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ThermoVision® ExaminIR™ User’s Guide 1

ThermoVision® ExaminIR™ User’s Guide

Document Number: 24796-000 Version: D Issue Date: June 2008


Copyright

© FLIR Systems, Inc., 2001-2007. All rights reserved worldwide. No parts of the software including source code may be reproduced, transmitted, transcribed or translated into any language or computer language in any form or by any means, electronic, magnetic, optical, manual or otherwise, without the prior written permission of FLIR Systems.

This manual must not, in whole or part, be copied, photocopied, reproduced, translated or transmitted to any electronic medium or machine readable form without prior consent, in writing, from FLIR Systems.

Names and marks appearing on the products herein are either registered trademarks or trademarks of FLIR Systems and/or its subsidiaries. All other trademarks, trade names or company names referenced herein are used for identification only and are the property of their respective owners.

FLIR Systems, Inc. 25 Esquire Rd.

North Billerica, MA 01862

Customer Support: 800-GO-INFRA (464-6372) flir.custhelp.com

Service: 866-FLIR-911 (354-7911)

www.goinfrared.com


Table of Contents 1 Revision History .........................................................................................................6 2 Introduction ................................................................................................................7 3 Installation..................................................................................................................8

3.1 Software and GigE Driver Installation.................................................................8 3.2 Configuring Pleora v2.4 ....................................................................................13 3.3 Configuring the PC’s Ethernet Port...................................................................15 3.4 Installing FLIR FireWire Drivers........................................................................21

4 Getting Started.........................................................................................................24 4.1 Connecting to a camera....................................................................................24 4.2 Recording a file.................................................................................................25 4.3 Playing back the recorded file...........................................................................26

5 User Interface ..........................................................................................................28 5.1 Title Bar ............................................................................................................29 5.2 Main Menu Bar .................................................................................................29

5.2.1 File Menu...................................................................................................29 5.2.1.1 Export Dialog......................................................................................29

5.2.2 Camera Menu............................................................................................32 5.2.2.1 Camera Selector ................................................................................32 5.2.2.2 Camera Control ..................................................................................34

5.2.3 View Menu.................................................................................................34 5.2.3.1 Zoom Menu ........................................................................................34 5.2.3.2 Palette Menu ......................................................................................35 5.2.3.3 Startup Dialog.....................................................................................35 5.2.3.4 Preferences Dialog.............................................................................36

5.2.4 Tools Menu................................................................................................37 5.2.4.1 Color Bar ............................................................................................38 5.2.4.2 Flying Spot Meter ...............................................................................38 5.2.4.3 File Operation.....................................................................................38 5.2.4.4 Make Self Viewing File .......................................................................39

5.2.5 Help Menu .................................................................................................39 5.3 Plot and Acquisition Toolbar .............................................................................40

5.3.1 Plot Tools...................................................................................................40 5.3.1.1 Statistics Viewer .................................................................................41 5.3.1.2 Opening a plot ....................................................................................43 5.3.1.3 Managing docked plots ......................................................................46


5.3.1.4 Plot Toolbar ........................................................................................47 5.3.1.5 Plot Properties....................................................................................48 5.3.1.6 Profile Plot ..........................................................................................48 5.3.1.7 Temporal Plot .....................................................................................49 5.3.1.8 Histogram Plot....................................................................................50 5.3.1.9 Oscilloscope Plot................................................................................50

5.3.2 Bad Pixel Tool ...........................................................................................51 5.3.3 Acquisition Tools .......................................................................................52

5.3.3.1 Record to Memory Mode....................................................................53 5.3.3.2 Record to Disk Mode..........................................................................54 5.3.3.3 Periodic Recording .............................................................................54 5.3.3.4 Record Options ..................................................................................54 5.3.3.5 Record Conditions..............................................................................55 5.3.3.6 File Naming Options...........................................................................55

5.4 Toolboxes .........................................................................................................56 5.4.1 Object Parameters Toolbox.......................................................................57 5.4.2 Segmentation Toolbox...............................................................................58 5.4.3 User Calibration Toolbox ...........................................................................59

5.4.3.1 Load Calibration .................................................................................59 5.4.3.2 Save Calibration .................................................................................60 5.4.3.3 Perform Calibration ............................................................................60 5.4.3.4 Perform Correction (PC-Side NUCs)..................................................70

5.4.4 File Toolbox...............................................................................................75 5.5 Analysis Toolbar ...............................................................................................76 5.6 Unit selector......................................................................................................77 5.7 Main Image Window .........................................................................................78 5.8 Color Bar...........................................................................................................78

5.8.1 Isotherm ROIs ...........................................................................................78 5.9 Image Enhancement Tool.................................................................................79 5.10 Metadata display ...........................................................................................80

6 Camera Control........................................................................................................81 6.1 A20/A40/S45/S65 Controllers...........................................................................83 6.2 A320/A325 Controller .......................................................................................84 6.3 SC640 Controller ..............................................................................................85 6.4 SC4000/SC6000 Controller ..............................................................................86 6.5 SC8000 Camera Controller ..............................................................................87


7 Infrared Primer .........................................................................................................88 7.1 History of Infrared .............................................................................................88 7.2 Theory of Thermography ..................................................................................91

7.2.1 Introduction................................................................................................91 7.2.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum .................................................................91 7.2.3 Blackbody Radiation..................................................................................92

7.2.3.1 Planck’s Law ......................................................................................93 7.2.3.2 Wien’s Displacement Law ..................................................................94 7.2.3.3 Stefan-Boltzmann's Law.....................................................................95 7.2.3.4 Non-Blackbody Emitters.....................................................................96

7.2.4 Infrared Semi-Transparent Materials.........................................................98 7.3 The Measurement Formula ..............................................................................98 7.4 Emissivity tables .............................................................................................102

8 Acknowledgements................................................................................................115


1 Revision History

Version Date Initials Notes

A Nov 2007 RIM Initial Release for ExaminIR 1.00.0

B Dec 2007 RIM Updated for release with Hotfix 1.00.1

C May 2008 RIM Updated for release with ExaminIR 1.10.0 BETA

D June 2008 RIM Updated for release with v1.10.0

Chapter 2 – Introduction


2 Introduction

ExaminIR™ is a thermographic data acquisition and analysis application designed for the R&D environment.

Some of the key features of ExaminIR™ include:

Easy to use, customizable workspaces Supports factory and user calibrations Supports factory and user Non-Uniformity Correction (NUC) Fully supports A, S, SC-series cameras Supports high-speed data acquisition Supports SEQ, SAF and RJPG file formats Supports Windows Vista and Dual Core processors A combination of traditional and new capabilities designed to provide a complete

solution for the Industrial R&D customer

Recommended Minimum Hardware/Software: OS: Microsoft Windows XP (Service Pack 2 is required)

Processor: Intel Pentium 4 2.0 Ghz or faster

RAM: at least 1GB

Hard Disk Free Space: 20 MB (for program files only)

Network Adapter: GigE (Intel PRO/1000 for best performance)

USB: One USB 1.1 (or higher) port for the security dongle (ExaminIR Max)

Chapter 3 – Installation


3 Installation

3.1 Software and GigE Driver Installation The installation program will install the ExaminIR application. In addition, it will install necessary support software if it detects that they are not installed on you system. The support software includes:

• Pleora GigE drivers

• FLIR Firewire drivers (ffdshow)

• HASP Dongle support

In general, you can accept all defaults for any dialog you see during the install process.

Important Note: If you have an ExaminIR™ dongle, please do not insert it until after you have installed ExaminIR.

Step 1: Insert the ExaminIR™ CD in your PC’s CD/DVD drive. The installation program should begin automatically. If it doesn’t, you can manually run the Setup.exe file on the CD. Click “Next” to start the installation process.



Step 2: Review the Quick Start Guide

Step 3: Click “I Agree” to accept the license agreement.



Step 4: Choose the install location. Click “Next”.

Step 5: Select any additional options.

If this is an initial installation of ExaminIR, then you will have the option to install ffdshow (for A320) or Pleora iPORT for GigE cameras. Click “Install”. The ffdshow and Pleora software installations are “silent” and do not require any user interaction.



If the installer detects that these component are already installed the options will be grayed out.

ExaminIR is compatible with Pleora GigE software v 2.1.4 and higher. If the installer does not detect existing Pleora software it will install v2.4. If the installer detects Pleora software already installed it will use that. However, A320G requires Pleora v2.4. If you want A320G support and the installer detects an existing Pleora installation the easiest way to proceed is to exit the installation and use Control Panel → Add/Remove Programs to uninstall the older Pleora software (see figure below). Then run the ExaminIR installation again and v2.4 will be installed for you.



Step 6: Click “Finish”. ExaminIR™ installation is now complete.

NOTE: If you have an ExaminIR™ dongle you can insert it in the PC at any time after the installation is complete. The program should recognize the dongle within a few seconds.



3.2 Configuring Pleora v2.4 Launch the Driver Installation Tool located in the eBUS Driver Suite group.

Highlight the network adapter you want to configure and click “Configure”.

Choose the driver option you want to use. The figure below gives some guidelines to choosing the best driver for your situation. In general the eBUS Optimal or eBUS Universal will be the best driver to use. However, if you have been using the iPORT High Performance Driver, there is really no need to change. Click “Finish” to return to the Driver Installation Tool.



Once you have selected the driver, Click the “Update Drivers…” button.



3.3 Configuring the PC’s Ethernet Port

Skip this section if you are using the iPORT High Performance Driver.

It is highly recommended that you use a dedicated clean install PC or at the least a dedicated Ethernet port for interfacing to your camera. This will reduce time used to configure and re-configure your Ethernet port. It also insures there are no firewall settings that could block data transmission between your PC and the Camera.

The eBUS and Windows drivers require an IP address to communicate with a camera. If your NIC is configured to use DHCP and you are connected directly to a camera it could take a minute or more for the software to find the camera. Setting a fixed IP address on the PC NIC will greatly speed up the connection process. Use the following procedure to set your NIC to a fixed IP address.



Step 1. Go to My Network Places and click on “View Network Connections”. Right click on the connection for the adapter you wish to use to connect to the camera. Choose “Properties”.



Step 2. On the Properties window, click on the Advanced tab.

Step 3. Click on Settings.



Step 4. Here you want to disable the Firewall settings by clicking on Off (not recommended). Then click OK.

Step 5. Click back to the General Tab. The properties page will allow you view the properties of the Local Area Connection (LAN Connection). Scroll down until you see the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), and double click on this item.



Step 6. Here your IP is likely set to Obtain an IP address automatically. Since we’re creating our own local network with the camera, we want to assign a static IP. So click on Use the following IP address and type in 192.168.10.1. The subnet mask should handle itself, but you can fill in 255.255.255.0 if it doesn’t default to this address. Then click OK until you closed all windows and are back to your desktop. A side note, you can choose almost any IP address you wish, just so long as you set the camera to have an IP address within the same subnet.

If you wish to talk to the camera over a network, you can leave your PC set to get its IP address automatically. Go to Start→Run… and Enter “cmd” to open a command window. Run “ipconfig” at the prompt to see the current network configuration as shown below.

Please note that while it is possible to connect to a camera over a network, most networks are10/100, not GigE. The data transfer rate will be affected by network bandwidth and load. For slower cameras like the A320/A325 this may be acceptable, but SCx000 cameras require a lot more bandwidth to get full performance.



You will need to set the camera’s IP address to an address in the same subnet, but that doesn’t conflict with another computer on the network.



