervals between civilian governments and military rule remain

a characteristic feature of the country‘s political evolution. After the removal of the military

government led by former Army Chief and President Musharraf in 2008, Pakistan has, again,

embarked on a fragile course of democratization. However, even if no longer directly involved in

government, the army still casts a long shadow over the political sphere as well as the economy and

the national culture, thereby hampering the evolvement of functional democratic institutions.

Combining elements of authoritarian rule, hesitant liberalization and democratic consolidation,

Pakistan has to be situated in the ―grey zone‖ of hybrid systems. (Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011).

----Challenges

The consolidation of a democratic system in Pakistan faces multiple challenges. Although the

country ranks among the most populated in the world, there is neither a congruent strategy nor the

political will to manage demographics. The population growth exerts significant pressure on all

sectors of public life. The education and health system particularly are unable to cater for the needs

of society. Pakistan is far from its declared goal of providing basic primary education to all children

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by 2015: currently only 56 per cent of children between the age of five and nine years attend school.

With nearly half of the population being illiterate, the literacy rate is among the lowest in the region.

Moreover, a lack of efficient training and qualification for the labor market leads to high numbers of

un- and underemployment, particularly among the youth. These trends coincide with an increasing

migration into the cities where a poor and overstrained administration often results in energy, water,

and housing shortages. The unfulfilled promises of both education and urbanization are generally

considered as catalysts for feelings of resentment and alienation among the affected layers of the

population, fermenting social tension and radical ideas.37

(Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011).

----A Growing Media Market

Pakistan‘s media landscape experienced an impressive evolution during the last 10-15 years. The

previously non-existent sector of private electronic media especially has flourished after the state

monopoly on broadcasting was lifted in 2002. Overall, the media enjoy freedom of expression

but are faced with political pressure and safety issues when approaching certain topics. Also, a

lack of professional education and weak journalistic ethics restrain the media from fully playing

their required role in the democratic consolidation of the country. (Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011).

Television is nationwide the most popular medium. In addition to the state-run PTV with different

channels for news, entertainment, and regional programs, more than 70 private channels had been

issued a license by the end of 2009. Nevertheless, there is a considerable gap between rural and

urban areas. In some remote areas, where electricity shortages, limited coverage, and high poverty

levels restrict the outreach of television, radio usage is almost equally as prevalent. In addition, the

television market remains divided between PTV, still the only network with terrestrial emission, and

the private channels operating via cable or satellite. (Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011).

According to a survey, only 11 per cent of the rural population has access to satellite or cable, versus

69 per cent in the urban areas (Audience Scapes, 2010a)38

. The costs of equipment or subscription

also restrict the usage of private television. Although purchase prices for satellite equipment are

decreasing and several households often share a single connection, the usage of private channels

increases with the level of income and education. Thus, among the urban and educated television

consumers with higher income rates, the private news channel Geo News has already outranked

PTV‘s news Programme. Other private news channels such as Express News, ARY News, and Aaj

TV also enjoy growing popularity within these audience groups (Audience Scapes, 2010b)39

.

Despite the impressive progress in the sector television, radio remains an important medium in

Pakistan. Particularly for the rural and poorer sections of the population with limited access to

television and other media, radio is an essential source of information and entertainment. Due to the

increasing circulation of mobile phones with a radio device, more and more people listen to radio

37

Kazim, Hasnain (2011): Taliban verbreiten Video von Massenexekution. Spiegel Online, July 18. http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/0,1518,775051,00.html. 38

Audience Scapes (2010a): Television in Pakistan. The Intermedia Knowledge Center. http://www.audiencescapes.org/country-profiles-pakistan-country-overview-television-statistics. 39

Audience Scapes (2010b): Pakistan Media Outlet Matrix. The Intermedia Knowledge Center. http://www.audiencescapes.org/country-profiles-pakistanmedia-outlet-matrix-popular-media.

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programs via their telephone. More than 100 private FM radio stations have been licensed in

Pakistan, but they are not allowed to broadcast their own news programs. Consequently, the options

of obtaining news on the radio are restricted to state programs, illegal (mostly militant) radios, and

the programs of foreign broadcasters such as the BBC, Voice of America (VoA) or Deutsche Welle

(DW). Remarkably, the BBC‘s news programme is most popular among those sections of the

population who otherwise access only the state-run radio as a source of information (Audience

Scapes, 2010c)40

. In the Federally Administered Areas (FATA) and the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa

Province (KPK), many illegally operated radical radio stations distribute propaganda and erroneous

information, undermining efforts towards education and development. To counteract the detrimental

effects of these radical radio stations, a number of media assistance initiatives support the

development of local radio stations, focusing, for instance, on women‘s or human rights‘ issues

(Audience Scapes, 2010d)41

.

