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Elementary thermodynamics

This worksheet and all related files are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,version 1.0. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/1.0/, or send aletter to Creative Commons, 559 Nathan Abbott Way, Stanford, California 94305, USA. The terms andconditions of this license allow for free copying, distribution, and/or modification of all licensed works bythe general public.

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Metric prefixes and conversion constants

Metric prefixes

Yotta = 1024 Symbol: Y

Zeta = 1021 Symbol: Z Exa = 1018 Symbol: E

Peta = 1015 Symbol: P Tera = 1012 Symbol: T Giga = 109 Symbol: G Mega = 106 Symbol: M

Kilo = 103

Symbol: k Hecto = 102 Symbol: h Deca = 101 Symbol: da Deci = 101 Symbol: d Centi = 102 Symbol: c Milli = 103 Symbol: m Micro = 106 Symbol:

Nano = 109 Symbol: n

Pico = 1012 Symbol: p Femto = 1015 Symbol: f Atto = 1018 Symbol: a Zepto = 1021 Symbol: z Yocto = 1024 Symbol: y

100

103

106

109

1012

10-3

10-6

10-9

10-12

(none)kilomegagigatera milli micro nano picokMGT m n p

10-2

10-1

101

102

deci centidecahectoh da d c

METRIC PREFIX SCALE

Conversion formulae for temperature

oF = (oC)(9/5) + 32

oC = (oF - 32)(5/9)

oR = oF + 459.67

K = oC + 273.15

Conversion equivalencies for distance

1 inch (in) = 2.540000 centimeter (cm)

1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in)

1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft)

1 mile (mi) = 5280 feet (ft)

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Conversion equivalencies for volume

1 gallon (gal) = 231.0 cubic inches (in3) = 4 quarts (qt) = 8 pints (pt) = 128 fluid ounces (fl. oz.)= 3.7854 liters (l)

1 milliliter (ml) = 1 cubic centimeter (cm3)

Conversion equivalencies for velocity

1 mile per hour (mi/h) = 88 feet per minute (ft/m) = 1.46667 feet per second (ft/s) = 1.60934kilometer per hour (km/h) = 0.44704 meter per second (m/s) = 0.868976 knot (knot international)

Conversion equivalencies for mass

1 pound (lbm) = 0.45359 kilogram (kg) = 0.031081 slugs

Conversion equivalencies for force

1 pound-force (lbf) = 4.44822 newton (N)

Conversion equivalencies for area

1 acre = 43560 square feet (ft2) = 4840 square yards (yd2) = 4046.86 square meters (m2)

Conversion equivalencies for common pressure units (either all gauge or all absolute)

1 pound per square inch (PSI) = 2.03602 inches of mercury (in. Hg) = 27.6799 inches of water (in.W.C.) = 6.894757 kilo-pascals (kPa) = 0.06894757 bar

1 bar = 100 kilo-pascals (kPa) = 14.504 pounds per square inch (PSI)

Conversion equivalencies for absolute pressure units (only)

1 atmosphere (Atm) = 14.7 pounds per square inch absolute (PSIA) = 101.325 kilo-pascals absolute(kPaA) = 1.01325 bar (bar) = 760 millimeters of mercury absolute (mmHgA) = 760 torr (torr)

Conversion equivalencies for energy or work

1 british thermal unit (Btu International Table) = 251.996 calories (cal International Table)= 1055.06 joules (J) = 1055.06 watt-seconds (W-s) = 0.293071 watt-hour (W-hr) = 1.05506 x 1010

ergs (erg) = 778.169 foot-pound-force (ft-lbf)

Conversion equivalencies for power

1 horsepower (hp 550 ft-lbf/s) = 745.7 watts (W) = 2544.43 british thermal units per hour(Btu/hr) = 0.0760181 boiler horsepower (hp boiler)

Acceleration of gravity (free fall), Earth standard

9.806650 meters per second per second (m/s2) = 32.1740 feet per second per second (ft/s2)

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Saturated Steam Table (continued)