3.4 Installing FLIR FireWire Drivers The FLIR FireWire drivers are copied to the PC hard drive during installation but are not actually installed until a FireWire camera is detected. When you connect a FireWire camera for the first time, you will need to follow the steps below to install the driver.

1. Connect the camera to the computer via FireWire and power on the camera.

2. The new hardware wizard should be displayed. Select “Install from a list or specific location (Advanced)” and click “Next”.

NOTE: You may also get a page asking if you want to use windows update when searching for drivers. Any choice will work as long as you click “Next” to continue the installation.

3. Select “Search for the best driver in these locations”, make sure “Include this location in the search” is checked, and click “Browse”.



4. Select the Drivers folder in the ExaminIR installation folder (typically C:\Program Files\FLIR Systems\ThermoVision ExaminIR\Drivers). The drivers are also included in the Drivers folder on the ExaminIR installation CD. Click “OK”.

5. Click “Next”.



6. Windows will install the drivers. Click “Finish” when the new hardware wizard has completed.

7. After installing the camera driver, windows may show another new hardware

wizard for the FLIR Network Adapter. Repeat this process to install the additional drivers.

Chapter 4 – Getting Started


4 Getting Started

4.1 Connecting to a camera 1. Connect the camera to the computer and power the camera on.

2. Run ExaminIR, the startup dialog should be shown. If you have it set to not show on startup or if ExaminIR is already running, you can show it by selecting View→Startup Dialog in the file menu. Click the camera you want to connect to.

NOTE: If your camera isn’t shown, you can click “Search Again” to look for it.

NOTE: It may take a few seconds to connect to the camera, especially if this is the first time ExaminIR has connected to this camera.

3. The camera image should now be displayed.



4.2 Recording a file 1. Move your mouse over the record toolbar button and the click on the configure

icon.

2. Set the recording and file naming options you want and click “OK”.

3. Move your mouse over the record toolbar button and click the record button (or

use F5 if that option was enabled).



4. ExaminIR will record a file. Wait for the status to display “Done” and the “Close” button to appear then click “Close”.

4.3 Playing back the recorded file 1. Make sure the File toolbox is visible by expanding the toolbox window and the

File toolbox if they are not already expanded.

2. Click the show record folder button to display the record folder in the file toolbox

then double click on the file you just recorded.



3. The file should now be displayed.

NOTE: Files can also be played back by opening them with File→Open in the File menu.

Chapter 5 – User Interface


5 User Interface

The ExaminIR™ main window is comprised of ten main regions:

1. Title Bar

2. Main Menu Bar

3. Plot and Acquisition Toolbar

4. Toolboxes for optional add-on modules. Only available with ExaminIR Max.

5. Analysis Toolbar

6. Unit selector

7. Main image window



8. Colorbar

9. Image Enhancement Tool

10. Metadata display

5.1 Title Bar

Indicates what ExaminIR™ package is running. There are three options:

• ExaminIR: indicates that the basic version is running.

• ExaminIR Max: indicates that all add-on modules are enabled.

5.2 Main Menu Bar

This set of menus allow the user to access functions pertaining to camera connectivity, display parameters and plot tools.

5.2.1 File Menu

Menu Option Description Open Open a file Close Close the current file Open Recent Shows a list of recently used files Save Bad Pixel Map Updates PC-side NUC bad pixel map Export Shows options for exporting data Page Setup Options for setting up page for printing Print Main Screen Allows user to print the current screen Exit Exits the program

5.2.1.1 Export Dialog The Export Dialog allows the user to export images and data from ExaminIR for use in reports or other programs. Data values can be exported to CSV files or images and movies can be exported to a number of standard formats. ExaminIR provides a number of options to customize the exported objects.



There are three basic export types:

• Current Image: Exports only the currently displayed image frame

• Movie: Exports the selected range of frames as a video

• Multiple Images: Exports the selected range of frames as a series of individual files.

Each type has a number of format options.

Export Type Export Format Description

Current Image Comma Separated Variable (CSV)

Export ASCII text file that contains the data for each image pixel. Can be imported to other programs like Excel.

Windows Bitmap (BMP) Export Image capture stored in BMP format

Portable Network Graphics (PNG)

Export Image capture stored in PNG format

JPEG Export Image capture stored in JPG format

TIFF RGB, 16-bit counts, or 32-bit floating point

FITS Export binary data file in FITS format. This is an open file format.

SAF Image Export binary data file in SAF file format. This is an open file format.




Movie Windows Media Movie (WMV)

Export a movie file in WMV format


SAF Export binary data file in SAF file format. This is an open file format.


Multiple Images Comma Separated Variable (CSV)

Export ASCII text file that contains the data for each image pixel. Can be imported to other programs like Excel.

Windows Bitmap (BMP) Export Image capture stored in BMP format

Portable Network Graphics (PNG)

Export Image capture stored in PNG format

JPEG Export Image capture stored in JPG format

TIFF RGB, 16-bit counts, or 32-bit floating point


SAF Export binary data file in SAF file format. This is an open file format.

The Output field allows the user to designate the location for exported files to be stored. There are also a number of additional export options that can be enables by checking the boxes. Options that do not apply to the chosen export settings are greyed out.

• Export Entire Image: If unchecked, the image is exported using the current size (as displayed). This could be a zoom factor less than 1x or greater than 1x, depending on the window layout and monitor resolution. If this option is checked then the exported image will be full size (as if you were set to a 1x zoom factor.)

• Include Image Border: Adds a border to the image.

• Include color bar: Adds the color bar and scale to the exported image.

• Show ROIs: Include the ROIs in the exported image.

• Show ROI names: Include the ROI name in the exported image.



• Show ROIs: Include the ROIs in the exported image.

• Show ROI crosshairs: Include the ROI center marker in the exported image.

• Show min/max crosshairs: Includes the markers showing the min/max pixels in the image.

• Export ROI bitmasks: In addition to the image, additional files are exported with the ROI bitmasks. The files have the same base name with the ROI name appended. These are stored in the location specified in the Output field.

• Export stats: In addition to the image, an additional text file is exported with the ROI statistics.

• Display images while exporting: When checked, ExaminIR will display the frame being exported.

• Use frame skipping: When checked the user can specify a pattern of frames to keep and skip.

5.2.2 Camera Menu

Menu Option Description Connect Connects to last selected camera Disconnect Disconnect from camera

Select Select a camera to connect to from a list of available cameras

Control Show camera controller for current connected camera

5.2.2.1 Camera Selector ExaminIR has two methods of selecting a camera: Auto detection, and manual selection. If you select a camera with the Startup dialog (shown at startup or View->Startup Dialog menu), ExaminIR will try to auto detect the control interface. This is generally the recommended method. If you need to manually specify the connection interface you can use the Camera Selector.

The Camera Selector has two view modes: Standard and Custom. The Standard Mode automatically scans the computer and displays available cameras. The cameras are grouped by interface (Firewire or Ethernet). The Custom Mode allows you to manually choose the camera and connection interface

NOTE: You can run more than one instance of ExaminIR on the same PC. If one instance of ExaminIR is connected to a camera then that camera will not show up in the Camera Selector in other instances of the program. Once the camera has been disconnected, it will show up as an available camera.



Camera Selector (Standard View)

Camera Selector (Custom View)



5.2.2.2 Camera Control ExaminIR provides a camera controller for all supported cameras. The controller is customized for each camera and provides access to all camera functions. Below is a sample view of the A-series controller. More information regarding the camera control software can be found in Chapter 6.

5.2.3 View Menu

Menu Option Description Zoom Select image zoom level Palette Choose image color palette

Preserve Aspect Ratio Maintain image aspect ratio when resizing application window

Fullscreen Show image only in fullscreen mode

Startup Dialog Show the initial startup screen for selecting recent files and cameras

Preferences Show program preferences dialog

5.2.3.1 Zoom Menu

Menu Option Description

Stretch Stretch the image to fill the space available.

1/4 Display the image at ¼ (25%) of its original size.

1/2 Display the image at ½ (50%) of its original size.

1x Display the image at its original size.

2x Display the image at twice (200%) its original size.

4x Display the image at four times (400%) its original size.



5.2.3.2 Palette Menu

Menu Option Description Invert Invert the colors in the current palette. Load Load an external palette. 1234, Blue, Glowbow, Grayscale, Green, Ironbow, Rainbow, Red, Sepia

Use the selected built-in palette.

5.2.3.3 Startup Dialog The startup dialog allows you to quickly open a recent file or connect to an available camera. The startup dialog is shown when ExaminIR starts up by default. It can be set to not show when ExaminIR starts up with an option in the dialog.



5.2.3.4 Preferences Dialog The Preferences dialog allows you to edit settings that affect how ExaminIR behaves.

1) Metadata are items that can be extracted from the frame header and can be

shown in the metadata control on the main window. The available items will vary depending on the camera type. Multiple items can be selected by holding down the CTRL key while selecting with the left mouse button.

2) If checked, the ROI name will be shown according to each individual ROI's settings; if this is unchecked no ROI names will be displayed regardless of what the individual ROI settings are.

3) If checked, the ROI center crosshairs will be shown according to each individual ROI's settings; if this is unchecked the ROI center crosshairs will not be shown regardless of what the individual ROI settings are.

4) Attempt to decrease jitter or wobbling in the level and span control often caused by twinkling pixels. Twinkling pixels are bad pixels that are difficult to detect and



compensate for. This is done by ignoring a few of the pixels on the top and bottom of the range of values.

5) Number of pixels to ignore.

6) Number of frames to skip when in fast play mode.

7) Frame rate to attempt to display in hertz.

8) If checked, the ROI min/max crosshairs will be shown according to each individual ROI’s settings; if unchecked the ROI min/max crosshairs will not be shown regardless of what the individual ROI settings are.

9) Play movies in a loop when viewing files.

5.2.4 Tools Menu

Menu Option Description

Statistics Viewer Toggles to show or hide the stats viewer.

Profile Plot

Shows a plot of the data values along a profile of the selected ROI. If ROI is a Line, the graph will be a profile along the line. If the ROI is an area, the graph will be a “thick” profile. Y-axis units correspond to units selector.

Temporal Plot Toggles to show a time history plot for selected ROI. User can choose statistic to plot vs. time.

Histogram Plot Toggles to show a histogram plot of selected ROI.

Oscilloscope Plot Toggles to show an edge-on view of the entire image

Color Bar Toggles to turn the color scale on or off

Flying Spot Meter Toggles to show a flying cursor when the mouse cursor is over the image

File Operation

Shows a dialog that allows a user to specify a reference image that can be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by all images

Make Self Viewing File

Shows dialog to create a Self Viewing File

A detailed description of the Statistics Viewer, Profile Plot, Temporal Plot, Histogram Plot, and Oscilloscope plot can be found in Section 5.3.1.



5.2.4.1 Color Bar The Color Bar shows the relationship between colors in the selected color palette and the data values in the currently selected units.

The current segmentation levels are also displayed on the color bar as full width shaded regions in the currently selected segmentation colors.

Active Isotherm ROIs are displayed as half width shaded regions. Isotherm limits can be adjusted by dragging the ROI on the color bar. Isotherms ROIs can be deleted by clicking the isotherm on the color bar and pressing the Delete key.

5.2.4.2 Flying Spot Meter

The Flying Spot Meter is a real-time data cursor that appears as the user runs the mouse cursor over the image. To the lower right of the cross-hairs is a tooltip that displays the cursor coordinate (in pixels) and the data value in the currently selected units.

