Theories of Personality

Observational Learning – Chapter 13The Humanistic Perspective – Chapter 14

April 25, 2003Class # 12

Albert Bandura (1925-present)

Pioneering researcher in observational learningWas born in the small town of Mundare in northern Alberta, Canada He received his bachelors degree in Psychology from the University of British Columbia in 1949He  went on to the University of Iowa, where he received his Ph.D. in 1952It was there that he came under the influence of the behaviorist tradition and learning theory

Bandura’s Background

In 1953, he started teaching at Stanford University…While there, he collaborated with his first graduate student, Richard Walters, resulting in their first book, Adolescent Aggression, in 1959Bandura was president of the APA in 1973, and received the APA’s Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions in 1980He continues to work at Stanford to this day

Social Learning Theory

Also called observational learning, this is learning that occurs by observing and imitating others (the person being observed is referred to as the model)Major components involved in

observational learningAttentionRetentionReproductionMotivationPerformance (Self-efficacy)

Major ComponentsAttention If you are going to learn anything, you have to be paying attention.  Likewise,

anything that puts a damper on attention is going to decrease learning If, for example, you are sleepy, groggy, drugged, sick, nervous, etc you will learn less. Likewise, if you are being distracted by competing stimuli

Retention  Second, you must be able to retain -- remember -- what you have paid attention to

Imagery Verbal coding (using language to help describe what was seen) Mental rehearsal using both imagery and language

Production (Reproduction) You have to have the ability to reproduce the behavior in the first place.  For example: Some people can watch Olympic ice skaters all day long, yet not be

able to reproduce their jumps, because they can’t ice skate at all!  On the other hand, if they could skate, their performance would in fact improve if they watch skaters who are better than they are

Major Components

Motivation  Bandura feels that even with all this you’re still not

going to do anything unless you are motivated to imitate, i.e. until you have some reason for doing it

Bandura mentions a number of motives: past reinforcement

past rewards promised reinforcements

incentives that we can imagine vicarious reinforcement

seeing and recalling the model being reinforced

Major Components

PerformanceShould I repeat what I just saw? What are the consequences to model and

observer?

Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963) The “Bobo" Doll Experiment

Note : Bandura did a large number of variations on the “Bobo doll” experiment…we’ll look at a few

Phase 1 Pre-schoolers were divided into two groups and put

into two separate rooms and allowed to play with "attractive" toys while “Bobo” an unattractive inflatable, adult-sized, egg-shaped balloon creature (the kind that bounces back after it's been knocked down) sat by itself at the far end of the rooms

Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963) The “Bobo" Doll Experiment

Phase 2 Group 1: While playing with the attractive toys the

children witnessed adults enter the room and start beating the daylights out of the clown

Group2: While playing with the attractive toys the children witnessed adults enter the room and play nicely with Bobo

Phase 3 The attractive toys were taken away from each group

Results: What happened next?

Bandura (1965) The “Bobo" Doll Experiment

In the 1965, version kids watched films of adults beating on Bobo – but each had different endings…Film 1: Adult praised and rewarded with candy and soda by another

adult who was heard saying, “You’re a strong champion”

Film 2: Adult is scolded by another adult, “You’re very bad” or “Hey

there, you big bully, you quit picking on that clown”

Film 3: Neutral ending – neither reward nor punishment

Who cares about what a kid does to a "Bobo" doll?

Well, that’s what the critics said…”those things are made to punched aren’t they?”Responding to criticism that Bobo dolls were supposed to be hit, Bandura did a film of a young woman beating up a live clown When the children went into the other room, what should they find there but -- the live clown!  They proceeded to punch him, kick him, hit him with little hammers, and so on…

Violence in Schools

3M thefts and violent crimes (16000 per day) occur on school property each year (National Crime Survey, 2000)7% of teenagers have been victims of a violent crime (compare this to less than 3% of the population over 19)Recent studies have found that 21% had seen weapons at their schools and 15% had actually taken a weapon into school22% report have been in a fight in the past year – mostly boys but girls are on the increase as well 35% fear being attacked at school24% fear being attacked going to and from school13% avoid certain areas inside the school out of fear of being attacked

82% of school's nationwide have reported an increase in violence over the past 7 years

Is Television To Blame?