Temperature Pressure Sensible heat of Latent heat of Total heat(Deg F) (PSIA) liquid (BTU/lb) vapor (BTU/lb) (BTU/lb)

450 422 428 780 1208460 466 439 770 1209470 514 450 760 1210480 565 462 749 1211490 620 473 738 1211

500 679 484 727 1211510 743 496 715 1211520 810 507 703 1210530 883 519 690 1209540 960 531 677 1208550 1043 542 664 1206560 1130 554 650 1204570 1224 566 635 1201580 1323 578 619 1197590 1428 591 602 1193600 1540 604 585 1189

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Question 2

In the mid 1800s, James Prescott Joule performed an experiment demonstrating how mechanical energycould be converted into heat. His experimental apparatus is shown in this illustration, taken from issue 231ofHarpers New Monthly Magazinein August of 1869:

Examine this mechanism and then explain how it functions. Specifically, what data would theexperimenter record when running the experiment, and how would this data be used to establish arelationship between mechanical energy and heat?

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Question 6

A block of iron and a block of copper are both heated to 200o F in an oven, then placed on a woodentable to cool down to room temperature. Assuming all other factors being equal (mass, surface area, etc.),which block will cool at a faster rate? Why??

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Question 7

Suppose you need to heat up the 70 gallons of water filling the inside of a hot tub, from ambienttemperature (58 oF) to 102 oF. Assuming a perfectly insulated hot tub, and ignoring the thermal mass of

the hot tub frame itself, how much thermal energy (in units of BTU) will be needed to raise its temperatureto the desired operating point?

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Question 8

Jane has an ear ache, and decides to apply a hot water bottle to her ear to help loosen the congestionin her ear canals and ease the pain. Being a pre-med student who recently studied thermodynamics, sheestimates a heat input of 19,000 calories necessary to do the job.

Assuming Janes hot water tap provides water at a temperature of 54 degrees Celsius and that her skintemperature is about 31 degrees Celsius, calculate how much water Jane will need to put into her hot waterbottle to deliver the estimated amount of heat to her head as the bottle cools from its initial hot-watertemperature down to her skin temperature.

Also, determine if your calculated value is a highestimate or a low estimate, based on simplificationsassumed in your calculations.

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Question 9

While on a camping trip, Sally needs to collect enough firewood to fuel a campfire that will bring 5gallons of water to a boil. Assuming a heat of combustion value of 9000 BTU per pound of dry wood, howmuch wood must Sally collect for the fire that will heat this water? Assume that the ambient air temperatureis 51 degrees F, and that the boiling point of water at Sallys altitude is 205 degrees F.

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Question 10

15 grams of iron filings at a temperature of 150 oC are sprinkled onto a 25 gram strip of copper metalat room temperature (20 oC), and left to equalize in temperature inside of a perfectly insulated chamber.Calculate the final temperature of the iron/copper mass.

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Question 11

A dough-making process at an industrial bakery mixes hot water into an insulated vessel along withground wheat flour. Other ingredients are added to this mix, but flour and water are by far the largestconstituents.

Calculate the final temperature of the dough, assuming the following quantities:

Mixing vessel is made of steel (c = 0.12 BTU/lb-oF) weighing 22 pounds, initially at 60 oF

75 pounds of wheat flour (c = 0.43 BTU/lb-oF), initially at 60 oF

180 pounds of water (c = 1.0 BTU/lb-oF), initially at 120 oF

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Question 12

Rank the following transitions according to the amount of heat energy input required:

To heat a pound of water from 60o F to 65o F. To boil a pound of water completely into steam (warming it from 211o F to 213o F). To melt a pound of ice completely into water (warming it from 31o F to 33o F).

Suggestions for Socratic discussion

Which of these transitions involves sensible heatand which involve latent heat?

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Question 13

Suppose exactly 1000 calories of heat energy is transferred to a 5-gram mass of water at 20 o C and atatmospheric pressure (sea level). Calculate what will happen to the water (how far will its temperature beraised, and if it boils, how much steam will be liberated from the water?).

