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Stuart AdamsOMDE 610 April 17, 2010Assignment 3 Position Paper: Constructivist Online Learning [email protected]

This paper will explain and support the assertion that constructivist online learning

environments are directed towards supporting the students' personal creation of knowledge,

not the "delivery of knowledge. To do this, it will provide an overview of learning theories as a

basis for developing its case. It will then consider certain imperatives that this assertion implies

regarding effective practice in an online learning environment.

Theories of Learning

There are various theories on how people learn, the most prominent of which are the

Behaviorist, the Cognitivist, and the Constructivist perspectives. These theories provide the

foundation for understanding how instruction should be carried out (Bereiter, 1990).

Behaviorist theory is based on the idea that people’s responses to stimulus, whether acting,

thinking, or feeling are “behaviors”. The theory is not concerned with the processes that go on

in the mind of the individual, but only with the observable behavior of the individual. Learning

is seen as a process that causes the appropriate response to be produced from a given stimulus.

“Underlying this approach is the belief that learning is governed by invariant principles, and

that these principles are independent of conscious control on the part of the learner” (Bates,

2003). The behaviorist school has valuable applications in certain forms of basic learning,

including rote learning activities such as spelling, consistent business procedures such as

working on an assembly line, and in repetitive athletic activities, such as throwing a ball.

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However, to a large degree, behaviorist learning theory has been supplanted by cognitivist

learning theory. Where the behaviorists reject efforts to subject activities of the mind to

scientific analysis, cognitivists have attempted to use physiological studies of brain function and

artificial intelligence models to gain insight into these activities.

In Cognitivist theory, the processes that go on in the individual’s mind are of interest to the

theorist. “Cognitive theorists see learning as an internal process that involves memory,

reflection, abstraction, motivation, and metacognition” (Ally, 2008, p. 21). Cognitivist theory

traces learning from its first process of perception through various steps of memory until an

idea is held in long term memory or “learned.” The theory holds that, first, an enormous

amount of sense-data is received from the “perceptual field,” much of which is quickly

discarded. That which is held, is processed in working memory. The information is matched

with existing cognitive structures or schema, which are mental constructs including, ideas,

mental frameworks, worldviews, and behavior patterns. The result of this processing is that the

information becomes a part of long-term memory either through assimilation – where the

information is integrated within existing structures - or through accommodation - where

information changes a structure or creates a new structure. Depending on the depth of

processing, the information may become part of one or more structures, which suggests that

deep processing is a valuable part of effective learning. Schemas are the smallest conceptual

units, but build to knowledge structures, as words build into sentences. Bereiter (1990, p. 609)

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argues for the need to recognize still larger units beyond knowledge structures that relate to

behavior, explain phenomena such as intuition and expertise, and relate the individual to the

external world.

Constructivist learning theory has its foundation in cognitivist perspectives; it also is concerned

with how the information is built into memory, how it is learned. Constructivism argues that

knowledge is built into memory as an active rather than a passive process. Important to

constructivist thought is the idea that knowledge is not recognized as being received, as one

receives a gift, but must be understood as being created by the learner in an active process.

Boud (quoted in Holmberg) states “Knowledge does not exist independently of those who

posses it. It cannot be transmitted unchanged into the learner” (Holmberg, 2005, p. 114). That

is, knowledge is not delivered as an independent commodity.

Knowledge construction is not deterministic, following immutable rules, but is personal and

individual. Because each person builds his/her own knowledge, the learner has choice in what

will be learned. “Individuals constantly strive for meaning to make sense of their environment

in terms of past experience and their present state” (Bates, 2003).

Two schools of constructivist theory are extant: the cognitivist constructivist view and the social

constructivist view.

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The cognitive constructivist school sees the construction of knowledge as a personal process; an

activity of the individual. The learner is the active party in the assimilation and accommodation

activities that make up learning, making choice as to what will be built into existing knowledge

structures and how it relates to his/her existing body of knowledge. It is further recognized

that increased levels of processing, including increased interaction with the content, will

produce increased knowledge construction and deeper levels of learning.

Social constructivists take the tenants of constructivist thought and add social context, the idea

that learning always involves interaction between people and that culture is integral to

knowledge.

Central to social constructivism is the idea of the “zone of proximal development,” which

identifies the relative knowledge level of the learner and recognizes that outside that proximal

zone, the learner is incapable of learning on his/her own. Social constructivists make use of the

process of “scaffolding” wherein others support the learning of an individual. This support can

happen through the agency of more experienced and knowledgeable people or through peers

working to solve the same learning challenges (Powell & Kalina, 2009). Since cooperative

learning creates deeper understanding, in social constructivism collaboration is essential.

The socio-cultural context of learning is also a key attribute of the social constructivist

perspective. Not only is learning inextricably tied to the culture and social context of the

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learner and teacher, the learner is shaped by the wider community of practice, those who are

involved in the continued development and co-creation of knowledge.

Associated with social constructivism is the idea of “situated learning.” Brown, Collins, and

Duguid emphasize the interrelationship between the concept, the context and the activity.