5.2.4.3 File Operation The File Operation dialog allows the user to designate an operation and a reference image. Once selected, the reference image is applied on a pixel basis to the current image using the operator. For example, this can be used to subtract one image from another and only show the differences. If the reference file is a movie, the first frame will be used. You cannot use the current file as the reference as this would cause a file sharing violation. Create a copy of the file first.



5.2.4.4 Make Self Viewing File The Make Self Viewing File has two modes of operation: Single and Batch. The Single mode creates a single self viewing file from a single input (typically the currently open file). The Batch mode creates multiple self viewing files from multiple inputs.

Make Self Viewing File (Single Mode)

Make Self Viewing File (Batch Mode)

5.2.5 Help Menu Menu Option Description

ExaminIR Help Shows an online copy of the ExaminIR User’s Guide.

About ExaminIR…

Shows the program About Box. The About Box provides information about the program version and what modules are active.



5.3 Plot and Acquisition Toolbar

This toolbar provides quick access to plotting and acquisition functions. The icon for the currently selected tool is displayed. When the mouse is placed over the current tool a drop down menu is displayed to show other available tools.

Tool Description Plot Tools User can choose from a selection of plots for each ROI.

Bad Pixel Tool Allows user to manually add a bad pixel to the Bad Pixel Map (BPM)

Acquisition Tools Allows user to start or stop the acquisition and to set acquisition options.

Preset Selector Allow user to select the displayed preset. Only available if camera support Preset Sequencing (PS) and PS must be active.

Apply PC-side NUC Turns PC-side NUC on or off. Button only active is PC-side NUC has been done.

Apply PC-Side Bad Pixel Map

Turns PC-side BPM on or off. Button only active is PC-side BPM has been done.

5.3.1 Plot Tools This toolbar allows the user to choose from various plots. You can have one of each plot type per Region of Interest (ROI). Each of these plots can be free-floating or they can be “docked”. The available plot types include:

• Statistics Viewer

• Line Profile

• Temporal Plot

• Histogram Plot

• O-scope Plot



5.3.1.1 Statistics Viewer The Statistics Viewer allows the user to see a variety of statistic for all the ROIs currently drawn. It is divided into three main areas.



5.3.1.1.1 Stats Toolbar

Pause the update of the stats. (While the image keeps updating). Click again to restart the update.

Save the current stats to a text file

Turn on/off the Image ROI. Creates a column in the table with stats for the whole image.

ROI Subtraction. Opens a dialog that allows the user to create an new column in the stats table that is a subtraction of two current ROIs.

5.3.1.1.2 Stats Table There will be one column in the table for each active ROI. The top line of each column shows the ROI name and it color.

These can be changed by right clicking on the ROI or its column in the table and choosing “Properties” from the menu.



5.3.1.1.3 Measurement Functions This tool allows the user to define mathematical expressions using ROI statistics. Any number can be defined. Once a function is defined you can view the expression my mousing over the function name. Measurement functions are managed using the toolbar at the top of the pane.

Add Function

Opens the function definition dialog. User can create a mathematical expression using constants, object parameters, ROI stats, and other measurement functions. An arbitrary name can be assigned to the function and will be displayed in the table.

Edit Function Opens the function definition dialog with the current

expression. Edit the expression and click OK to save.

Delete Function Deletes the highlighted function.

Delete All Functions Clears the Measurement Function table

Load Functions User can load a previous set of function from disk

Save Functions User can save a set of functions for later use

Temporal Plot User can create a temporal plot of a defined function.

5.3.1.2 Opening a plot 1. Select an ROI by clicking on it. The ROI color will change slightly and sizing

handles will appear to indicate that the ROI is selected.

2. If you want to open the plot to its default location, just click the plot button without

dragging.

3. If you want to open the plot and drag into a specific dock location, click and drag

the plot button into a dock location. The plot will be displayed as a translucent preview.



4. When a plot can be docked into a dock location the dock location will highlight

blue.



5. Release the left mouse button to dock the plot.

NOTE: Plots can be docked to the right and bottom of the initial ExaminIR layout. When a plot is docked, it creates a plot container. New plots can be docked to the top, left, bottom, right, and inside plot containers. In addition, there are two options for docking a plot inside a plot container. As shown in the figure below, selecting the left-center docking handle creates a plot in a new tab. Selecting the right-center dock handle adds a new graph to the existing plot (called a multi-plot).



5.3.1.3 Managing docked plots Docked plots can be closed or de-docked. De-docking a plot turns it into a floating window that can be docked again by dragging its title bar into a dock location. The currently displayed plot in a plot container will have a darker colored tab.



5.3.1.4 Plot Toolbar When the mouse cursor is hovering over the plot, the plot toolbar is activated and can be seen in the upper right corner of the plot window.

Clicking the “<<” opens the toolbar with all the available plot tools. Mousing over a tool will display a tooltip with the tool name.

The plot tools include (from left to right):

• Reset: return plot scales to default values

• Lock Scales

• Pan

• Horizontal Box Zoom

• Vertical Box Zoom

• Box Zoom

• Horizontal Magnify

• Vertical Magnify

• Magnify

• Print

• Save: Save plot as BMP (image) or CSV (data) file.



Under the toolbar is the interactive legend. The legend can be used to select the y-axis scale or delete a graph from a plot. To show a mini (non-interactive) legend when the tool bar is closed, right click on the plot and choose “Properties” from the menu. On the Legend tab there is an option to draw the legend.

5.3.1.5 Plot Properties Right-clicking on any plot window will bring up the plot properties dialog. This dialog allows the user to customize the plot appearance.

5.3.1.6 Profile Plot The Profile Plot creates a linear graph of the data along an ROI. If the ROI is a line (straight or bendable), this will be a traditional linear profile, where the actual data values (in the currently selected units) are plotted on an X-Y graph. If the ROI is an area (box, circle, polygon, freeform, or isotherm) then plot will be a “thick profile”. Think of a thick profile as drawing a line across an ROI and then computing a statistic (Mean, Max, etc). That will be one data point in the thick profile. You then scan the line across the ROI one pixel at a time. This will produce a series of data points. As shown in the picture below, the thick profile can horizontal or vertical.



If you open the plot tools by clicking the “<<” icon in the upper right corner of the plot, you can choose the direction and statistic for the thick profile.

5.3.1.7 Temporal Plot The Temporal plots allows the user to plot and ROI statistic versus time



5.3.1.8 Histogram Plot The Histogram Plot shows the user the distribution of values within an ROI.

5.3.1.9 Oscilloscope Plot The Oscilloscope Plot (O-scope) gives the user an “edge-on” view of the image. The O-scope can be thought of as a line profile with a profile for all the rows overlayed on top of each other. This allows the user to quickly identify regions of the image that are saturated. This plot can be very useful when setting up a camera for a user calibration to make sure that the integration time is set correctly.



5.3.2 Bad Pixel Tool The Bad Pixel Tool allows the user to manually add bad pixels to the Bad Pixel Map (BPM) that was created when doing a PC-Side Non-Uniformity Correction (PC-NUC). Place the cursor over the bad pixel and click the add/remove button (or the Spacebar) to mark the pixel as bad. Pressing the button again will unmark the pixel. Once the pixel has been marked it will turn blue. Clicking the Bad Pixel tool again (see cursor in picture below) will turn off the tool and all blue pixels will be replaced with a nearest good pixel.

The program will search for a good replacement pixel using the pattern indicated below. It will start with the pixel to the upper left of the bad pixel. If that pixel is bad or invalid (pixel is in a corner) the algorithm will search other adjacent pixels. If none of those pixels are good then the algorithm will expand the search ring by one pixel.



5.3.3 Acquisition Tools The Acquisition Tools allow the user to start and stop the live display, record single images or movies and set recording options.

Selecting the “Edit Recording Settings” Tool displays the following dialog. This dialog allows the user to choose the Record Mode (To Memory or To Disk) as well as Record Options and the location to store recorded data. Each section of this dialog is explained in more detail in the sections that follow.



5.3.3.1 Record to Memory Mode Recording to PC memory is the fastest recording mode, but the time is limited by available physical RAM (does not use virtual RAM). When recording to PC memory the user can set either a specific number of frames to record or a time to record, in minutes or seconds.

When specifying time it is still necessary to specify a max frame limit. The frame limit can be much higher than the number of frames needed to record the specified time.

The thing to keep in mind for all recordings to memory is that the frame limit is used to allocate a RAM buffer. RAM allocated to this buffer will not be available to other applications running on the PC. If the number specified is more than can be from continuous PC RAM, the acquisition will not start properly. You will see the acquisition status dialog but the acquisition will terminate with zero frames acquired. If this happens, lower number of frames to record.



5.3.3.2 Record to Disk Mode Recording to disk can accommodate longer recording times, but at a slower rate. In addition to setting a number of frames or length of time for recording, the user can stop or start the recording with the F5 key or use the PC clock to start or stop the acquisition.

5.3.3.3 Periodic Recording Periodic recording involves setting a pattern for recording frames. The user also specifies how the pattern should be repeated, when it should stop, and how the data should be saved. This mode is currently only available to recording to PC memory.

5.3.3.4 Record Options These additional options may be used with any recording mode.



5.3.3.5 Record Conditions The Record Conditions allow the user to choose additional options for starting and stopping a recording.

The “Stop Recording” option is only available when recording to disk and using the “Start/Stop” recording mode.

5.3.3.6 File Naming Options ExaminIR provides the user with a number of options for automatically generating filenames. A separate set of options can be specified for both movies and snapshots. Options include:

• Prefix: This is an alphanumeric code that is placed at the beginning of the filename. These codes can be used for anything but are often used to refer to a specific camera. The table of prefixes can be edited by the user and are not restricted to two characters.

• Text: This is an arbitrary text string

• Count: This is a numeric counter that is automatically incremented for each acquisition. The starting number and increment can be specified.

• Timestamp: This will place the timestamp from the first image in the file name. The time will be extracted from the image header on the first frame. If the camera does not support time in the header then PC clock time will be used.



5.4 Toolboxes

Toolboxes are only available in ExaminIR Max. Toolboxes allow uses to access advanced program functions. Some toolboxes are available only if a certain add-on module is active, such as User Calibration, Export, or Dynamic Range Extension. Other toolboxes are only available for certain camera types. For example, the Object Parameters Toolbox is only available if a camera has a factory calibration.

The toolbox view can be customized to show only what the user wants to see. The program will remember the last settings the next time the program is started.



5.4.1 Object Parameters Toolbox Object parameters are used to more accurately compute the temperature of an object. The object parameters toolbox displays the current object parameters as downloaded from the camera and allows you to edit them. Editing the values in the toolbox overrides the values coming from the camera but does not change the values for these parameters in the camera.



5.4.2 Segmentation Toolbox The segmentation toolbox controls if and how segmentation is applied to the image data. Segmentation defines a range of values that are considered valid in the image. For instance, if the segmentation min and max are 7000 counts and 9000 counts respectively then only the pixels in the image that have a value between 7000 and 9000 are considered valid. All other pixels are segmented out (ignored). Pixels that are segmented out are not included when computing statistics. The Number of Pixels statistic will reflect the number of valid pixels in the ROI. Pixels below the segmentation minimum are show as blue and pixels above the segmentation maximum are show as red. The segmentation range can be defined in terms of counts, radiance, or temperature units.

Segmentation’s effects



5.4.3 User Calibration Toolbox The user calibration toolbox manages user radiance/temperature calibrations and PC-Side Non-Uniformity Corrections (PC-NUC).