The printed press has a long tradition in Pakistan and there is a lively and diverse newspaper

industry. As per official records, in 2010 the total number of periodical print publications reached

952, with 360 dailies,3 but according to media practitioners only around a dozen of these

newspapers can actually be found at the newsstands (Asia Media Barometer 2009: 26). The total

circulation of newspapers is estimated at 6 million, although figures are not reliable (AMB 2009:

27). The language divide between the country‘s two administrative languages, Urdu and English,

that characterizes the overall media landscape is most distinctive in the press. English media have

only limited circulation but target the urban elite, thus having an impact on opinion makers and

political circles. The Urdu press reaches much larger audiences and therefore unfolds a greater

influence among the general public. There are also numerous publications in Pakistan‘s other

vernacular languages, most importantly in Sindhi. The low literacy and education rates of Pakistan‘s

population represent a significant hurdle to the outreach of the press. There is also a large gender

divide among newspaper readers, which is even more accentuated in the rural areas where only 5

percent of women report to read a newspaper once a week (Audience Scapes, 2010e)42

.

The press market is dominated by three major groups, which have also expanded into the general

media market and respectively show different political inclinations: The Jang Group, considered

moderate conservative (i.e. dailies Jang and News International, Geo TV), the liberal Dawn Group

(Dawn Newspaper, Herald magazine, Dawn TV), and the rather right-wing conservative Nawa-e

Waqt Group (dailies Nawa-e Waqt and The Nation, Waqt News TV). The Lakson Group is another

player in the media market, producing amongst others the popular dailies Express (Urdu) and

Express Tribune as well as the television channel Express News. (Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011).

40

Audience Scapes (2010c): News on the Radio: What Choices do Pakistanis have? The Intermedia Knowledge Center. http://www.audiencescapes.org/country-profiles/pakistan/news-radio-what-choices-do-pakistanis have/radio-news-444. 41

(2010d): Radio in Pakistan. The Intermedia Knowledge Center. http://www.audiencescapes.org/country-profiles-pakistan-country-overview-radio-statistics. 42

(2010d): Radio in Pakistan. The Intermedia Knowledge Center. http://www.audiencescapes.org/country-profiles-pakistan-country-overview-radio-statistics.

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----The Internet in Pakistan

Pakistan has currently about 20 million internet users. In a country of more than 180 million people,

this figure amounts to only slightly over 10 per cent of the population. With regards to internet

penetration, Pakistan scores better than its larger neighbor India, but stays far behind the transition

countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) where online communication reportedly

fostered the development of civil societies that formed the core of the upheavals against

authoritarian rule. (Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011).

----Expecting Internet Expansion

In an overall ranking of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), which determines

worldwide ICT development by using a composite index (ICT Development Index: IDI) made up of

11 indicators covering access, use, and skills, Pakistan reached position 127 out of 159 countries in

the year 2007. At that point its progress rate was higher than that of any other country because at the

time of the previous evaluation in 2002, ICT usage in Pakistan was barely existent. However, that

progress stalled in the following year, 2008, with Pakistan reaching only rank 128 (ITU 2010).43

(Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011).

As a matter of fact, the expansion of internet use in Pakistan is as much slowed down by the

insufficient development and quality of the network as by low levels of education. The internet is

still accessed mainly through dial-up connections. There are only about 1.3 million broadband users

in Pakistan.44

The urban-rural divide that characterises the country‘s overall development naturally

has an impact on internet access and usage too. In a BBC survey in 2008, only 1 per cent of the

respondents in the rural areas of Pakistan‘s four provinces used the internet. Various rural areas

remain without any access at all (Audience Scapes, 2010f, Freedom House 2011: 3).45

Another reason for the restricted development of internet usage may be seen in Pakistan‘s

comparatively low Gross National Income (GNI) per capita, making computers and access

subscriptions unaffordable to many people. The ITU report partly refutes that assumption though:

An additional indicator, the ―ICT Price Basket‖ classifies countries based on the relative costs for

fixed telephones, mobile cellular and broadband internet services. Generally, a low ranking in the