That is, the content being learned is interdependent with the context in which it is learned and

understood and from the activities wherein the knowledge is created. They argue that “A

concept… will continually evolve with each new occasion of use, because new situations,

negotiations, and activities inevitably cast it in a new, more densely textured form” (Brown,

Collins, & Duguid, 1989, p. 32). Thus, learning must take into account how something is learned

as well as the culture and community in which it is learned.

The Constructivist Learning Environment

The justifications for stating that constructivist online learning environments are directed

towards supporting the students' personal creation of knowledge, not the "delivery of

knowledge,” are drawn from the description of constructivist learning theory, described above.

My analysis is based on the Brown, et al. model of content/context/activity.

In contrast to the behaviorist and some versions of cognitivist learning models that consider

learning a passive process and knowledge an independent entity, constructivists see learning as

an active process and knowledge as dependant on the relationship between content, context,

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and activity. Online learning environments are designed to exploit constructivist principles of

learning.

The first key point is that constructivist teaching and learning is aimed at building, not

transmitting, knowledge. Since knowledge is created by the active and intentional processing

of the learner, it cannot exist outside of the learner. There is no “Nuremburg Funnel” with

which one might pour knowledge into the learner. The learner him/herself must interact with

the content to understand and “know” it, actively working at the assimilation and

accommodation processes that build knowledge structures.

To apply constructivist principles, online learning environments explicitly engage the learner in

processes that induce him/her to interact with the content. Through these processes, the

learner is encouraged to take on the active and intentional process of learning. Constructivist

learning environments use techniques such as inquiry-based exploration of content,

presentation of material in a way that is concrete and relevant, and giving the learner time to

reflect on the content to allow the necessary interaction.

The next point is that constructivist perspective sees content as dependant on and created

within the socio-cultural context, the community. In constructivist online learning

environments there is an implicit community of practice that the class provides. The

community supports the learner’s construction of knowledge, consistent with social

constructivist principles. The community engages in scaffolding to help the learner learn, using

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conversational exchanges within the online learning environment that can provide

explanations, give examples, and confirm the learner’s understandings. There are learning

goals as well as formal and informal protocols that the class shares that are integral to the

learning environment and support the learning process.

In addition, the learner’s broad socio-cultural circumstances, bound by language, custom and

worldview, necessarily impact the way that learner constructs knowledge. The immediate

learning context, as embodied in the learner’s community of inquiry, supports and propagates

the culture of the discipline. The culture of the learning community is passed on to the learner

through interaction within the class.

Finally, the knowledge being created is inseperably linked to the activities that create it. Brown,

Collins & Duguid analogize knowledge to tools, noting that understanding them requires their

use. One might hold the tool but not be able to use it. Learning and acting are indistinct,

learning being a continuous life-long process resulting from acting in various situations. Thus,

authentic activity must be a part of the effective learning process.

A constructivist online learning environment will always include activities that the learners are

expected to engage in. The primary activity is the learner-to-instructor and learner-to-learner

interaction, the ongoing conversation that is at the center of such environments. In addition,

group activities can provide more direct student-to-student interaction, more active processing

of content, and deeper learning.

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Imperatives for the Practice of Constructivist Online Learning

There are a number of imperatives for successful practice in constructivist learning

environments. These imperatives fall into three areas: the need for Instructional Design, the

need for Building of Community in an online learning environment, and the need for an

awareness and use of “Presence.” Each will be discussed here.

In constructivist online learning environments, it is imperative that in preparing to deliver a

course, there be conscientious Instructional Design. Instructional design (ID) is the process of

developing a program of study that focuses on the elements of the course, including its goals,

content, activities that will be performed by the students, assessments, and scheduling. When

done well, the students will be drawn through the process of the course to successful

achievement of the course’s goals.

If it is to achieve its aim, the designer must have a firm grasp on what is to be accomplished,

how the class will get there, and why, and must perform thoughtful planning and preparation.

The instructor in a constructivist online learning environment surrenders some control of the

process. Conrad states that “these activities hallmark instructors moving away from being

oracles and didactic presenters of information to being consultants and resource providers” in a

process that she describes as “letting go” (Conrad, 2007, p. 199). To afford this “letting go”, the

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designer must consider the many possible directions that the course can go and make

preparations to ensure that the course goals are met.

Most importantly, the designer must build interaction and authentic learning activities into the

plan so as to support constructivist processing on the part of the learners (Brown, Collins, &

Duguid, 1989). Kirschner et al. provide a road map for ID that is designed to do just that,

focusing on the key factors of task ownership, task character, task control (2004, p. 31). Also,

various authors assert the moral imperatives of ID, including awareness of student diversity

(McLoughlin & Oliver, 2000) and an intent to design with integrity (Osguthorpe, Osguthorpe,

Jacob, & Davies, 2003).