Bandura feels his theory applies hereHundreds of studies say yes! Why?

they become immune to the horrors of violence (they are desensitized)

they gradually come to accept violence as a way to solve problems they imitate the violence they observe on television they identify with certain characters (ex: Bruce Willis, WWF, etc.)

The Social-Cognitive Perspective: Conceptualizing Behavioral Problems

Can depression be a result of learning from our environment?

Can negative expectations from this learning also contribute to this?

The Social-Cognitive Perspective: Conceptualizing Behavioral Problems

Learned helplessness (Seligman, 1970s)

Uncontrollable events

Explanatory style (Seligman, 1980s)How we explain eventsLocus of Control (Rotter, 1954)

Learned Helplessness

Shock Escape

Shock Escape

Shock Escape?

Attributional/Explanatory Style Model of Depression

Extension of Learned Helplessness model

We make attributions about events that happen in our lives

The I.S.G. Formula

Attributions can be: Internal/External Locus of Control

This is taken from Rotter (1954)Related to affect and self esteem

Stable/Unstable Consequences of the event?

(Long term? Short term?)

Global/SpecificDomain specificity?

Explanatory Style Illustration:Why did you fail that math

test?Internal: “I’m stupid”

External: “The test was unfair”

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Stable: “I always do poorly on tests”

Unstable: “I’ll do better on the next one”

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Global: “I’ll never get my degree”

Specific: “I’m not doing well in this particular class, but I’m doing well in my other classes”

Optimistic vs. Pessimistic Styles

Optimistic explanatory styleGood event: internal/stable/globalBad event: external/unstable/specific

Pessimistic explanatory styleGood event: external/unstable/specificBad event: internal/stable/global

The Humanistic Perspective

Theories of PersonalityChapter 14

Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

The son of prosperous businesspeopleHe was reared in a strict religious environment that placed great emphasis on the value of hard work, the sharing of responsibility, and educationStrict upbringing led to Rogers being quite isolated as a youth but also very self-disciplinedStarted school in the second grade as even before kindergarten he could read at this level

BiographyRogers enrolled in the University of Wisconsin with the intention of studying agriculture

However, he soon decided to prepare for the ministry

Leaving Wisconsin in 1924, he entered the Union Theological Seminary in New York

Biography

While at this famous religious institute he took a student organized seminar course called “Why am I entering the seminary?”… Shortly after taking that course he left the seminary What was religion’s loss however became psychology’s gain

Rogers became deeply involved in clinical work with disturbed children, and his interests shifted to clinical psychologyHe received his doctorate from Columbia University in 1931 and went to work at a guidance clinic in Rochester, New York

Biography

He later taught at Ohio State University, the University of Chicago, and the University of Wisconsin, before settling at the Center for Studies of the Person in La Jolla, CaliforniaThroughout his career, Rogers continued to work extensively with delinquent and underprivileged children, gathering the experience that led to his theory of nondirective or person-centered therapy

He was a leader of the humanistic psychology movement until his death in 1987

Rogers’ views

His view of human behavior is that it is "exquisitely rational" (1961)

Furthermore, in his opinion: "the core of man's nature is essentially

positive" (1961) man is a "trustworthy organism" (1977)

These beliefs are reflected in his theory of personality

Client-Centered non-directive therapy Carl Rogers came to the conclusion that Freudian techniques did not work and that the less he tried to manipulate the therapy, the more likely was improvement in his patientsOut of this experience he developed his notion of client-centered therapy He called it 'client-centered' because it is the intention

that the patient should arrive at the insights rather than the therapist

It is non-directive because the therapist does not try to direct the patient's attention to particular topics, such as early childhood experiences

Unlike Freud, who wanted his patients to talk about their feelings, Rogers wanted them to experience them

Changed the name…

Later, Rogers changed the name of his theory to “person-centered”

He felt this better described the process

Either name though suggests that the client or person has responsibility for his or her own improvement