ICT Development Index corresponds to high values in the ICT Price Basket. Yet Pakistan deviates

from that trend as it has a relatively low price-level but scores poorly in the ranking of access and

usage. This points to the fact that barriers other than high costs hinder ICT development and

43

The ICT Development Index (IDI) is composed of three sub-indexes measuring access (fixed telephony, mobile telephony, international internet bandwidth, households with computers and households with internet), use and intensity of use (internet users, fixed broadband and mobile broadband) and skills (adult literacy rate, gross secondary and tertiary enrolment.) 44

Pakistan Telecommunication Authority, Telecom indicators: http://www.pta.gov.pk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=269:telecom-indicators&catid=124:industry-report&Itemid=599. 45

Audience Scapes (2010f): The Internet in Pakistan. The Intermedia Knowledge Center. http://www.audiencescapes.org/country-profiles-pakistan-country-overview-internet-research-statistics.

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proliferation, namely infrastructure, access to infrastructure, and usage skills (ITU 2010: 61). Since

the level of secondary education is considered a decisive hurdle for internet usage, the ITU report

thus confirms Pakistan‘s poor education statistics as a main factor in hindering many people from

going online. However, as education is closely linked to economic status, there is admittedly a

strong correlation between both factors. The results of the 2008 BBC-survey show that the majority

of internet users are high-income earners and have a secondary or higher degree of education. There

is also a certain preponderance of men among the internet users (AudienceScapes 2010f).46

These restrictions notwithstanding, Pakistan‘s percentage of young population is comparable with

(or even higher than) the transition countries in the MENA region. As people aged under 30 years

typically constitute the largest user group within society, there is a huge potential for ICT

proliferation. The impressive growth of the mobile phone market underlines the overall interest in

modern communication technologies: with now six mobile companies on the market, the number of

mobile phone subscribers reached about 108 million in mid-2011, according to official statistics.47

(Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011).

Another interesting factor shaping internet usage in Pakistan is the general language divide between

Urdu and English that can be observed particularly in the media landscape. Despite more and more

content being produced in other languages, English remains the lingua franca of the internet. While

this is certainly to the advantage of the more or less bilingual Pakistani upper and middle class, it

limits the usage of other social layers as there is relatively little content in Urdu on the internet. In

fact, observers expect a significant surge in the number of internet users once the Urdu market is

expanded. Already now the online publications of the English-language newspapers Dawn and

Express Tribune, considered forerunners in the online news sector, gather only one third of the

online audiences of the big Urdu papers Jang and Express. Another issue supposedly limiting a pro-

active use of the internet in Urdu is the disparity between the fonts that are usually employed in

publishing and those that are available for the internet. Urdu books and newspapers appear with an

italicized version of the Arabic scripture (nastaliq) but many websites and blogs only offer the fonts

that can normally be found on Arabic or Persian websites. Apparently the resulting unfamiliarity

seems to heighten users‘ hesitance to employ Urdu as a language for communicating online, for

instance when writing blogs. (Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011).

----Social Networks and Politics: Digital Precursors

One of the most active political organizations on the internet is the Pakistan Tehreek-e Insaf (PTI)

led by former cricket star Imran Khan. The organization has an active website with news and

announcements about its activities. There are also blogs by members of the organization, online

chapters for the U.S., U.K., and other countries with a significant Pakistani community, a Twitter

account and even an application for smart phones. Of course, PTI has also established several

46

Audience Scapes (2010f): The Internet in Pakistan. The Intermedia Knowledge Center. http://www.audiencescapes.org/country-profiles-pakistan-country-overview-internet-research-statistics. 47

Pakistan Telecommunication Authority, Telecom indicators: http://www.pta.gov.pk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=269:telecom-indicators&catid=124:industry-report&Itemid=599.

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Facebook profiles for the organization and its chairman, so that followers receive news and can

partake in debates on the social network. The party also uses the internet to raise funds from its

followers in Pakistan or abroad. Due to his extensive media presence and a discourse underscored by

populism, Imran Khan has been able to attract a significant following of mainly young people.

However, this media prominence stands in sharp contrast to the political significance that his

organization has shown so far: apart from the celebrated leader, there are no influential or

recognizable political figures in the leading circle of his party. Behind the attractive rhetoric on ―a

new beginning‖, there is actually no substantial Programme being offered. Although Khan has been

able to raise interest in urban circles, he does not have any power base or influence in Pakistan‘s

rural areas where established networks of loyalty and patronage decide the vote of the population.

(Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011).