5.4.3.1 Load Calibration Brings up a file dialog box and allows user to select a user calibration to be loaded into memory. The user calibration can then be applied to the data by choosing it with the Units Selector.



5.4.3.2 Save Calibration Brings up a file dialog box and allows user to save the current user calibration to disk. This will create two files: a .INC and a .CAL. These two files are part of the SAF format, which is fully described in a separate document.

5.4.3.3 Perform Calibration

The button starts the User Calibration Wizard. This wizard will walk the user through the steps required to calibrate a camera. You will need a calibrated blackbody source to complete this procedure. This section is only a discussion of how to input user calibration data into ExaminIR.

It is important to note that as a general rule, the User Calibration Wizard will generate a calibration in terms of apparent effective radiance. This means that the calibration is mapping the digital counts from the camera to what radiance the camera sees, not necessarily to radiance at the source. If you use only ideal response curves for spectral response and atmosphere, ExaminIR will compute theoretical source radiance based on Planck’s function and map the camera counts to that. Therefore, when you include data for spectral response and atmospheric path you are trying to reduce the theoretical radiance of the calibration source to the energy that the camera actually sees.

STEP 1: Getting Started. Before starting a user calibration you will need to choose the desired integration time for the camera and you will need to perform a Non-Uniformity Correction (NUC). The NUC can either be done on the camera side or on the PC side. Most FLIR cameras supported by ExaminIR support on-camera NUCs. (The SC8000 is an example of a camera that does not.) PC-Side NUCs are discussed in the next section. See your camera’s user’s manual for more information on camera-side NUCs.



STEP 2: Input Camera Spectral Response. The user can choose to use either an ideal “top hat” response or provide a file with an actual response curve. The graph will show the response curve that will be used.

An actual response file should be a peak-normalized power spectral response (not a photon response). A response file can be a simple tab-delimitted ASCII file with the wavelength in microns and normalized response values. Below is an example.



STEP 3: Input Atmospheric Path. This screen provides a place to input Atmospheric path data from MODTRAN. MODTRAN is a widely accepted model used to predict atmospheric transmission. The MODTRAN model has several output files. ExaminIR is setup to read the TOTAL TRANSMISSION and PATH THERMAL data from the MODOUT2 files. Once the MODTRAN data has been loaded, ExaminIR can plot the data.

STEP 4: Input Additional Responses: Additional responses can be used to account for other factors that can affect the path between the cal target and the camera that are not already accounted for by camera spectral response or atmospheric modeling. Such things might be a mirror reflectance curve or an additional filter. The values in this file are multiplied against the data.

More than one response curve can be added using the button.

Unwanted responses can be deleted using the button



The file format for an additional response file is a simple tab-delimited ASCII file. The first column should be the wavelength in microns and the second column should be the transmission (value from 0 to 1). The data increment does not have to be the same as the spectral response or atmospheric files. ExaminIR will automatically interpolate the values.



The Additional Response dialog can also be used to input a simple atmospheric path transmission if MODTRAN is not used. In this case only total transmission would be accounted for.

STEP 5: Set default blackbody emissivity and reflected radiance compensation options. This dialog allows the user to set the default emissivity value for the blackbody. If you are using more than one blackbody or the emissivity change with temperature, it is possible to override this value when you are taking the actual data.



The user can also set options to try and compensate for reflected energy in the scene that is not coming from the calibration source. Typically, this extra source is reflected solar energy. In almost all cases, you should not attempt to compensate for reflected radiance unless you have no other option. If at all possible you should arrange your calibration setup to provide clean, uncorrupted view of the calibration target. This will give you the best and most repeatable calibration.

STEP 6: Setup calibration source. This dialog box prompts the user to setup the camera to see the blackbody. Once the blackbody is setup, click “Next”.

STEP 7: Draw an ROI on the blackbody. This dialog box prompts the user to draw a Region of Interest (ROI) on the blackbody emitter. The ROI should be drawn so that it is large enough to get as many good pixels as possible but should not be drawn to close to the edge of the source. ExaminIR will take the spatial average of all the pixels in the ROI so any pixels that are off of the blackbody will cause errors. Not all blackbody sources are created equal and uniformity at the edges is usually the worst so It is better to have fewer pixels that you know are good. Sometimes it is hard to tell from looking at the image if the edges of the blackbody are uniform. Using the O-scope plot is a good way to tell if all of the pixels in the ROI are uniform.



STEP 8: Ready to Start Calibrating. The user is now ready to start adding points to the calibration table. The calibration wizard uses a linear curve fit so at least two points are required. However, more points are better. This dialog gives instructions and helpful tips for collecting good calibration data. Keep these in mind:

1. A calibration must have at least two points.

2. The calibration should cover the entire range of temperature you want to measure. Extrapolation is not a good practice. A good calibration will be very linear. If your curve has nonlinear characteristics there is generally something wrong with the calibration data.

Click “Next” to continue.



STEP 9: Add calibration point. This dialog is used to collect and plot the calibration data. The settings chosen here only affect this calibration point.



STEP 10: Review data and add more points. Once you have added a data point you will see a table summarizing all of the data taken. To add an additional

point, click the button.

Below is a sample of a complete calibration. The summary table and graph allow the user to modify the data and assess the quality of the calibration.



Click “Finish” to close the calibration wizard. To save the calibration data for future use click the button. To apply the calibration to the live data choose either a Radiance or Temperature (user) from the Units Selector.

Calibration Plots By default, the calibration wizard will build a plot of counts vs. radiance. The user can build additional plots using the Add Graph and Edit Graph buttons. This will launch the Add/Edit Graph dialog.



This dialog (shown above), allows the user to select from a number of graph type. As the graph are selected using the “>>” button they will appear in the preview pane to the right. Once a graph is selected, other graph type that are not compatible with the the current axes will be disabled. To use one of these the user would need to create another new graph. One the graph is created in the preview the user can give it a name. In the box below the name the user can delete graph or change their order. By mousing over the preview you can access the plot toolbar with functions for pan/zoom and saving the plot to CSV or BMP.

5.4.3.4 Perform Correction (PC-Side NUCs)

The button starts a wizard that walks the user through completing a PC-Side Non-Uniformity Correction (PC-NUC). PC-Side NUCs are similar to the camera-side NUCs. Both provide good image correction but there are some differences in functionality. The following table compares the two types of NUCs.

NUC Feature PC-Side NUC

Camera-side NUC

1-point correction (Compute offset, Gain =1)

2-point correction (Compute Gain and Offset)

Update offset only (keep current gain, compute new offset)

Bad pixel detection

Use factory bad pixel map (eliminates more bad pixels and twinklers)

Can be applied to camera analog output

Can use camera internal NUC flag



NUC data stored separately from raw digital data (NUC data can be changed in post-processing)

Manual bad pixel tool

NUC storage space unlimited limited

If desired, both types of NUCs can be used simultaneously. However, if you are using a factory calibration it is STRONGLY recommended that you not use a PC-Side NUC as this can affect the calibration accuracy.

One exception to this recommendation is using the Bad Pixel Tool to mark additional bad pixels that are not masked by the automatic bad pixel detection algorithm.

ExaminIR keeps track of the last PC-Side NUC done for each camera it connects to. If a PC-Side NUC is available then the NUC icons will appear next to the Units Selector.

A blue shading over the icons indicates that the NUC and Bad Pixel Map (BPM) are enabled.



Creating a PC-Side NUC in ExaminIR STEP 1: Choose the NUC Type. This dialog allows the user to select the NUC action to perform. Click Next to continue.

NUC Type Description

One Point Correction Compute Offset, set Gain=1. No automatic bad pixel detection.

Two Point Correction Compute both Offset and Gain. Optional automatic bad pixel detection.

Update Offset Keep current gain. Compute new offset.

Bad Pixel Detection Keep current Gain and Offset. Compute new Bad Pixel map.

Default Remove current PC-side NUC. Set Gain=1 and Offset=0.

STEP 2: Set NUC Options. This dialog allows the user to set the number of frames to average, and whether to detect bad pixels and twinkling pixels. The default values are good for most situations.



STEP 3: Collect NUC data. User will be prompted to fill the field of view with a uniform scene. One or two scenes (hot and cold) will be needed depending on the type of correction being performed. Once you have filled the field of view of the camera with a uniform scene, click “Next”. It does not matter which scene (hot or cold) is used first.

For the best results, the two scenes should be far enough apart in temperature to span as much of the A/D range as possible. If the real scene spans a large range of the A/D than the scenes used to generate the NUC then the NUC algorithm with attempt to extrapolate. This will generally lead to undesirable artifacts in the image.

NOTE: When choosing the hot and cold scenes for the NUC it is not always necessary or desirable to span the same temperature range as the scene. The NUC source is generally placed right up to the camera so in many cases a temperature that would not saturate the camera at a normal measurement distance may saturate the camera when NUCing. This is caused by the difference in atmospheric transmission. For this reason, when choosing scenes for a NUC it is better to think in terms of how many A/D counts the source produces rather than its temperature.

STEP 4: Accept or Discard Correction. A dialog will appear showing the number of bad pixels detected. Generally this will be a very low number. A high number usually indicates that one of the scenes was not uniform. If accepted, the new correction will be stored as the default PC-side NUC.



STEP 5: Enable the PC-Side NUC. Once you have accepted the NUC, you can apply it to the live image by using the NUC controls next to the Units Selector.

Below is the original scene before the NUC and with the NUC and bad pixel map applied.



5.4.4 File Toolbox The file toolbox displays files in the current directory that ExaminIR can open.

In addition to clicking the open button, you can double click on a file to open it.



5.5 Analysis Toolbar The Analysis Toolbar allows the user to draw a Region of Interest (ROI) using a variety of drawing tools.

Select/Edit ROI

With this tool selected, the user can mouse over an ROI. The ROI can be dragged to move it or the user can grab a “handle” to resize the ROI

Box ROI Draw an arbitrary rectangular box.

Ellipse ROI Draw an arbitrary ellipse

Line ROI Draw a straight line

Bendable Line

ROI

Draw a multi-segment line. Each left click adds a vertex. Right click to stop adding points. Using the Edit ROI tool the vertex points can be moved individually.

Polygon ROI

Draw a closed polygon. Left click to add a vertex. Right click to close the polygon. Using the Edit ROI tool the vertex points can be moved individually.

Freehand ROI

Draw a freehand shape. Hold down the left mouse button and drag to draw. Release the left button to close the ROI.

Cursor ROI Draw a spot cursor ROI.

Add/Remove

Point

Add/remove vertex from Bendable Line or Polygon. Click on a vertex to deleted it or click on a line segment to add a vertex.

Rotate ROI With this tool selected, mouse over an ROI to activate

the “handles”. Drag the ROI to rotate it.

Select Next ROI Select next rOI. Use to select very small or overlapping

ROIs

Delete current

ROI Select an ROI and then click this button or press Delete key to remove it

Delete All ROIs Clears all ROIs

Load ROIs Load an ROI descriptor file

Save ROIs Save an ROI descriptor file

Isotherm ROI This tool is located above the color bar. See section 5.8



5.6 Unit selector This dropdown allows the user to choose the data units. The units available depend on the type of calibration done with the camera.

Factory calibrated cameras typically allow:

• Counts

• Object Signal (N/A for SCx000 camera)

• Temperature (factory)

• Radiance (factory)

User calibrated cameras typically allow:

• Counts

• Radiance (user)

• Temperature (user)



5.7 Main Image Window The Main Image Window displays either live imagery from a camera or stored images and movies. By default, the image size stretched as the application window is resized. This can be changes by selecting a different zoom factor in the View→Zoom menu. When a previously recorded movie is loaded, the movie player controls will be displayed at the bottom of the image window.