Hint: the specific heat of water is 1 calorie/gram-Co. The latent heat of fusion for water is 80calories/gram, and the latent heat of vaporization for water is 540 calories/gram.

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Question 15

A student, weary of performing thought experiments, decides to perform a realexperiment to betterunderstand phase changes. She assembles a primitive steam boiler using a pressure cooker, a pressure gauge,a thermometer, a couple of valves, and a burner as a source of heat:

To gasfuel supply

Pot

Valve

Pressure gauge

Thermometer

(Steam)

Her hypothesis is that boiler temperature may be controlled by fuel gas flow (burner heat rate output),and that boiler pressure may be controlled by steam flow out of the boiler. Two process measurements, and

two control valves: what could be simpler?However, the student soon discovers that she cannot independentlycontrol boiler pressure and boilertemperature. When fuel flow is increased, bothpressure and temperature rise; as the steam valve is opened,bothpressure and temperature decrease.

Explain why this experiment did not go as planned, and what important lesson this student shouldlearn about phase changes.

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Question 16

Suppose a process vessel containing only H2O is equipped with both a temperature indicator and apressure indicator. Consult a steam tableto determine whether the conditions within this vessel are wateronly, water and steam mixed, orsteam only:

T= 501 oF and P= 810 PSIG T= 250 oF and P= 75 PSIG T= 690 oF and P= 1886 PSIG T= 369 oF and P= 550 PSIG T= 274 oF and P= 30 PSIG T= 471 oF and P= 405 PSIG

If you determine the process condition to be steam only, calculate the amount of superheat (i.e. thenumber of degrees F that the steam is heated beyond the boiling temperature).

Hint: the Socratic Instrumentationwebsite contains a page where you may download public-domaintextbooks, one of which is a set of steam tables published in 1920. The Fisher Control Valve Handbookalsohas a (less comprehensive) set of steam tables in the Appendix section.

Suggestions for Socratic discussion

Plot where each of these temperature/pressure points falls on a phase diagramfor ice, water, and steam.

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Question 17

Suppose a steam boiler is supposed to have a capacity of 300 pounds (of steam) per hour. How muchheat energy (in BTUs per hour) will it take to boil this rate of steam, assuming that water enters the boilerat 212 oF?

Hint: the specific heat of water is 1 BTU/lbm-Fo. The latent heat of fusion for water is 144 BTU/lbm,

and the latent heat of vaporization for water is 970 BTU/lbm.file i01797

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Question 18

An evaporative cooling tower cools off water by mechanically forcing some of it into a vapor state. Asthat portion of the hot water turns into vapor, the latent heat of vaporization is drawn from the remainingliquid water, forcing it to decrease in temperature (i.e. the liquid water loses sensible heat in order to supplythe vapor with latent heat):

Motor

Fan

Fill Fill

Cooled water

Cool, dryair in

Cool, dryair in

Warm, moistair out

Hot waterin

Cool waterout

Suppose 1000 pounds of hot water enters the cooling tower at a temperature of 137 oF. 50 pounds of

this water becomes vaporized, leaving the tower at a temperature of 111 o

F. The remaining liquid waterexiting the tower will be at some cooler temperature.

Calculate how many pounds of water exit the tower for the 1000 pounds that entered. Then, calculatethe temperature of that cooled water. Note: in all these calculations we will ignore any heat energy carriedaway by air flowing through the tower, since this will be a small quantity compared to the heat carried awayby the vapor and by the liquid water exiting the tower.

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Question 19

A type of heating system developed to provide a measure of safety and convenience for self-sufficienthomes is an external heater, where fuel such as wood is burned at high temperature for short durations inan outdoor furnace, and the heat from that furnace stored in a large thermal reservoir of sand. A fire islit inside the furnace only once every few days, then the heat from that burn is transferred to the home bymeans of water pumped through heat exchangers:

External heater(insulated concrete

structure packedwith sand for heatstorage)

Radiator Radiator

Water pipes

Answer the following questions about this type of heating system:

What advantages might there be with this design versus a furnace installed inside the home?

Why is sanda good choice as a heat-storage medium inside the furnace structure?