Another political figure showing an even greater discrepancy between online popularity and actual

political impact is the former president and army chief Musharraf. He tries to portray himself as an

alternative to the current government, promising economic prosperity and moderate politics. His

Facebook profile shows more than 400,000 followers. However, a YouTube channel with

Musharraf‘s statements was less successful, underlining the limits of online popularity and

mobilization: while many users may easily ―like‖ the Facebook profile of the former president, they

are less inclined to listen in more detail to what he actually has to say. (Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011).

According to Alexa, an online service ranking worldwide internet traffic, Facebook is the most

popular website in Pakistan. In mid-2011, the website had an estimated five million users. It is

followed by other central internet sites such as Google, YouTube, and Wikipedia. The most visited

news websites are those of Jang Newspaper, Express, and GEO TV – all in Urdu. The Urdu edition

of the BBC website also counts among the most visited news sources on the internet. Last but not

least, the micro-blogging service Twitter has gained considerably in popularity with currently about

two million users in Pakistan. People tweeting on news, political and social affairs are usually

journalists and avid internet users, but also politicians. The assassinated Punjab Governor Salmaan

Taseer was known for his activity on Twitter, sending out regular messages with comments on daily

politics. The Minister of the Interior Rehman Malik and the former mayor of Karachi, Syed Mustafa

Kamal also use the micro blogging service, the latter with a large following on Facebook too.

Former parliamentarian Marvi Memon used among other channels a Twitter message for justifying

her decision to resign from the National Assembly and party membership in PML-Q.48

(Michaelsen,

Marcus, 2011).

According to Jehan Ara, president of the Software Houses Association P@SHA, Twitter has become

an important outlet for initiating or steering debates, but also for fund-raising and knowledge

sharing. Herself very active on the network, she says that Twitter has allowed for the formation of

small communities or networks in which people belonging to a sort of information elite share

information, ideas and advice. For instance, her expertise in the field of ICT has been solicited more

48

For an overview on the most important figures in Pakistan’s Twitter-community see: Tribune Twitterati list: 140 characters of Pakistan. The Express Tribune, June 24th 2011.

81 | P a g e

than once via Twitter by young entrepreneurs or others active in this field. (Michaelsen, Marcus,

2011).

Twitter is also used for breaking news, thereby following a trend of sensationalism that is already

quite popular on the news channels. Some journalists observe that politicians who use Twitter have

been forced to develop closer relationships with ordinary people as the readers of their tweets are

able to directly confront them with questions regarding their decisions. The former anchor of Dawn

News, Naveen Naqvi, also took live questions from the audience via Twitter to pose them to her

guests. At the same time, the ambition to circulate spectacular news leads to rumours and false

information being transmitted via Twitter, undermining its credibility as a media source. During the

attack by militants on the Pakistani Naval Base in Karachi, end of May 2011, several tweets called

for urgent blood donations although the army had not issued such call and it was in fact dangerous

for potential donors to come to the site of the ongoing battle. And, as in other countries, there are of

course fake twitter accounts being set up for prominent public figures. The new Foreign Minister,

Hina Rabbani Khar, for instance, has been the ‗victim‘ of messages being circulated under her name.

(Michaelsen, Marcus, 2011).

----Role of Media in Political Socialization

―Political socialization through media is not a new phenomenon. Political scientists are sometimes

interested in the media‘s role in politics. Media plays an important role in creating political

awareness among the people and ensures their participation in the democratic process. It also plays a

significant role in bringing changes in the society. Socialization is a long-term process that every

human being undergoes as he or she becomes a functioning member of society. Socialization refers

to the internalizing of all of the lessons from many sources concerning ways of behaving that are

approved or expected by society, as individuals mature through every stage in the life cycle.‖

(Anwar, Muhammad, n.d)

Media is one of the agents that politically socialize masses. Radio and Television are playing

significant role in a politically socialized life. Media is a source of information which not only

affects daily activities of human life but also provides information about other events like

developments being took place on national and international forums. The extent of media and its

possible effect on general public have been acknowledged in various media research studies. The

primary purpose of media is to ensure a well informed citizenry for our social and political structure.