5.8 Color Bar The Color bar shows the relationship between the color palette and the data values in the currently selected units. The palette can be changed by using the View→Palette menu. The scale limits and the color distribution are controlled by the Image Enhancement Tool.

The current segmentation levels are also displayed on the color bar as full width shaded regions in the currently selected segmentation colors.

Active Isotherm ROIs are displayed as half width shaded regions. Isotherm limits can be adjusted by dragging the ROI on the color bar. Isotherms ROIs can be deleted by clicking the isotherm on the color bar and pressing the Delete key.

5.8.1 Isotherm ROIs Isotherm ROIs can be added by using the buttons above the color bar. There are three types:

Interval: User sets range by dragging on color bar

Above: User click on color bar to set lower limit

Below: User clicks on color bar to set upper limit

Endpoints can be adjusted by dragging the limits on the color bar. Right click to set properties.



5.9 Image Enhancement Tool This tool allows the user to control the scale limits and how the color palette is mapped to the data. A real-time histogram of the data is display for each image frame so that the user can see how the data values are distributed. This powerful tool can allow the user to see amazing detail even in low contrast imagery.



5.10 Metadata display The metadata display allows the user to see data embedded in the image header. The data available is camera dependent but typically can include things like image timestamp, camera settings, and camera status flags.

The View → Preferences dialog allows the user to choose which header items are displayed in the table. The items available will vary, depending on the camera model.

Chapter 6 – Camera Control


6 Camera Control

ExaminIR has a built-in camera controller for each of the supported cameras. Selecting the Camera→Control menu item will display the controller for the currently connected camera.

For cameras like the A20, A40, S45, S65, and SC640 that have on-camera controls, the ExaminIR controller will have a basic configuration screen where you can set temperature range and update the NUC. You can also select the image mode to display the IR image, visible camera (if available) or the screen image. There is also a button interface where you roughly have the same button layout and labels as are on the camera. Using the button interface along with the screen display makes it possible to remotely navigate the on-camera menus.



Below is an example of ExaminIR displaying the IR image, visible and screen image from an S65.

NOTE: Thermal analysis can only be done on the IR image. The visible and screen display are RGB data streams. The analysis tools will still work but you will be analyzing the RGB values. You can analyze the individual RGB channels or the average of the three.

Calibrated IR image data will be recorded in an SEQ file format. Visible and Screen images can also be recorded but they will be stored in a SAF RGB movie.



6.1 A20/A40/S45/S65 Controllers The A40 Controller consists of a setup page and a button interface page. The setup page allows the user to select the image mode, temperature range, frame rate, or update the NUC. The button interface allows the user to remotely navigate the onscreen menus or control lens focus.



6.2 A320/A325 Controller The A320/A325 Controller consists of a setup page and a focus page. The setup page allows the user to select the image mode, temperature range, frame rate, or update the NUC. The focus page allows the user to control lens focus.



6.3 SC640 Controller The SC640 Controller consists of a setup page and a button interface page. The setup page allows the user to select the image mode, temperature range, frame rate, or update the NUC. The button interface allows the user to remotely navigate the onscreen menus or control lens focus.



6.4 SC4000/SC6000 Controller NOTE: The standalone Camera Controller that came with the camera cannot be running at the same time as ExaminIR or there will be conflicts. Use the ExaminIR built-in controller.

The same controller is used for all variants of the SC4000 and SC6000.

The ExaminIR controller has almost the entire set of standalone controller functions so there are very few cases where the standalone controller is needed. In addition the ExaminIR controller has some advantages.

1. Offers both a Basic and Advanced mode

2. Compact GUI design makes it easier to see the imagery while controlling the camera.

3. Better support for factory calibrated cameras

For a detailed description of the controller functions, see the SC4000/SC6000 User Manual.



6.5 SC8000 Camera Controller The ExaminIR SC8000 controller is essentially the same as the standalone controller that comes with the camera with the same functionality and the same look and feel. However, when running ExaminIR you must use the built-in controller to avoid communications conflicts.

Refer to the SC8000 User’s Guide for complete details on how to use the camera controller.

Chapter 7 – Infrared Primer


7 Infrared Primer

7.1 History of Infrared Less than 200 years ago the existence of the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum wasn't even suspected. The original significance of the infrared spectrum, or simply ‘the infrared’ as it is often called, as a form of heat radiation is perhaps less obvious today than it was at the time of its discovery by Herschel in 1800.

Figure 7-1 Sir William Herschel (1738–1822)

The discovery was made accidentally during the search for a new optical material. Sir William Herschel – Royal Astronomer to King George III of England, and already famous for his discovery of the planet Uranus – was searching for an optical filter material to reduce the brightness of the sun’s image in telescopes during solar observations. While testing different samples of colored glass which gave similar reductions in brightness he was intrigued to find that some of the samples passed very little of the sun’s heat, while others passed so much heat that he risked eye damage after only a few seconds’ observation.

Herschel was soon convinced of the necessity of setting up a systematic experiment, with the objective of finding a single material that would give the desired reduction in brightness as well as the maximum reduction in heat. He began the experiment by actually repeating Newton’s prism experiment, but looking for the heating effect rather than the visual distribution of intensity in the spectrum. He first blackened the bulb of a sensitive mercury-in-glass thermometer with ink, and with this as his radiation detector he proceeded to test the heating effect of the various colors of the spectrum formed on the top of a table by passing sunlight through a glass prism. Other thermometers, placed outside the sun’s rays, served as controls.

As the blackened thermometer was moved slowly along the colors of the spectrum, the temperature readings showed a steady increase from the violet end to the red end. This was not entirely unexpected, since the Italian researcher, Landriani, in a similar experiment in 1777 had observed much the same effect. It was Herschel, however, who was the first to recognize that there must be a point where the heating effect reaches a maximum, and those measurements confined to the visible portion of the spectrum failed to locate this point.



Figure 7-2 Marsilio Landriani (1746–1815)

Moving the thermometer into the dark region beyond the red end of the spectrum, Herschel confirmed that the heating continued to increase. The maximum point, when he found it, lay well beyond the red end – in what is known today as the ‘infrared wavelengths’.

When Herschel revealed his discovery, he referred to this new portion of the electromagnetic spectrum as the ‘thermometrical spectrum’. The radiation itself he sometimes referred to as ‘dark heat’, or simply ‘the invisible rays’. Ironically, and contrary to popular opinion, it wasn't Herschel who originated the term ‘infrared’. The word only began to appear in print around 75 years later, and it is still unclear who should receive credit as the originator.

Herschel’s use of glass in the prism of his original experiment led to some early controversies with his contemporaries about the actual existence of the infrared wavelengths. Different investigators, in attempting to confirm his work, used various types of glass indiscriminately, having different transparencies in the infrared. Through his later experiments, Herschel was aware of the limited transparency of glass to the newly-discovered thermal radiation, and he was forced to conclude that optics for the infrared would probably be doomed to the use of reflective elements exclusively (i.e. plane and curved mirrors). Fortunately, this proved to be true only until 1830, when the Italian investigator, Melloni, made his great discovery that naturally occurring rock salt (NaCl) – which was available in large enough natural crystals to be made into lenses and prisms – is remarkably transparent to the infrared. The result was that rock salt became the principal infrared optical material, and remained so for the next hundred years, until the art of synthetic crystal growing was mastered in the 1930’s.

Figure 7-3 Macedonio Melloni (1798–1854)

Thermometers, as radiation detectors, remained unchallenged until 1829, the year Nobili invented the thermocouple. (Herschel’s own thermometer could be read to 0.2 °C (0.036 °F), and later models were able to be read to 0.05 °C (0.09 °F)). Then a breakthrough occurred; Melloni connected a number of thermocouples in series to form the first thermopile. The new device was at least 40 times as sensitive as the best thermometer



of the day for detecting heat radiation – capable of detecting the heat from a person standing three meters away.

The first so-called ‘heat-picture’ became possible in 1840, the result of work by Sir John Herschel, son of the discoverer of the infrared and a famous astronomer in his own right. Based upon the differential evaporation of a thin film of oil when exposed to a heat pattern focused upon it, the thermal image could be seen by reflected light where the interference effects of the oil film made the image visible to the eye. Sir John also managed to obtain a primitive record of the thermal image on paper, which he called a ‘thermograph’.

Figure 7-4 Samuel P. Langley (1834–1906)

The improvement of infrared-detector sensitivity progressed slowly. Another major breakthrough, made by Langley in 1880, was the invention of the bolometer. This consisted of a thin blackened strip of platinum connected in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge circuit upon which the infrared radiation was focused and to which a sensitive galvanometer responded. This instrument is said to have been able to detect the heat from a cow at a distance of 400 meters.

An English scientist, Sir James Dewar, first introduced the use of liquefied gases as cooling agents (such as liquid nitrogen with a temperature of -196 °C (-320.8 °F)) in low temperature research. In 1892 he invented a unique vacuum insulating container in which it is possible to store liquefied gases for entire days. The common ‘thermos bottle’, used for storing hot and cold drinks, is based upon his invention.

Between the years 1900 and 1920, the inventors of the world ‘discovered’ the infrared. Many patents were issued for devices to detect personnel, artillery, aircraft, ships – and even icebergs. The first operating systems, in the modern sense, began to be developed during the 1914–18 war, when both sides had research programs devoted to the military exploitation of the infrared. These programs included experimental systems for enemy intrusion/detection, remote temperature sensing, secure communications, and ‘flying torpedo’ guidance. An infrared search system tested during this period was able to detect an approaching airplane at a distance of 1.5 km (0.94 miles), or a person more than 300 meters (984 ft.) away.

The most sensitive systems up to this time were all based upon variations of the bolometer idea, but the period between the two wars saw the development of two revolutionary new infrared detectors: the image converter and the photon detector. At first, the image converter received the greatest attention by the military, because it enabled an observer for the first time in history to literally ‘see in the dark’. However, the sensitivity of the image converter was limited to the near infrared wavelengths, and the most interesting military targets (i.e. enemy soldiers) had to be illuminated by infrared search beams. Since this involved the risk of giving away the observer’s position to a



similarly-equipped enemy observer, it is understandable that military interest in the image converter eventually faded.

The tactical military disadvantages of so-called 'active’ (i.e. search beam-equipped) thermal imaging systems provided impetus following the 1939–45 war for extensive secret military infrared-research programs into the possibilities of developing ‘passive’ (no search beam) systems around the extremely sensitive photon detector. During this period, military secrecy regulations completely prevented disclosure of the status of infrared-imaging technology. This secrecy only began to be lifted in the middle of the 1950’s, and from that time adequate thermal-imaging devices finally began to be available to civilian science and industry.

7.2 Theory of Thermography

7.2.1 Introduction The subjects of infrared radiation and the related technique of thermography are still new to many who will use an infrared camera. In this section the theory behind thermography will be given.

7.2.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum The electromagnetic spectrum is divided arbitrarily into a number of wavelength regions, called bands, distinguished by the methods used to produce and detect the radiation. There is no fundamental difference between radiation in the different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are all governed by the same laws and the only differences are those due to differences in wavelength.

Figure 7-5 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

1: X-ray; 2: UV; 3: Visible; 4: IR; 5: Microwaves; 6: Radiowaves.