Is the heat storage in this system based on specific heator latent heat?

Is the heat transfer in this system (from heater to home) based on specific heator latent heat?

How may the homes temperature be thermostatically controlled?

How to equip the system with an alarm prompting the user to light a new fire in the furnace?

Calculate the enthalpy of the water as it enters the home (from the heater) at a temperature of 184 oF.

Calculate the enthalpy of the water as it leaves the home (on its way to the heater) at a temperature of127 oF.

Calculate the rate of heat delivered to the home by this hot water assuming a water mass flow rate of9.2 pounds per minute.

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Question 22

Industrial operations using large quantities of steam often distribute it at different pressures, much likean electrical utility system distributing power at several different voltages:

600 PSI header

150 PSIheader

30 PSIheader

Process

Power turbine

Condensate

Condensate

Turbine

Process Process

Condensate

Heating

Condensate

Heating

It may not always be practical to have a separate boiler (or set of boilers) for each header pressure (e.g.one boiler outputting 600 PSI, one outputting 150 PSI, and one outputting 30 PSI). So, often there is a needto let down high-pressure steam to a lower pressure.

Although it is possible to simply use control valves to throttle high-pressure steam into a lower-pressureheaders, this would be a waste of energy. Such a strategy would be analogous to using resistive voltagedividers to step high voltage down to lower values in an electric power system:

600 PSI header

PC PT

PC PT

150 PSIheader

30 PSIheader

LSP = 150

LSP = 30

600 PSIboiler(s)

A very inefficient way to get different steam pressures!

Let-down valve

Let-down valve

An improvement over the plain let-down strategy is to use special desuperheating valves instead ofnormal throttling valves. Desuperheating is a process whereby water is sprayed into the throttled steam:

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600 PSI header

PC PT

PC PT

150 PSIheader

30 PSIheader

LSP = 150

LSP = 30

600 PSI

boiler(s)

Water

Water

Desuperheatingvalve

Desuperheatingvalve

A better way to get different steam pressures!

Desuperheaters may be thought of as the steam equivalent of electrical transformers: a much moreefficient means of reducing pressure (voltage) than throttling with a restrictive (resistive) element. Explainhow desuperheating works, and why the electrical transformer analogy is appropriate.

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Question 23

Calculate the heat loss rate through the surfaces of this solvent storage tank, which is a vertical cylinderin shape. Assume the wall insulation has an R-value of 5 per inch of thickness, the floor insulation has anR-value of 2, and the roof insulation has an R-value of 4. The tanks diameter is 10 feet, its wall height is13 feet, and its conical roof has a total surface area of 101 square feet. The setpoint for solvent temperatureinside the tank is 95 degrees Fahrenheit, and the ambient air temperature is 40 degrees Fahrenheit:

S-403Solvent storage tank

T

30 PSI steam

Dwg. 11032

LT

305

Dwg. 11032

Condensate header

1-1/2"thick

LI

305

WirelessHART H

Set @10 oz.

TCV

105

24"MW

TT

304

WirelessHART

TI

304

H

L

Solvent unloading

Dwg. 45231

press.

Set @8 oz.vac.

12"

4"

4" 2"

3"

P-25

ET

ET

ET

LSH234

LAH

234

Solvent wash

Dwg. 32451

LSL

233

IHC

PSL232

2"

1"

2"

2"

PSH231

PSV14

TT109

TI

109

PG

367

PG366

PG

368

PG365

PG364

PG363

TG

209

PG361

TG205

PT271

271

PIR H

Next, calculate the heat value rate of the fuel needed to fire this boiler, to keep the solvent tanktemperature at setpoint. Assume a steam boiler efficiency (fuel heat value in, to heat delivered at the tank)of 83%.

Suggestions for Socratic discussion

Calculate the lift pressures of PSV-14 in units of inches water column. Explain the purpose of each protective interlock (safety switch) on the pump P-25 control system.