The Phenomenal World

According to Rogers we enter the world with no self-concept and no selfAll we have is sensory impressions, biological processes, motor activitiesRogers said every individual exists in a continually changing world of experience

He called this the phenomenal world

The Phenomenal World

As we grow, we learn to differentiate our self from the other parts of the phenomenal world and eventually come to see ourselves as an independent selfIn Rogers' view, people came to him for counseling because, as a result of experiences as they had grown up, they had become someone they were notAs a result, they would be suffering from

anxiety, stress, low self-esteem

Core of Personality

Core TendencyThe tendency to actualize one's inherent

potentialitiesThis potential exists in all living organisms,

even plantsHumans possess an additional form

The attempt to actualize the self Referred to as self-actualization

Core Characteristics of Personality

Self The person's conscious sense of who and what you

are Is available to awareness, although not always in

awareness. Gradually emerges through experiences with verbal

labels such as "I" or "Me"Phenomenological Reality A person's private perception of reality (whether or

not it agrees with objective reality). Experience is the highest authority. If you think you are not good-looking or smart, this is part of your self concept regardless of reality

Core Characteristics of Personality

Need for Positive RegardThe universal need for acceptance,

love, and approval from othersParticularly important during infancy

Need for Positive Self-RegardWhen acceptance and approval come

from within the individual and forms part of the self-concept

Development

Rogers does not specify any developmental stages, but does make some comments concerning development in general… Of basic importance is the fact that one's inherent

potentialities are genetically determined, while the self-concept is socially determined

Thus, there is the possibility of a difference between the two

Development

The important influences are:Conditional Positive Regard Conditions of Worth Incongruence Unconditional Positive RegardCongruence

Conditional Positive Regard

The granting of love and approval only when behaving in accordance with parent's wishes, or when parents withdraw love if the child misbehaves. Leads to next influence (see next slide)

Conditions of Worth

The individual's belief that he/she is worthy of affection only when expressing desirable behaviors

Sounds similar to Freud’s superego???

IncongruenceWhen there is a split between experience and self-concept (disorganization) Prevents self-actualization Leads to defensive behavior

Major defenses Preventing threatening experiences from reaching

awareness at all Distortion of experience

Sounds like Freud’s repression and rationalization???

Unconditional Positive Regard

The granting of love and approval regardless of individual's behavior…Does not mean lack of restraint… If a child runs out in front of a truck, stop

him and tell him it is dangerous, but don't spank him and tell him he is a bad, evil boy

Note:Rogers was totally against punishment

as a means of controlling behavior

Congruence

When the self concept is in agreement with inherent potentialities and there are minimal conditions of worth

Leads to openness to experience and a fully functioning person

Periphery of Personality

Rogers discussed only two broad types…One where the self-actualizing tendency is

vigorously functioning One where it is not

Fully Functioning Person

The ideal person Has received unconditional positive regard,

has few conditions of worth, and has congruence between self and potentialities

Fully Functioning Person

CharacteristicsOpenness to ExperienceExistential LivingOrganismic TrustingExperiential FreedomCreativity

Characteristics of a Fully Functioning Person

Openness to Experience opposite of defensiveness Is reflective and much emotional depth (for

both pleasure and pain)

Existential LivingLiving fully in each and every momentThe absence of rigidity, is flexible,

adaptable, and spontaneous

Fully Functioning Person

Organismic Trusting intuitive living

the ability to accept information from all bases experience is the highest authority

if it feels right, it probably is…very different from Freudian views

Experiential Freedom the freedom to choose among alternatives

Creativity the ability to produce new and effective ideas and

things

Maladjusted Person

Has received conditional positive regard and developed conditions of worth

There is incongruence between self and potentialities

Maladjusted Person

Characteristics: Defensive Living

Not open to experience Live According to preconceived plan

generally laid down by parents Disregards organism

not intuitive Feels manipulated

not free to choose Common and conforming

Conforms despite reservations

CriticismsCommon Carl we all have the capacity for evil… Critics say Rogers didn’t appreciate this His world wasn’t real