Thermography makes use of the infrared spectral band. At the short-wavelength end the boundary lies at the limit of visual perception, in the deep red. At the longwavelength end it merges with the microwave radio wavelengths, in the millimeter range.



The infrared band is often further subdivided into four smaller bands, the boundaries of which are also arbitrarily chosen. They include: the near infrared (0.75–3 μm), the middle infrared (3–6 μm), the far infrared (6–15 μm) and the extreme infrared (15–100 μm). Although the wavelengths are given in μm (micrometers), other units are often still used to measure wavelength in this spectral region, e.g. nanometer (nm) and Ångström (Å). The relationships between the different wavelength measurements is:

7.2.3 Blackbody Radiation A blackbody is defined as an object which absorbs all radiation that impinges on it at any wavelength. The apparent misnomer black relating to an object emitting radiation is explained by Kirchhoff’s Law (after Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, 1824–1887), which states that a body capable of absorbing all radiation at any wavelength is equally capable in the emission of radiation.

Figure 7-6 Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887)

The construction of a blackbody source is, in principle, very simple. The radiation characteristics of an aperture in an isotherm cavity made of an opaque absorbing material represents almost exactly the properties of a blackbody. A practical application of the principle to the construction of a perfect absorber of radiation consists of a box that is light tight except for an aperture in one of the sides. Any radiation which then enters the hole is scattered and absorbed by repeated reflections so only an infinitesimal fraction can possibly escape. The blackness which is obtained at the aperture is nearly equal to a blackbody and almost perfect for all wavelengths.

By providing such an isothermal cavity with a suitable heater it becomes what is termed a cavity radiator. An isothermal cavity heated to a uniform temperature generates blackbody radiation, the characteristics of which are determined solely by the temperature of the cavity. Such cavity radiators are commonly used as sources of radiation in temperature reference standards in the laboratory for calibrating thermographic instruments, such as a FLIR Systems camera for example.

If the temperature of blackbody radiation increases to more than 525 °C (977 °F), the source begins to be visible so that it appears to the eye no longer black. This is the incipient red heat temperature of the radiator, which then becomes orange or yellow as the temperature increases further. In fact, the definition of the so-called color temperature of an object is the temperature to which a blackbody would have to be heated to have the same appearance. Now consider three expressions that describe the radiation emitted from a blackbody.



7.2.3.1 Planck’s Law

Figure 7-7 Max Planck (1858–1947)

Max Planck (1858–1947) was able to describe the spectral distribution of the radiation from a blackbody by means of the following formula:

Where:

Wλb = Blackbody spectral radiant emittance at wavelength λ.

c = Velocity of light = 3 × 108 m/s h = Planck’s constant = 6.6 × 10-34 Joule sec. k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.4 × 10-23 Joule/K. T = Absolute temperature (K) of a blackbody. λ = Wavelength (μm).

Note The factor 10-6 is used since spectral emittance in the curves is expressed in Watt/m2m. If the factor is excluded, the dimension will be Watt/m2μm.

Planck’s formula, when plotted graphically for various temperatures, produces a family of curves. Following any particular Planck curve, the spectral emittance is zero at λ = 0, then increases rapidly to a maximum at a wavelength λmax and after passing it approaches zero again at very long wavelengths. The higher the temperature, the shorter the wavelength at which maximum occurs.



Figure 7-8 Blackbody spectral radiant emittance according to Planck’s law, plotted for various absolute temperatures. 1: Spectral radiant emittance (W/cm2 × 103(μm)); 2: Wavelength (μm)

7.2.3.2 Wien’s Displacement Law By differentiating Planck’s formula with respect to λ, and finding the maximum, we have:

This is Wien’s formula (after Wilhelm Wien, 1864–1928), which expresses mathematically the common observation that colors vary from red to orange or yellow as the temperature of a thermal radiator increases. The wavelength of the color is the same as the wavelength calculated for λmax. A good approximation of the value of λmax for a given blackbody temperature is obtained by applying the rule-of-thumb 3 000/T μm. Thus, a very hot star such as Sirius (11 000 K), emitting bluish-white light, radiates with the peak of spectral radiant emittance occurring within the invisible ultraviolet spectrum, at wavelength 0.27 μm.

Figure 7-9 Wilhelm Wien (1864–1928)

The sun (approx. 6 000 K) emits yellow light, peaking at about 0.5 μm in the middle of the visible light spectrum.



At room temperature (300 K) the peak of radiant emittance lies at 9.7 μm, in the far infrared, while at the temperature of liquid nitrogen (77 K) the maximum of the almost insignificant amount of radiant emittance occurs at 38 μm, in the extreme infrared wavelengths.

Figure 7-10 Planckian curves plotted on semi-log scales from 100 K to 1000 K. The dotted line represents the locus of maximum radiant emittance at each temperature as described by Wien's

displacement law. 1: Spectral radiant emittance (W/cm2 (μm)); 2: Wavelength (μm).

7.2.3.3 Stefan-Boltzmann's Law By integrating Planck’s formula from λ = 0 to λ = ∞, we obtain the total radiant emittance (Wb) of a blackbody:

This is the Stefan-Boltzmann formula (after Josef Stefan, 1835–1893, and Ludwig Boltzmann, 1844–1906), which states that the total emissive power of a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. Graphically, Wb represents the area below the Planck curve for a particular temperature. It can be shown that the radiant emittance in the interval λ = 0 to λmax is only 25 % of the total, which represents about the amount of the sun’s radiation which lies inside the visible light spectrum.



Figure 7-11 Josef Stefan (1835–1893), and Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906)

Using the Stefan-Boltzmann formula to calculate the power radiated by the human body, at a temperature of 300 K and an external surface area of approx. 2 m2, we obtain 1 kW. This power loss could not be sustained if it were not for the compensating absorption of radiation from surrounding surfaces, at room temperatures which do not vary too drastically from the temperature of the body – or, of course, the addition of clothing.

7.2.3.4 Non-Blackbody Emitters So far, only blackbody radiators and blackbody radiation have been discussed. However, real objects almost never comply with these laws over an extended wavelength region – although they may approach the blackbody behavior in certain spectral intervals. For example, a certain type of white paint may appear perfectly white in the visible light spectrum, but becomes distinctly gray at about 2 μm, and beyond 3 μm it is almost black.

There are three processes which can occur that prevent a real object from acting like a blackbody: a fraction of the incident radiation α may be absorbed, a fraction ρ may be reflected, and a fraction τ may be transmitted. Since all of these factors are more or less wavelength dependent, the subscript λ is used to imply the spectral dependence of their definitions. Thus:

The spectral absorptance αλ= the ratio of the spectral radiant power absorbed by an object to that incident upon it.

The spectral reflectance ρλ = the ratio of the spectral radiant power reflected by an object to that incident upon it.

The spectral transmittance τλ = the ratio of the spectral radiant power transmitted through an object to that incident upon it.

The sum of these three factors must always add up to the whole at any wavelength, so we have the relation:

For opaque materials τλ = 0 and the relation simplifies to:

Another factor, called the emissivity, is required to describe the fraction ε of the radiant emittance of a blackbody produced by an object at a specific temperature. Thus, we have the definition: The spectral emissivity ελ= the ratio of the spectral radiant power from an object to that from a blackbody at the same temperature and wavelength.



Expressed mathematically, this can be written as the ratio of the spectral emittance of the object to that of a blackbody as follows:

Generally speaking, there are three types of radiation source, distinguished by the ways in which the spectral emittance of each varies with wavelength.

A blackbody, for which ελ = ε = 1 A graybody, for which ελ = ε = constant less than 1 A selective radiator, for which ε varies with wavelength

According to Kirchhoff’s law, for any material the spectral emissivity and spectral absorptance of a body are equal at any specified temperature and wavelength. That is:

From this we obtain, for an opaque material (since αλ + ρλ = 1):

For highly polished materials ελ approaches zero, so that for a perfectly reflecting material (i.e. a perfect mirror) we have:

For a graybody radiator, the Stefan-Boltzmann formula becomes:

This states that the total emissive power of a graybody is the same as a blackbody at the same temperature reduced in proportion to the value of ε from the graybody.

Figure 7-12 Spectral radiant emittance of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral radiant

emittance; 2: wavelength; 3: Blackbody; 4: Selective radiator; 5: Graybody.



Figure 7-13 Spectral emissivity of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral emissivity; 2:

Wavelength; 3: blackbody; 4: Graybody; 5: Selective radiator.

7.2.4 Infrared Semi-Transparent Materials Consider now a non-metallic, semi-transparent body – let us say, in the form of a thick flat plate of plastic material. When the plate is heated, radiation generated within its volume must work its way toward the surfaces through the material in which it is partially absorbed. Moreover, when it arrives at the surface, some of it is reflected back into the interior. The back-reflected radiation is again partially absorbed, but some of it arrives at the other surface, through which most of it escapes; part of it is reflected back again. Although the progressive reflections become weaker and weaker they must all be added up when the total emittance of the plate is sought. When the resulting geometrical series is summed, the effective emissivity of a semi-transparent plate is obtained as:

When the plate becomes opaque this formula is reduced to the single formula:

This last relation is a particularly convenient one, because it is often easier to measure reflectance than to measure emissivity directly.

7.3 The Measurement Formula As already mentioned, when viewing an object, the camera receives radiation not only from the object itself. It also collects radiation from the surroundings reflected via the object surface. Both these radiation contributions become attenuated to some extent by the atmosphere in the measurement path. To this comes a third radiation contribution from the atmosphere itself.



This description of the measurement situation, as illustrated in the figure below, is so far a fairly true description of the real conditions. What has been neglected could for instance be sun light scattering in the atmosphere or stray radiation from intense radiation sources outside the field of view. Such disturbances are difficult to quantify, however, in most cases they are fortunately small enough to be neglected. In case they are not negligible, the measurement configuration is likely to be such that the risk for disturbance is obvious, at least to a trained operator. It is then his responsibility to modify the measurement situation to avoid the disturbance e.g. by changing the viewing direction, shielding off intense radiation sources etc.

Accepting the description above, we can use the figure below to derive a formula for the calculation of the object temperature from the calibrated camera output.

Figure 7-14 A schematic representation of the general thermographic measurement

situation.1: Surroundings; 2: Object; 3: Atmosphere; 4: Camera

Assume that the received radiation power W from a blackbody source of temperature Tsource on short distance generates a camera output signal Usource that is proportional to the power input (power linear camera). We can then write (Equation 1):

Where C is a constant.

Should the source be a graybody with emittance ε, the received radiation would consequently be εWsource.

We are now ready to write the three collected radiation power terms:

1. Emission from the object = ετWobj, where ε is the emittance of the object and τ is the transmittance of the atmosphere. The object temperature is Tobj.

2. Reflected emission from ambient sources = (1 – ε)τWrefl, where (1 – ε) is the reflectance of the object. The ambient sources have the temperature Trefl.



It has here been assumed that the temperature Trefl is the same for all emitting surfaces within the half sphere seen from a point on the object surface. This is of course sometimes a simplification of the true situation. It is, however, a necessary simplification in order to derive a workable formula, and Trefl can – at least theoretically – be given a value that represents an efficient temperature of a complex surrounding.

Note also that we have assumed that the emittance for the surroundings = 1. This is correct in accordance with Kirchhoff’s law: All radiation impinging on the surrounding surfaces will eventually be absorbed by the same surfaces. Thus the emittance = 1.

Note Though that the latest discussion requires the complete sphere around the object to be considered.