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Question 26

The rate of heat transfer throughradiationfrom a warm body may be expressed by the Stefan-Boltzmannequation:

dQ

dt =eAT4

Where,dQdt

= Rate of heat flowe = Emissivity factor

= Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 108

W / m2

K4

)A = Area of radiating surfaceT = Absolute temperature

Based on the unit of measurement given for the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, determine the proper unitsof measurement for heat flow, emissivity, area, and temperature.

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Liquid

Pabsolute

Piston

If the system reaches a state of saturation (evaporation and condensation rates equal), and temperatureremains the same, what will happen to the pressure in the container if the piston is moved inward, thusdecreasing volume? Does the pressure increase, decrease, or stay the same?

Now suppose we attach a pump to the bottom of this container so we may remove some of the liquidwithout letting any air in:

Pabsolute

Piston

DischargePumpLiquid

If the system reaches a state of saturation (evaporation and condensation rates equal), and temperatureremains the same, what will happen to the pressure in the container as liquid is drawn out? Does thepressure increase, decrease, or stay the same?

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Question 33

A propane tank holds both liquid propane and propane vapor at high pressure:

Liquidpropane

Propanevapor

How may the pressure in the tank be altered? What physical variable must be changed in order toincrease or decrease the vapor pressure inside the tank?

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Answers

Answer 1

Answer 2

The falling weight pulls the string and turns the paddles inside the water-filled container, thereby causingthe temperature of the water to rise. Relevant data include:

Initial temperature of the water Final temperature of the water Calculated water temperature riseT =Tf To

Mass of water Specific heat of water Mass of paddle assembly Specific heat of paddle assembly Mass of thermometer Specific heat of thermometer

Magnitude of the weight Initial height of the weight Final height of the weight Calculated displacementx= xf xo

Relevant equations:

W =Fx Q= mcT

Answer 3

If the caloric theory of heat were correct, then the cannon barrel would not be heated by a dull tool,but only heated when bored out with a sharp tool. If heat is a fluid released by cutting, then only successfulcutting of the metal (not unsuccessful grinding of a dull tool against the cannon barrel) would cause thewater to heat up. A dull tool should, according to the caloric theory, liberate less heat than a sharp tool.What Thompson found instead was that a dull tool actually liberated more heat than a sharp tool becauseit allowed the fruitless grinding process to continue long after it would have taken a sharp tool to bore thehole. In summary, Thompsons experiment demonstrated that heat was a function of mechanical work, notof cleaving metal.

Answer 4Sensible heatis any form of heat transfer resulting in a temperature change. The relationship between

heat transferred (Q) and temperature change (T) is proportional to both the mass of the sample and itsspecific heat capacity(c):

Q= mcT

Latent heatis any form of heat transfer resulting in a phase change (e.g. solid to liquid, liquid to gas,or vice-versa). The relationship between heat transferred (Q) and the amount of mass undergoing a phasechange (m) it the latent heat capacityof the sample (L):

Q= mL

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Answer 5

Some practical examples (by no means an exhaustive list) are given here:

Conductive transfer resulting in sensible heat: Placing a frying pan on a hot stove causes the panstemperature to rise.

Convective transfer resulting in sensible heat: Pointing the flame of a propane torch on to a metalsurface causes that metals temperature to rise.

Radianttransfer resulting insensibleheat: Feeling the increased skin temperature resulting from standing

several yards away from a large bonfire.

Conductive transfer resulting in latentheat: An ice cube placed on a warm frying pan will melt intowater.

Convective transfer resulting in latentheat: A hair dryer causes liquid water in your hair to be forcedinto a vapor state.

Radianttransfer resulting in latentheat: A frozen ice puddle melting under the suns rays.