The mass media provides information and programs that can promote democracy. Communication

system‘s democratization has not gained much attention in the individual countries despite of

political awareness in masses. Media can ensure smooth functioning of a democratic system which

is linked with media role for diffusion in field of innovations and information. The basic aim of

democracy in Pakistan is to work for a democratic system representing opinion of the public. The

development of democratic Government by the people is determined through interaction of

democracy with public‘s aspirations regarding formation of Government in accordance with their

desires. (Anwar, Muhammad, n.d)

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The political stakeholders like politicians, political parties etc. play pivotal role in representative

democracy through maintaining link between people and those having political powers. In this way,

establishment of political power structure and various interests of citizens are balanced. Formation

of public opinion and mobilization are caused due to involvement of media, political institutions and

other networks. The process of socialization can be defined as creating a sense of interaction with

world by gaining and adopting norms, values and traditions of other cultures. Adoption of other

cultures is over-dominating our own culture in a process of socialization. Since our childhood, we

acquire knowledge about how to behave in a socially acceptable manner. Some social segments

have very powerful impact in socialization of young generations like family and (schools), whereas

other institutions have also strong effect on process of socialization though not intentional. Now we

are looking for the place of media in socialization. It has been observed that an average American

high school student remain in front of TV for more time than in a class. Mass Media is considered as

strong agent of socialization. (Anwar, Muhammad, n.d)…..

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Conclusion So now, as we know how the media (medium), actually evolved and what‘s its origin, we can

now elaborate the changes from ancient times till todays digital revolution. In an interview with

Mr. Shakeel John, Chief Editor of Reporting Time, he described that, ―social media is a

major social device of communication in today‘s world. Our social networks have a great

influence on our lives than nearly anything else. Currently, all across the world, major

governmental resolutions are occurring due to social media influence. The Egyptian rebellion,

fall of the Gaddafi rule and revolts in other parts of the Arab world are some common examples.

In the past, the economy was the most deliberated issue in the social media, but drifts have

changed and politics is now the focus of the social media all over the world, including Pakistan.

On December 25, 2011, around 30,000 PTI workers observed PTI‘s Karachi rally on the internet.

It is the suitability of social media that has made it a major foundation of information, if we use it

honestly.‖

People all over the world have a stage where they can raise their opinions on every political

event that takes place. Political movements, live conferences of political leaders, information on

political directives, etc., is just a snap away. Internet communities, blogs, networking sites have

become a significant part of life nowadays; we can say, it is the new face of the youth. Social

media has been a great stage for cyber extremists to share their ideas, brainstorm and create open

source claims. Users have been more than ready to examine technologies whose beta versions

are introduced for analysis and post their responses. It has opened new career options for people,

computer knowledge has enlarged and life has become much calmer. The influence of social

media is everywhere. We can generate, collaborate, entertain, get entertained, review a creation,

discuss a movie, gossip with friends, etc. — the opportunities are limitless and never-ending. The

government is taking ingenuities to promote social media as a tool of cognizance and to utilize it

as an operative device to convey the desired communications. Thus, it is important to make

people more aware about it. According to Mr. Shakeel, in this period social media has a lot of

significance in our lives.

This report sought to place Pakistan as a case study surrounded by current discussions on the

internet‘s significance for progressions of political conversion and democratization. The

exploration of Pakistan‘s status of political conversion has shown that the country can be

positioned in a phase of tentative democratic alliance. After years of military rule a

comparatively free and open election in 2008 has fetched a civilian government to power. The

conclusion of its tenure up to a new round of regular elections will essentially be a step of

chronological scopes for Pakistan. Nevertheless, the country faces major difficulties on the way

to a steady democratic system from motionless economic expansion and the vicious conflict with

Islamist aggressiveness up to an alarming prospective for social tensions and the elite‘s

confrontation to any change in the circulation of power and property. Last but not least, the

military‘s frequent interruptions into the political range and the classified structure of society

have mired the expansion of a political culture that would inspire political participation, rational

84 | P a g e

discussion, and cultural broadmindedness. The evolution of such a culture and the solidification

of civil society need to be seen as central requirement for Pakistan‘s future progression towards

equality.

Though, there is an important role of media in the society but indeed, there are some drawbacks

which they need to overcome. For instance, their major drawback is this that, instead of creating

awareness they are also encouraging terror, which effects the cognitive abilities of the society.

As, we all know that the most spreading disease in Pakistan is the Dengue Fever and media

always reports that several died of it due to bad treatment, but actually its not the case. Media

always skip the positive part that should be included in their report, i-e. they should also report

that among the several dead, thousands have been cured, and some are under good treatment, and

our media everywhere, always skips this part. So, they should think about this fact too which will

be a good step in creating better awareness and getting better response indeed….

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