Critics also say: that there is a certain amount of selfishness in Roger's theoryOne critic has called Humanistic Psychology

"the narcissism of our culture" that we are so lost in self love that we fail

to relate to outside reality

Characteristics of successful therapists

Congruence

Empathy

Learn from Client

Unconditional Positive Regard

Rogers believed that these four characteristics of the person doing therapy were more important than the therapist's philosophy or technique

Successful Therapists

CongruenceGood therapists can't be phony they must be able to relate to others

honestly and sincerelyThey don't have to be perfect, but can't be

defensive when relating to othersCan't play games with clients

Successful Therapists

EmpathyMust be able to put yourself in your

client's shoesMust be accurate empathy

Not just "Yeah, I know what you are feeling, because I...".

Successful Therapists

Learn from ClientGood therapists can shut up and listenTherapy is a two-way street, and the

therapist should benefit from therapy also

Note:Rogers always worked 12 - 20 hours of

therapy/week Felt it helped him

Successful Therapists

Unconditional Positive RegardYou must genuinely like the clientYou do not have to approve of his or her

behavior, but must be able to separate the sins from the sinner

Basic Rogerian fundamentals…

People have this natural tendency for growth…

We have the freedom to choose…

Free will, etc.

Self-actualization is our primary goal

The focus was a 100% positive outlookPeople are basically good

Existential Psychology

Another part of the humanistic perspective include those that believe in basic Rogerian beliefs but add some cautions…Existential psychologists say that growth

and reaching one’s highest potential has a negative side…

A cost is involved…too many responsibilities

Rogers makes “free will” sound very good…

Existential psychologists add this warning…Well, since we have free will to make

choices if they turn out to be wrong choices…

Who do we blame???Only ourselves…can’t blame it on

some unconscious force, etc.We are alone in the universe…

Existential Psychology

Existentialism is a philosophy developed chiefly in the 20th century that attempts to find meaning in a seemingly meaningless world

The central themes of existentialism: Dasein

We are an autonomous, separate, and evolving entity We have no existence apart from the world we live in

An individual must assume all responsibilities for his or her acts of free will without any absolute knowledge of what is right or wrong

Existential Psychology

But some people don’t accept the responsibilities of their life choices…

Maybe even commit suicide to get out of the responsibilities…

But humanistic psychologists say that even this is a choice…Their choice

Okay, now that I’ve finally made the choice…

Well, first there was existential anxiety involved in making the choice… So, I guess I have this free will to do what I think is

right…but am I smart enough to know what is right…am I sure I will be doing the right thing?

Okay, I finally made the choice – but now I’m second-guessing myself Existential Guilt

The onus is on me I have to live with my decision

A hostile world?

Existentialism analyzes the somewhat dismal situation mankind has been thrown into, and produces a model for how an individual should live his or her lifeHowever, why should someone attempt to

live a life of morals and meaning in the cold and indifferent world that these psychologists depict?

Emptiness and LonelinessWell, this is a concern for existentialists… They are afraid that people have lost faith in values

They feel powerless against big businesses and government and even those they love I worked my butt off for my company for 25 years and now they lay me

off and hire some young kid who’s good at video games to take my place…

I gave him the best years of my life…and now he leaves me for his young secretary…

I try to be a good person but for what reason – everybody takes advantage of my good nature anyway Nice guys finish last… So its no more Mr. Nice Guy (Ms. Nice Woman) for me

Emptiness and Loneliness

Existentialists feel that when individuals have lost their commitment to their earlier set of values they experience the emptiness of despair

The hostile world is victorious

But where’s the real blame for this desperate existence that they now live? The existential psychologists points to the individual

The problem is within the individual who must be responsible for their own actions

What is the aim of existential psychotherapy?

The goals of existential therapy are: To enable people to become more truthful with

themselves To widen their perspective on themselves and the

world around them To find clarity on how to proceed in the future

while taking lessons from the past and creating something valuable to live for in the present 

The aim is to offer the means for individuals to examine, confront and clarify and reassess their understanding of life, the problems encountered throughout their life, and the imposed limits inherent in our lives