Sensible heat (resulting in a temperature change:

Q= mcT

Where,Q = Heat gain or loss (metric calories or British BTU)m = Mass of sample (metric grams or British pounds)c = Specific heat of substanceT= Temperature change (metric degrees Celsius or British degrees Fahrenheit)

Latent heat(resulting in a phase change:

Q= mL

Where,Q = Heat of transition required to completely change the phase of a sample (metric calories or British

BTU)m = Mass of sample (metric grams or British pounds)L = Latent heat of substance

Answer 6

The copper block will cool at a faster rate, because copper has less specific heat than iron, meaningthat any given amount of heat energy lost will decrease its temperature more than it will iron for the sameamount of heat energy loss. Another way of saying this is that the copper contains less heat energy than theiron, even though they both start out at the same temperature.

cCu = 0.093 cal/goC

cFe = 0.113 cal/goC

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Answer 7

This is a problem of specific heat, following this formula:

Q= mcT

In order to calculate the amount of heat energy (Q) needed for the task, we need to know the mass ofthe hot tubs water (m), the specific heat of water (1 BTU per pound per degree F), and the temperaturerise (T = 102 oF 58oF = 44 oF). We were given the volume of water (70 gallons), but not its mass inpounds, so we need to do a units conversion based on water having a density of 62.4 pounds per cubic foot:

70 gal

1

231 in3

1 gal

1 ft3

1728 in3

62.4 lb

ft3

= 583.9 lb

Now, we are all set to calculate the required heat energy:

Q= mcT

Q= (583.9 lb)(1 BTU/lb-o

F)(102oF 58oF)

Q= 25692.3 BTU

Answer 8

What were trying to solve for here is the water mass necessary to deliver 19000 calories of sensible heatto Janes ear, given a known drop in temperature. Clearly, then, we need to apply the specific heat formula,solving for m:

Q= mcT

m= Q

cT

m= 19000 cal

(1 cal/g-o

C)(54oC 31oC)

m= 826.1 grams

Conveniently, 1 liter of water happens to be 1000 grams. So, what we need is 0.8261 liters of water inJanes water bottle.

This will be alowestimate, as not all of the heat liberated by the cooling water will transfer into Janesirritated ear canals. Some heat will transfer into other parts of her head, and a fair amount of heat will belost to the ambient air. Thus, Jane will actually need morethan 0.8261 liters of hot water to do the job.

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Answer 9

This is a calorimetry problem, where we must use the specific heat of water (1 BTU per pound-degreeF) to calculate the necessary heat for raising its temperature a specified amount (from 51 oF to 205 oF):

Q= mcT

Before we may use this formula, however, we need to figure out the mass (in pounds) for 5 gallons ofwater:

5 gal1231 in

3

1 gal 1 ft

3

1728 in362.4 lb

ft3

= 41.71 lb

Now we are ready to plug all the values into our specific heat formula:

Q= mcT

Q= (41.71 lb)(1 BTU/lb o F)(205oF 51oF) = 6423 BTU

If dry wood has a fuel value of 9000 BTU per pound, Sally should only (theoretically) need 0.713 pounds(11.4 ounces) of dry wood for this fire.

However . . . we know that not all the heat from an open campfire gets tranferred to the waterkettle. Given the many forms of heat loss (radiation away from the kettle, convection up into the open air,

evaporation of the heating water, etc., etc.), we can count on only a small fraction of the wood fires heatgoing into useful heating of the 5 gallons of water. Therefore, Sally will probably need to gather at leastseveral pounds of wood to do the job.

Answer 10

Sensible heat lost by the iron (cFe = 0.113 cal/goC) as it cools to the final temperature will be equal

to the sensible heat gained by the copper ( cCu = 0.093 cal/goC) as it warms to the final temperature:

Qironlost = Qcoppergained

mFecFe(150 T) = mCucCu(T 20)

(15)(0.113)(150 T) = (25)(0.093)(T 20)

(1.695)(150 T) = (2.325)(T 20)

254.25 1.695T = 2.325T 46.5

300.75 = 4.02T

T =300.75

4.02

T = 74.81oC

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Answer 13

To raise the waters temperature from 20o C to 100o C will require this much heat energy:

Q= mcT

Q = (5 g)(1 cal/g-Co)(100o C 20o C)

Q = (5 g)(1 cal/g-Co)(80o C)

Q = 400 cal

This leaves 600 calories remaining from the original 1000 calorie heat dose to boil water into steam.Since the latent heat of vaporization is 540 calories/gram, 600 calories will vaporize this many grams ofwater:

Lv = Q

m

m= Q

Lv

m = (600 cal)/(540 cal/g)

m = 1.111 g

Thus, 1.111 grams of water will boil into steam, and then the 1000 calories of heat energy will be spent.