A second imperative in constructivist online learning practice is the need to build a sense of

community within the class of participating learners. It is critical to effective online learning in

the constructivist mode that a high level of interaction occurs, both between the learner and

instructor and between the learners themselves. This level of interaction depends on the

learners having a high level of trust in the instructor and in classmates. A student who feels

uncomfortable and insecure will not actively participate in the class conversation and will be

less successful in building knowledge.

In addition to a sense of connection between participants, learning communities provide social

context and a safe but authentic field of practice for the learners (Wilson, Ludwig-Hartman,

Thornam, & Dunlap, 2004).

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As Brown et al. note, the values and conventions that the community passes along are essential

parts of learning, providing the authentic culture of the discipline. Thus, it is also important to

consider the various communities that the learner might be a part of, including the class, the

larger community of practice outside the classroom, and other communities that may influence

the learner’s point of departure into the realm of the class.

Instructors have an important role in facilitating the creation of a collaborative work

environment in the constructivist mode. This is discussed further in the section on teacher

presence.

A third requirement in creating and supporting constructivist online learning environments is

the awareness of “presence.” The three “presences” that Garrison et al. identify in their model

of effective computer conferencing (online learning) for a community of inquiry are cognitive

presence, social presence, and teaching presence. Cognitive presence is the action of critical

thinking by the students in the community of inquiry (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2001).

Social presence is the way participants present themselves in the classroom environment. The

role of the instructor in the presentation of the course is called teaching presence and involves

managing, facilitating social interaction, and acting as subject matter expert for the students

(Anderson, Rourke, Garrison, & Archer, 2001).

Since online learning environments do not provide the normal paralinguistic and gestural cues

during student interaction, consideration must be given to the way participants present

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themselves and are perceived in the class. This set of impressions is called “social presence.”

All participants should pay attention to social presence since it contributes to the community

building process discussed above.

Teaching presence is the hub of the wheel in constructivist online learning environments since

so much depends on the work of the instructor. In managing the course, the teacher has

organizational and administrative responsibilities which include those actions discussed in

instructional design. Though the instructor may or may not actually design the course, he/she

inherits all of those ID responsibilities of planning and preparing once the course is underway.

Record-keeping and assessments are also a part of the management of the course. The social

facilitation element of teacher presence focuses on those activities that support community

building described above by modeling and encouraging positive social presence. Much depends

on creating those social conditions most conducive to learning. And, as subject matter expert,

the instructor presents content, and initiates the expression of cognitive presence, the

interactive critical thinking that must go on for authentic learning. This includes providing

content-related constructive feedback, encouraging interaction regarding the subject matter

and guiding the conversation, keeping it on track.

Success in building and operating a constructivist online learning environment will depend on

these teaching functions – instructional design, creation of community, and awareness of and

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management of presence – being effectively carried out. In the instructor the three imperatives

of successful practice come together.

Conclusion

Recognizing the interrelationship between content, context, and activity in constructivist online

learning is key to enabling the practitioner, including the instructional designer and the

instructor, to create an effective learning environment.

References

Ally, M. (2008). Foundations of educational theory for online learning. In T. Anderson, Theory and practice of online learning, 2nd ed. Athabasca, AB: Athabasca University.

Anderson, T., Rourke, L., Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (2001). Assessing teaching presence in a computer conferenceing context. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks , 5 (2), 1-17.

Bates, A. &. (2003). Effective teaching with technology in higher education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Bereiter, C. (1990). Aspects of an educational theory of learning. Review of Educational Research , 60 (4), pp. 603-6025.

Brown, J., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher , 18 (1), 32-42.

Conrad, D. (2007). The plain hard work of teaching online: Strategies for instructors. In M. Bullen, & D. Janes, Making the transition to e-learning Strategies and issues (pp. 191-207). Hershey: Information Science Publishing.

Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2001). Critical thinking, cognitive presence, and computer conferencing in distance education. American Journal of Distance Education , 15 (1), 7-23.

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Holmberg, B. (2005). The Evolution, Principles and Practices of Distance Education. Oldenburg: Bibliotheks- und Information system der Universität Oldenburg.

Kirschner, P., Strijbos, J.-W., & Kreijns, S. (2004). Designing integrated, collaborative e-learning. In W. Jochems, J. van Merrienboer, & R. Koper (Eds.), Integrated e-learning:implications for pedagogy, technology & organization (pp. 24-37). London: RoutledgeFalmer.

McLoughlin, C., & Oliver, R. (2000). Designing Learning environments for cultural inclusivity: A case study of indigenous learning at tertiar level. Australian Journal of Educational Technology , 16 (1), 58-72.

Osguthorpe, R. T., Osguthorpe, R. D., Jacob, W. J., & Davies, R. (2003). The moral dimensions of instructional design. Educational Technology , 43 (2), 19-23.

Powell, K., & Kalina, C. (2009). Cognitive and social constructivism: Developing tools for an effective classroom. Education , 130 (2), 241-250.

Wilson, B. G., Ludwig-Hartman, S., Thornam, C. L., & Dunlap, J. C. (2004). Bounded community: Designing and facilitating communities in formal courses. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning , 5 (3).

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