3. Emission from the atmosphere = (1 – τ)τWatm, where (1 – τ) is the emittance of the atmosphere. The temperature of the atmosphere is Tatm.

The total received radiation power can now be written (Equation 2):

We multiply each term by the constant C of Equation 1 and replace the CW products by the corresponding U according to the same equation, and get (Equation 3):

Solve Equation 3 for Uobj (Equation 4):

This is the general measurement formula used in all the FLIR Systems thermographic equipment. The voltages of the formula are:

Uobj = Calculated camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature Tobj i.e. a voltage that can be directly converted into true requested object temperature.

Utot = Measured camera output voltage for the actual case.

Urefl = Theoretical camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature Trefl according to the calibration.

Uatm = Theoretical camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature Tatm according to the calibration.

The operator has to supply a number of parameter values for the calculation:

The object emittance ε, The relative humidity, Tatm Object distance (Dobj) The (effective) temperature of the object surroundings, or the reflected ambient

temperature Trefl, and



The temperature of the atmosphere Tatm This task could sometimes be a heavy burden for the operator since there are normally no easy ways to find accurate values of emittance and atmospheric transmittance for the actual case. The two temperatures are normally less of a problem provided the surroundings do not contain large and intense radiation sources.

A natural question in this connection is: How important is it to know the right values of these parameters? It could though be of interest to get a feeling for this problem already here by looking into some different measurement cases and compare the relative magnitudes of the three radiation terms. This will give indications about when it is important to use correct values of which parameters.

The figures below illustrates the relative magnitudes of the three radiation contributions for three different object temperatures, two emittances, and two spectral ranges: SW and LW. Remaining parameters have the following fixed values:

τ = 0.88 Trefl = +20 °C (+68 °F) Trefl = +20 °C (+68 °F) It is obvious that measurement of low object temperatures are more critical than

measuring high temperatures since the ‘disturbing’ radiation sources are relatively much stronger in the first case. Should also the object emittance be low, the situation would be still more difficult.

We have finally to answer a question about the importance of being allowed to use the calibration curve above the highest calibration point, what we call extrapolation. Imagine that we in a certain case measure Utot = 4.5 volts. The highest calibration point for the camera was in the order of 4.1 volts, a value unknown to the operator. Thus, even if the object happened to be a blackbody, i.e. Uobj = Utot, we are actually performing extrapolation of the calibration curve when converting 4.5 volts into temperature.

Let us now assume that the object is not black, it has an emittance of 0.75, and the transmittance is 0.92. We also assume that the two second terms of Equation 4 amount to 0.5 volts together. Computation of Uobj by means of Equation 4 then results in Uobj = 4.5 / 0.75 / 0.92 – 0.5 = 6.0. This is a rather extreme extrapolation, particularly when considering that the video amplifier might limit the output to 5 volts! Note, though, that the application of the calibration curve is a theoretical procedure where no electronic or other limitations exist. We trust that if there had been no signal limitations in the camera, and if it had been calibrated far beyond 5 volts, the resulting curve would have been very much the same as our real curve extrapolated beyond 4.1 volts, provided the calibration algorithm is based on radiation physics, like the FLIR Systems algorithm. Of course there must be a limit to such extrapolations.



Figure 7-15 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (SW camera).1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; RED: Object radiation; BLUE: Reflected

radiation; GREEN: atmosphere radiation. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; Trefl = 20 °C (+68 °F); Tatm = 20 °C (+68 °F).

7.4 Emissivity tables This section presents a compilation of emissivity data from the infrared literature and FLIR Systems own measurements.

Table 5-1: T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3: Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:

Reference 1. Mikael A. Bramson: Infrared Radiation, A Handbook for Applications, Plenum

press, N.Y. 2. William L. Wolfe, George J. Zissis: The Infrared Handbook, Office of Naval

Research, Department of Navy, Washington, D.C. 3. Madding, R. P.: Thermographic Instruments and systems. Madison, Wisconsin:

University of Wisconsin–Extension, Department of Engineering and Applied Science.

4. William L. Wolfe: Handbook of Military Infrared Technology, Office of Naval Research, Department of Navy, Washington, D.C.

5. Jones, Smith, Probert: External thermography of buildings..., Proc. of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, vol.110, Industrial and Civil Applications of Infrared Technology, June 1977, London.

6. Paljak, Pettersson: Thermography of Buildings, Swedish Building Research Institute, Stockholm 1972.

7. Vlcek, J: Determination of emissivity with imaging radiometers and some emissivities at l ~ 5 mm. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing.



8. Kern: Evaluation of infrared emission of clouds and ground as measured by weather satellites, Defence Documentation Center, AD 617 417.

9. Ohman, Claes: Emittansmatningar med AGEMA E-Box. Teknisk rapport, AGEMA 1999. (Emittance measurements using AGEMA E-Box. Technical report, AGEMA 1999.)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Aluminum anodized, black, dull 70 LW 0.95 9