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Answer 21

We may calculate the heat rate input to this turbine by subtracting enthalpy values ( hin hout) andmultiplying by the mass flow rate of the steam:

Input enthalpy (from steam table; 583 oF and 88 PSIG) = 1314.4 BTU/lb

Output enthalpy (from steam table; 91 oF and -14 PSIG) = 1099.6 BTU/lb

Difference in enthalpy values from inlet to discharge of turbine = 1314.4 BTU/lb 1099.6 BTU/lb =214.8 BTU/lb

Heat rate = (214.8 BTU/lb)(2300 lb/min) = 494,040 BTU/min = 29,642,400 BTU/h

We may convert this heat rate (power) into watts by using the conversion equivalence of 745.7 wattsand 2544.43 BTU/h:

(29642400 BTU/h) (745.7 W / 2544.43 BTU/h) = 8,687,343.6 W = 8.69 MW

Since the turbine is 80% efficient, only 80% of this heat rate gets converted into mechanical shaft power.Therefore,

(8.69 MW)(0.80) = 6.95 MW shaft power

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Answer 23

Heat loss equation given temperature difference, surface area, and R value:

dQ

dt =

AT

R

A good problem-solving approach is to neatly organize the given values and calculate surface areas beforeplugging these values into the heat transfer equations:

Tank roof = 101 square feet with R-value of 4

Tank floor = r2 = 78.54 square feet with R-value of 2 Tank walls = 2rh = 408.4 square feet with R-value of 5 per inch (1.5 inches thick)

Heat loss through the roof:

dQ

dt =

AT

R =

(101)(95 40)

4 = 1388.75 BTU/hr

Heat loss through the floor:

dQ

dt =

AT

R =

(78.54)(95 40)

2 = 2159.84 BTU/hr

Heat loss through the walls:

dQ

dt =

AT

R =

(408.4)(95 40)

(5)(1.5) = 2995.0 BTU/hr

Total heat loss rate = 6543.6 BTU/hour

Total fuel demand rate = 7883.8 BTU/hour (at 83% boiler efficiency)

Answer 24

I wont reveal the solution in its entirety here, but this problem essentially breaks down into a few simpleparts:

Figuring out how much heat will be required to raise the solvents temperature Figuing out how fast heat is delivered by the steam at the given mass flow rate Dividing required heat (BTU) by heat rate (BTU/hr) to solve for time (hr)

Determining heat rate delivered by the steam is most easily done using a steam table.

Answer 25

In the heat exchanger where the two fluids move in the same direction, the heated fluid can never exitthe exchanger at a warmer temperature than the heating fluid exits. With the contra-flow design, it can!

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Answer 26dQdt

= Rate of heat flow (Watts)e = Emissivity factor (unitless)A = Area of radiating surface (square meters)T= Absolute temperature (Kelvin)

Challenge question: a more complete expression of the Stefan-Boltzmann equation takes into accountthe temperature of the warm objects surroundings:

dQ

dt =eA(T4

1 T4

2 )

Where,T1 = Temperature of the objectT2 = Ambient temperature

Explain why this second Tterm is necessary for the equation to make sense.

Answer 27

V V0(1 + 3T)

Answer 28

P= 1.422 atmospheres = 42.8 kPaG

Answer 29

Assuming volume (V), molecular gas quantity (n), and the Gas Constant (R) never change, the IdealGas Law may be reduced as follows:

P1V =nRT1

P2V =nRT2

P1V

P2V

= nRT1

nRT2

P1

P2=

T1

T2

P2 = P1T2

T1

P1 at 0o C = 1 atm = 14.7 PSIA

T1 at 0o C = 273.15 K

T2 at 70o F = 21.11o C = 294.26 K

P2 = 14.7 PSIA294.26 K

273.15 K

P2 = 15.84 PSIA = 1.136 PSIG = 31.5 W.C.

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