Aluminum anodized, black, dull 70 SW 0.67 9

Aluminum anodized, light gray, dull 70 T 0.97 9

Aluminum anodized, light gray, dull 70 T 0.61 9

Aluminum anodized sheet 100 T 0.55 2

Aluminum as received, plate 100 T 0.09 4

Aluminum as received, sheet 100 T 0.09 2

Aluminum cast, blast cleaned 70 LW 0.46 9

Aluminum cast, blast cleaned 70 SW 0.47 9

Aluminum dipped in HNO3, plate 100 T 0.09 4

Aluminum Foil 27 3 µm 0.09 3

Aluminum Foil 27 10 µm 0.04 3

Aluminum oxidized, strongly 50-100 T 0.2-0.3 1

Aluminum polished 50-100 T 0.04-0.06 1

Aluminum polished, sheet 100 T 0.05 2

Aluminum polished plate 100 T 0.05 4

Aluminum roughened 27 3 µm 0.28 3

Aluminum roughened 27 10 µm 0.18 3

Aluminum rough surface 20-50 T 0.06-0.07 1

Aluminum Sheet, 4 samples differently scratched

70 LW 0.03-0.06 9

Aluminum Sheet, 4 samples differently scratched

70 SW 0.05-0.08 9

Aluminum vacuum deposited 20 T 0.04 2

Aluminum weathered, heavily 17 SW 0.83-0.94 5

Aluminum bronze 20 T 0.60 1

Aluminum hydroxide

powder T 0.28 1

Aluminum oxide activated, powder T 0.46 1



Aluminum oxide pure, powder alumina T 0.16 1

Asbestos Board 20 T 0.96 1

Asbestos Fabric T 0.78 7

Asbestos floor tile 35 SW 0.94 1

Asbestos Paper 40-400 T 0.93-0.95 1

Asbestos Powder T 0.40-0.60 1

Asbestos Slate 20 T 0.96 8

Asphalt paving 4 LLW 0.967 1

Brass dull, tarnished 20-350 T 0.22 9

Brass oxidized 70 SW 0.04-0.09 9

Brass oxidized 70 LW 0.03-0.07 2

Brass oxidized 100 T 0.61 1

Brass oxidized at 600 °C 200-600 T 0.59-0.61 1

Brass polished 200 T 0.03 2

Brass polished, highly 100 T 0.03 2

Brass rubbed with 80- grit emery

20 T 0.20 1

Brass Sheet, rolled 20 T 0.06 1

Brass Sheet, worked with emery

20 T 0.2 5

Brick Alumina 17 SW 0.68 5

Brick common 17 SW 0.86-0.81 5

Brick Dinas silica, glazed, rough

1100 T 0.85 1

Brick Dinas silica, refractory 1000 T 0.66 1

Brick Dinas silica, unglazed, rough

1000 T 0.80 1

Brick firebrick 17 SW 0.68 5

Brick Fireclay 20 T 0.85 1

Brick fireclay 1000 T 0.75 1

Brick fireclay 1200 T 0.59 1

Brick masonry 35 SW 0.94 7

Brick masonry,

plastered

20 T 0.94 1

Brick red, common 20 T 0.93 2



Brick red, rough 20 T 0.88-0.93 1

Brick refractory, corundum 1000 T 0.46 1

Brick refractory, magnesite 1000-1300 T 0.38 1

Brick refractory, strongly radiating

500-1000 T 0.8-0.9 1

Brick refractory, weakly radiating

500-1000 T 0.65-0.75 1

Brick Silica, 95 % SiO2 1230 T 0.66 1

Brick sillimanite, 33 % SiO2, 64 % Al2O3

1500 T 0.29 1

Brick waterproof 17 SW 0.87 5

Bronze phosphor bronze 70 LW 0.06 9

Bronze phosphor bronze 70 SW 0.08 9

Bronze polished 50 T 0.1 1

Bronze porous, rough 50-150 T 0.55 1

Bronze Powder T 0.76-0.80 1

Carbon candle soot 20 T 0.95 2

Carbon charcoal powder T 0.96 1

Carbon graphite, filed surface 20 T 0.98 2

Carbon graphite powder T 0.97 1

Carbon lampblack 20-400 T 0.95-0.97 1

Chipboard untreated 20 SW 0.90 6

Chromium polished 50 T 0.10 1

Chromium Polished 500-1000 T 0.28-0.38 1

Clay Fired 70 T 0.91 1

Cloth Black 20 T 0.98 1

Concrete 20 SW 0.92 2

Concrete Dry 36 SW 0.95 7

Concrete Rough 17 LLW 0.97 5

Concrete Walkway 5 T 0.974 8

Copper commercial, burnished 20 T 0.07 1

Copper electrolytic, carefully polished

80 T 0.018 1

Copper electrolytic, polished -34 T 0.006 4

Copper Molten 1100-1300 T 0.13-0.15 1



Copper Oxidized 50 T 0.6-0.7 1

Copper oxidized, black 27 T 0.78 4

Copper oxidized, heavily 20 T

Copper oxidized to blackness T 0.88 1

Copper Polished 50-100 T 0.02 1

Copper Polished 100 T 0.03 2

Copper polished, commercial 27 T 0.03 4

Copper polished, mechanical 22 T 0.015 4

Copper pure, carefully prepared surface

22 T 0.008 4

Copper Scraped 27 T 0.07 4

Copper dioxide Powder T 0.84 1

Copper oxide red, powder T 0.70 1

Ebonite T 0.89 1

Emery Coarse 80 T 0.85 1

Enamel 20 T 0.9 1

Enamel Lacquer 20 T 0.85-0.95 1

Fiber board hard, untreated 20 SW 0.85 6

Fiber board Masonite 70 LW 0.88 9

Fiber board Masonite 70 SW 0.75 9

Fiber board particle board 70 LW 0.89 9

Fiber board particle board 70 SW 0.77 9

Fiber board porous, untreated 20 SW 0.85 6

Gold Polished 130 T 0.018 1

Gold polished, carefully 200-600 T 0.02-0.03 1

Gold polished, highly 100 T 0.02 2

Granite Polished 20 LLW 0.849 8

Granite Rough 21 LLW 0.879 8

Granite rough, 4 different samples

70 LW 0.77-0.87 9

Granite rough, 4 different samples

70 SW 0.95-0.97 9

Gypsum 20 T 0.8-0.9 1

Ice: See Water T



Iron, cast Casting 50 T 0.81 1

Iron, cast Ingots 1000 T 0.95 1

Iron, cast Liquid 1300 T 0.28 1

Iron, cast Machined 800-1000 T 0.60-0.70 1

Iron, cast Oxidized 38 T 0.63 4




Iron, cast oxidized at 600°C 200-600 T 0.64-0.78 1

Iron, cast Polished 38 T 0.21 4



Iron, cast Unworked 900-1100 T 0.87-0.95 1

Iron and steel cold rolled 70 LW 0.09 9

Iron and steel cold rolled 70 SW 0.20 9

Iron and steel covered with red rust 20 T 0.61-0.85 1

Iron and steel Electrolytic 22 T 0.05 4



Iron and steel electrolytic, carefully polished

175-225 T 0.05-0.06 1

Iron and steel freshly worked with emery

20 T 0.24 1

Iron and steel ground sheet 950-1100 T 0.55-0.61 1

Iron and steel heavily rusted sheet 20 T 0.69 2

Iron and steel hot rolled 20 T 0.77 1

Iron and steel hot rolled 130 T 0.60 1

Iron and steel Oxidized 100 T 0.74 1


Iron and steel Oxidized 125-525 T 0.78-0.82 1



Iron and steel Oxidized 200-600 T 0.80 1

Iron and steel oxidized strongly 50 T 0.88 1



Iron and steel oxidized strongly 500 T 0.98 1

Iron and steel Polished 100 T 0.07 2

Iron and steel Polished 400-1000 T 0.14-0.38 1

Iron and steel polished sheet 750-1050 T 0.52-0.56 1

Iron and steel rolled, freshly 20 T 0.24 1

Iron and steel rolled sheet 50 T 0.56 1

Iron and steel rough, plane surface 50 T 0.95-0.98 1

Iron and steel rusted, heavily 17 SW 0.96 5

Iron and steel rusted red, sheet 22 T 0.69 4

Iron and steel rusty, red 20 T 0.69 1

Iron and steel shiny, etched 150 T 0.16 1

Iron and steel Shiny oxide layer, sheet 20 T 0.82 1

Iron and steel Wrought, carefully polished

40-250 T 0.28 1

Iron galvanized heavily oxidized 70 LW 0.85 9

Iron galvanized heavily oxidized 70 SW 0.64 9

Iron galvanized Sheet 92 T 0.07 4

Iron galvanized sheet, burnished 30 T 0.23 1

Iron galvanized sheet, oxidized 20 T 0.28 1

Iron tinned Sheet 24 T 0.064 4

Lacquer 3 colors sprayed on Aluminum

70 LW 0.92-0.94 9

Lacquer 3 colors sprayed on Aluminum

70 SW 0.50-0.53 9

Lacquer Aluminum on rough surface

20 T 0.4 1

Lacquer Bakelite 80 T 0.83 1

Lacquer black, dull 40-100 T 0.96-0.98 1

Lacquer black, matte 100 T 0.97 2

Lacquer black, shiny, sprayed on iron

20 T 0.87 1

Lacquer heat–resistant 100 T 0.92 1

Lacquer White 40-100 T 0.8-0.95 1

Lacquer White 100 T 0.92 2

Lead oxidized, gray 20 T 0.28 1



Lead oxidized, gray 22 T 0.28 4

Lead oxidized at 200 °C 200 T 0.63 1

Lead Shiny 250 T 0.08 1

Lead unoxidized, polished 100 T 0.05 4

Lead red 100 T 0.93 4

Lead red, powder 100 T 0.93 1

Leather Tanned T 0.75-0.80 1

Lime T 0.3-0.4 1

Magnesium 22 T 0.07 4



Magnesium Polished 20 T 0.07 2

Magnesium

powder

T 0.86 1

Molybdenum 600-1000 T 0.08-0.13 1

Molybdenum 1500-2200 T 0.19-0.26 1

Molybdenum Filament 700-2500 T 0.1-0.3 1

Mortar 17 SW 0.87 5

Mortar Dry 36 SW 0.94 7

Nichrome Rolled 700 T 0.25 1

Nichrome Sandblasted 700 T 0.70 1

Nichrome wire, clean 50 T 0.65 1

Nichrome wire, clean 500-1000 T 0.71-0.79 1

Nichrome wire, oxidized 50-500 T 0.95-0.98 1

Nickel bright matte 122 T 0.041 4

Nickel Commercially pure, polished

100 T 0.045 1

Nickel Commercially pure, polished

200-400 T 0.07-0.09 1

Nickel Electrolytic 22 T 0.04 4




Nickel electroplated, polished 20 T 0.05 2



Nickel Electroplated on iron, polished

22 T 0.045 4

Nickel electroplated on iron, unpolished

20 T 0.11-0.40 1

Nickel electroplated on iron, unpolished

22 T 0.11 4

Nickel Oxidized 200 T 0.37 2



Nickel oxidized at 600 °C 200-600 T 0.37-0.48 1

Nickel Polished 122 T 0.045 4

Nickel Wire 200-1000 T 0.1-0.2 1

Nickel oxide 500-650 T 0.52-0.59 1

Nickel oxide 1000-1250 T 0.75-0.86 1

Oil, lubricating 0.025 mm film 20 T 0.27 2



Oil, lubricating film on Ni base: Ni base only

20 T 0.05 2

Oil, lubricating thick coating 20 T 0.82 2

Paint 8 different colors and qualities

70 LW 0.92-0.94 9

Paint 8 different colors and qualities

70 SW 0.88-0.96 9

Paint Aluminum, various ages 50-100 T 0.27-0.67 1

Paint cadmium yellow T 0.28-0.33 1

Paint chrome green T 0.65-0.70 1

Paint cobalt blue T 0.7-0.8 1

Paint Oil 17 SW 0.87 5

Paint oil, black flat 20 SW 0.94 6

Paint oil, black gloss 20 SW 0.92 6

Paint oil, gray flat 20 SW 0.97 6

Paint oil, gray gloss 20 SW 0.96 6

Paint oil, various colors 100 T 0.92-0.96 1

Paint oil based, average of 16 colors

100 T 0.94 2



Paint plastic, black 20 SW 0.95 6

Paint plastic, white 20 SW 0.84 6

Paper 4 different colors 70 LW 0.92-0.94 9

Paper 4 different colors 70 SW 0.68-0.74 9

Paper Black T 0.90 1

Paper black, dull T 0.94 1

Paper black, dull 70 LW 0.89 9

Paper black, dull 70 SW 0.86 9

Paper blue, dark T 0.84 1

Paper coated with black lacquer T 0.93 1

Paper Green T 0.85 1

Paper Red T 0.76 1

Paper White 20 T 0.7-0.9 1

Paper white, 3 different glosses 70 LW 0.88-0.90 9

Paper white, 3 different glosses 70 SW 0.76-0.78 9

Paper white bond 20 T 0.93 2

Paper Yellow T 0.72 1

Plaster 17 SW 0.86 5

Plaster plasterboard, untreated 20 SW 0.90 6

Plaster rough coat 20 T 0.91 2

Plastic glass fibre laminate (printed circ. board)

70 LW 0.91 9

Plastic glass fibre laminate (printed circ. board)

70 SW 0.94 9

Plastic Polyurethane isolation board

70 LW 0.55 9

Plastic Polyurethane isolation board

70 SW 0.29 9

Plastic PVC, plastic floor, dull, structured

70 LW 0.93 9

Plastic PVC, plastic for, dull, structured

70 SW 0.94 9

Platinum 17 T 0.016 4







Platinum 1000-1500 T 0.14-0.18 1


Platinum pure, polished 200-600 T 0.05-0.10 1

Platinum Ribbon 900-1100 T 0.12-0.17 1

Platinum Wire 50-200 T 0.06-0.07 1

Platinum Wire 500-1000 T 0.10-0.16 1

Platinum Wire 1400 T 0.18 1

Porcelain Glazed 20 0.92 1

Porcelain white, shiny T 0.70-0.75 1

Rubber Hard 20 T 0.95 1

Rubber soft, gray, rough 20 T 0.95 1

Sand T 0.60 1

Sand 20 T 0.90 2

Sandstone Polished 19 LLW 0.909 8

Sandstone Rough 19 LLW 0.935 8

Silver Polished 100 T 0.03 2

Silver pure, polished 200-600 T 0.02-0.03 1

Skin Human 32 T 0.98 2

Slag Boiler 0-100 T 0.97-0.93 1

Slag Boiler 200-500 T 0.89-0.78 1

Slag Boiler 600-1200 T 0.76-0.70 1

Slag Boiler 1400-1800 T 0.69-0.67 1

Snow: See Water

Soil Dry 20 T 0.92 2

Soil saturated with water 20 T 0.95 2

Stainless steel alloy, 8 % Ni, 18 % Cr 500 T 0.35 1

Stainless steel Rolled 700 T 0.45 1

Stainless steel Sandblasted 700 T 0.70 1

Stainless steel sheet, polished 70 LW 0.14 9

Stainless steel sheet, polished 70 SW 0.18 9

Stainless steel sheet, untreated, somewhat scratched

70 LW 0.28 9



Stainless steel sheet, untreated, somewhat scratched

70 SW 0.30 9

Stainless steel type 18-8, buffed 20 T 0.16 2

Stainless steel type 18-8, oxidized at 800 °C

60 T 0.85 2

Stucco rough, lime 10-90 T 0.91 1

Styrofoam Insulation 37 SW 0.60 7

Tar T 0.79-0.84 1

Tar Paper 20 T 0.91-0.93 1

Tile Glazed 17 SW 0.94 5

Tin Burnished 20-50 T 0.04-0.06 1

Tin tin–plated sheet iron 100 T 0.07 2

Titanium Oxidized at 540 °C 200 T 0.40 1



Titanium Polished 200 T 0.15 1



Tungsten 200 T 0.05 1

Tungsten 600-1000 T 0.1-0.16 1

Tungsten 1500-2200 T 0.24-0.31 1

Tungsten Filament 3300 T 0.39 1

Varnish Flat 20 SW 0.93 6

Varnish on oak parquet floor 70 LW 0.90-0.93 9

Varnish on oak parquet floor 70 SW 0.90 9

Wallpaper slight pattern, light gray 20 SW 0.85 6

Wallpaper slight pattern, red 20 SW 0.90 6

Water Distilled 20 T 0.96 2

Water frost crystals -10 T 0.98 2

Water ice, covered with heavy frost

0 T 0.98 1

Water ice, smooth -10 T 0.96 2

Water ice, smooth 0 T 0.97 1

Water layer >0.1 mm thick 0-100 T 0.95-0.98 1



Water Snow T 0.8 1

Water Snow -10 T 0.85 2

Wood 17 SW 0.98 5

Wood 19 LLW 0.962 8

Wood Ground T 0.5-0.7 1

Wood pine, 4 different samples 70 LW 0.81-0.89 9

Wood pine, 4 different samples 70 SW 0.67-0.75 9

Wood Planed 20 T 0.8-0.9 1

Wood planed oak 20 T 0.90 2

Wood planed oak 70 LW 0.88 9

Wood planed oak 70 SW 0.77 9

Wood plywood, smooth, dry 36 SW 0.82 7

Wood plywood, untreated 20 SW 0.83 6

Wood white, damp 20 T 0.7-0.8 1

Zinc oxidized at 400 °C 400 T 0.11 1

Zinc oxidized surface 100-1200 T 0.50-0.60 1

Zinc Polished 200-300 T 0.04-0.05 1

Zinc Sheet 50 T 0.20 1

Chapter 9 – Acknowledgements


8 Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the Independent JPEG Group for their JPEG library used by this software for JPEG file support. The authors would also like to acknowledge the ZLib and LibPNG projects for their libraries used by this software for PNG file support.

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